Spirit Birds of San Juan: Cult, Clan, or
Coincidence?
Nikki Martensen
Anthropology 350
12/10/2012
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Martensen
Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
The San Juan Region ...................................................................................................................... 2
Cultural Context .............................................................................................................................. 3
Theoretical Orientation ................................................................................................................... 4
Archaeology of Cult .................................................................................................................... 4
Ceremonial Elements .................................................................................................................. 4
Headdresses ............................................................................................................................. 4
Messengers .............................................................................................................................. 5
Lobed Circles ........................................................................................................................... 6
Rock art typologies...................................................................................................................... 6
Nancy Patterson Village ................................................................................................................. 7
Spirit Bird Cave .............................................................................................................................. 7
Spirit Bird Cave Petroglyph Panel .............................................................................................. 8
The “Spirit Bird” project ................................................................................................................. 9
Phase 1: Do Nancy Patterson Village and Spirit Birds Cave share a link? ................................. 9
Methods for Phase 1 ................................................................................................................ 9
Considerations for Phase 1 ................................................................................................... 10
Phase 2: Regional Site Comparison (“The Spirit Bird Cult”) ................................................... 11
Methods for Phase 2 .............................................................................................................. 11
Considerations for Phase 2 ................................................................................................... 12
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 12
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 13
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Spirit Birds of San Juan: Cult, Clan, or Coincidence?
By Nikki Martensen
Introduction
In the summer of 2011, I took part in a field school at the Nancy Patterson Village site in
southeastern Utah, through California State University Dominguez Hills. A portion of the
coursework involved surveying multiple sites around the region. There is an abundance of rock
art in this region, both painted and pecked; with several panels depicting similar elements in
different styles. On these field surveys, it became apparent to me several reoccurring elements;
specifically headdresses, messengers, and lobed circles. My interpretation was further influenced
by the often occurrence of birds in these elements. A petroglyph panel at Spirit Bird Cave,
thought to be associated with the Nancy Patterson Site where the field school was located
includes depiction of all three of these elements. I believe these three elements: headdresses,
messengers, and lobed circles, are indicative of ceremonial activity; and the overabundance of
bird imagery in the area suggests a cult focus. This research design proposes an interpretive
analysis on the rock art and material artifacts across the San Juan region, to investigate whether
this reoccurring imagery could be a depiction of cult activity, or representations of separate
clans. The dual-phase project will employ various research strategies, including the use of
ethnographic data and Geospatial Information Systems to locate and compare various aspects of
what I am referring to for this study as “Spirit Bird Panels.”
The San Juan Region
This region is well known to archaeologists for its abundant and extensive archaeological
sites (Fig.1), and is especially noted for its large, multicomponent pueblo village complexes. The
dry, arid conditions of the American Southwest provide conditions suitable for preservation of
organic and inorganic materials (Renfrew 2012; 64). There are a few water springs however, and
underground flow provides conditions suitable for drought-resistant varieties of corn (Kidder
1963:166). This region is also unique for its archaeoastronomy1, thus timing of fieldwork will
aim to occur at a time when solstice markers (a type of rock art which uses the position of the
sun to indicate time of solstice) can be observed. This is not a primary source of data for
interpretation of this research; however I feel it may be an important consideration.
1
The Solstice Project is a non-profit organization dedicated to the study of prehistoric astronomy in Chaco Canyon.
It was initially founded in 1978 by Anna Sofaer, who made the initial sun dagger discoveries (Sofaer 1979).
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Fig.1. San Juan Region (Kidder 1963)
Cultural Context.
The physical cultural focus for this research is the Ancestral Puebloan culture.2 Table 1
provides the temporal ranges for the Pecos Classification of 19273. This temporal breakdown
will serve as a guide for temporal estimates during research; however the scope of the project is
not limited to these classifications. Both archaic (Prior to Basketmaker II), and historic (after
Pueblo IV) data will be employed as well. Multiple sources of ethnographic data will be
analyzed for pre-field and post-field interpretive analysis, with specific questions focused on site
location and ceremonial interpretations. Ethnographic focus for ceremonial data will be on
cultural groups who have been considered likely descendants of the Ancestral Puebloans (the
Hopi and Zuni). There will however, be considerations of other cultural groups in the region (for
example, the Dineh and Ute), as it is likely these groups may have had contact with Ancestral
Puebloans.
This term has caused some controversy and confusion. Kidder first designated this culture group as “Anasazi,”
which is a Dineh (Navajo) term translating to “ancient enemy.” Hisatsinom is the term preferred by the Hopi, who
are considered by many the likeliest descendants. Ancestral Puebloan is what I chose to use, as it appears to be the
most accepted.
3
The Pecos Classification chronology was introduced by Kidder in 1927 as a general stylistic typology, and the
dates have since been applied. These dates are a best estimate, but are by no means determinate (Schaafsma 1980;
107).
2
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Table 1. Pecos Classification and Temporal Range
Pecos Classification
Basketmaker II
Basketmaker III
Pueblo I
Pueblo II
Pueblo III
Pueblo IV
Pueblo V
Temporal Range (A. D.)
1-400
400-700
700-900
900-1100
1100-1300
1300-1700
1700-Present
Theoretical Orientation
Various perspectives and interpretations provide the basis for this research, including
Renfrew’s criteria for cult archaeology, and Kitchell’s interpretations of headdresses as
ceremonial elements in rock art, and Schaafsma’s perspective on messenger spirits. These
interpretations have guided my considerations of what types of data I aim to collect during the
course of this project, as well as methods of obtaining data.
Archaeology of Cult
Cult activity can be recognized by four main components: (1) Focus of attention: the use
of light, sounds, or smell to direct attention towards ritual; (2) Boundary zone between worlds: a
designation of “cleanliness procedures” or separation of space; (3) Presence of deity: symbolized
by some material depiction; (4) Participation and offering: specific foods, offerings, trance
inducers, ritual burial of objects (Renfrew 2012; 404).
Ceremonial Elements
There are three elements which are reoccurring in regards to the “spirit bird” type rock art
panels. These elements (headdresses, messengers, and lobed circles), will have the most
influence on choice of sites for regional comparison. My suggestion is that these elements
indicate a shamanic trance state, which is tied to a greater bird-related cult.
Headdresses
Jennifer Kitchell suggests that the occurrence of headdresses on anthropomorphic figures
in the rock art of the San Juan region is indicative of a shamanic trance state. This is due to the
reoccurrence of headdress type imagery, with no material headdresses being found. Schaafsma
asserts the significance of ear-protrusions as well, that they may represent another form of
headdress, or perhaps represent feathers. She interprets these to represent aural hallucinations
and shamanic hearing (Kitchell 2010; 825).
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Fig.2. Anthropomorphic figures with headdresses (Kitchell 2010).
Messengers
Messenger depictions are small animals or anthropomorphic figures, which are
positioned close to the ear or shoulder of a larger anthropomorphic figure. Schaafsma had
suggested the shamanic model (the preferred model for this research), that the reoccurrence of
these small animals and birds to be indicative of helpers during shamanic trance, however
Kitchell prefers a more cognitive model. This model suggests that these may have been used in
storytelling.
Fig.3. Messenger depictions (Kitchell 2010).
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Lobed Circles
A third ceremonial element, which was not taken into account in Kitchell’s study, is the
lobed circle. While in the field, Daniel Cutrone referred to these as “kiva”4 shapes, which I
accepted at face value. I have found evidence which I believe supports the argument that these
are kiva shapes, or at least of some ceremonial significance. The first evidence I am looking for,
is the occurrence of the lobed circle shape with head dressed anthropomorphic figures. If, as
Schaafsma suggests, these figures represent shamanic transformations, the occurrence of both in
a panel may suggest correlation. The second bit of evidence is the shape of a particular wooden
artifact type (Fig.3.), which have been encountered primarily on the chest area of burials. These
artifacts are the same basic shape as a kiva layout (Fig.4.), and are often carved and inlaid with
turquoise (Schaafsma 1980; 117). The positioning on the chest has influenced the interpretation
of “pendants.” I believe the lobed circle shape can be used to help indicate sites with ceremonial
significance.
Fig.4. Ceremonial
Wood/Turquoise Artifact (Hurst
1992)
Fig.5. Typical Layout of Kiva
(Edge of the Cedars)
Rock art typologies
Although this project has no scope in terms of rock art typologies involved, three
typologies have shown most popular thus far in terms of bearing ceremonial elements listed
above. The Barrier Canyon Anthropomorphic Style can be recognized by its dark, tapered,
immobile anthropomorphic figures, who are typically accompanied by smaller anthropomorphic
figures or animals (Schaafsma 1980; 61). Schaafsma states that “Barrier Canyon Style
anthropomorphs have attributes and associations characteristic of shamans throughout the world.
Horns, which are one type of headdress... are almost universally emblematic of shamanic and
supernatural power” (1980; 71) The San Juan Anthropomorphic Style is categorized by broad-
4
A Kiva is a subterranean ceremonial room, common in Pueblo villages. These rooms share similar features,
including a small pit (sipapu) which, in modern cultures represents the place of emergence into this world (Edge of
the Cedars).
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shouldered anthropomorphic figures, with drooping hands and feet. These figures are also
immobile, and often clad in headdresses and/or jewelry (Schaafsma 1980; 109-110). The Chinle
Representational Style bears smaller, more triangular anthropomorphic figures, in activity
positions. Birds are the most common animal represented in this style (Schaafsma 1980; 122126).
Nancy Patterson Village
The Nancy Patterson Village Site is unique in that it is a large village site in a popular
archaeological research area, but has received little attention. The lower ruin of the village site
originally named in 1964, and recorded as 42SA960. The Upper ruin was documented from 1969
to 1970, and the site was redesigned, with both upper and lower ruins now referred to as
42SA2110. A period of looting traumatized the site from 1972 until 1978, when the property was
purchased by Mark Evans5. A primary source of funding for the first four years of the Nancy
Patterson Archaeological Project was provided by the Nancy Patterson Company Limited
Partnership. This was a way for private investors to receive a tax benefits6 (Janetski, et al., 1983).
The rest was provided by field school fees, grants and public participant fees.7 The site was
monitored through 1993 by Daniel Cutrone, a Graduate student from the 1984 field school.
Cutrone revived research interests in 1993,8 and the Nancy Patterson Company Limited
Partnership was renamed “Nancy Patterson Archaeological Project.” Cutrone was named Project
Director and Principle Investigator (Nielson, et al. 2008). Cutrone has continued to monitor the
site and conduct field schools through different institutions.9
Spirit Bird Cave
Spirit Bird Cave is an extensively modified Aeolian (wind formed) sandstone cave site on
the western side of Montezuma Canyon. The cave itself is formed by the intersection of two
fissures in the cliff face. There are two entryways, one with an antechamber and one formed by a
doorway modification (Fig. 6.). There is also an inner cave crevice (“Dark Zone”), petroglyph
panel, and less extensive features at the cliff bottom (small rock feature and weathered rock art
panels10) (Cutrone 2007).
5
Evans originally purchased the property as a collector, and then developed a change of heart, and an interest in the
importance of systematic excavation and conservation of the site.
6
Another benefit received by NPCLP members was partial ownership of any “recovered items,” and could receive
additional benefits from donating these items to various non-profit curation facilities (Janetski, et al.,, 1983).
7
The Nancy Patterson Company Limited Partnership dissolved in 1986, leaving that summer’s field season without
funding. Supplemental funds were provided in the form of BYU public participatory fees. (Thompson, et al, 1986)
8
In 1993, Cutrone received Sci-Mat Fellowship funding, to design a teaching curriculum (Nielson, et all, 2008).
9
I attended the 2011 Nancy Patterson Archaeological Project Field Season.
10
I was not able to view much of the cave site on my first trip to Spirit Bird Cave, due to time constraints, thus the
description is lacking. A more in depth documentation of the cave site is presented as part of this research.
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Fig.6. Spirit Bird Cave
Spirit Bird Cave Petroglyph Panel
The rock art panel at spirit bird cave is closest in style to the Chinle Representational
Style. This is based on body shape and size of the main anthropomorphic figure, as well as the
shape of bird elements. The rock art panel at Spirit Bird Cave contains the three ceremonial
elements I have described above. There is one main anthropomorph, with a bird-shaped
headdress; one messenger anthropomorph to its left, and messenger bird to the right. There is
also a singular lobed circle, and two linked lobed circles (Fig.7.).
Fig.7. Spirit Bird Cave Petroglyph Panel
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The “Spirit Bird” project
Phase 1: Do Nancy Patterson Village and Spirit Birds Cave share a link?
The primary goal for phase 1 is to establish an association between the Nancy Patterson
Village site and the Spirit Bird Cave site. This portion of the project will also focus on extensive
recording of the Spirit Bird rock art panel and mapping associated cave features. I believe it is
important to the later phases of the project to interpret whether or not Spirit Bird Cave is a standalone site.
Methods for Phase 1
The field team size for phase 1 is five persons. Two specialists will be responsible for
execution of total station, one field drawing specialist, one digital photography specialist, and
one team leader/GPS specialist (responsible for establishing datum, GPS point recovery, sketch
mapping).
In order to establish association between the sites, I would first like to employ a
pedestrian survey; aimed specifically at locating foot access (trails) between the sites. Finding a
trail between the sites and similar architecture could suggest a link in occupation. I would also
like to document and compare architecture styles between the cave features and rooms at Nancy
Patterson Village, to see if they share similar building style. This can be accomplished through
digital photographic documentation and in field drawing. Specific data focus will include
building material, style, and whether or not use of mortar was employed. A third option would be
small test pits (50X50 Centimeters), two inside the main cave chamber, two outside.11Artifacts
from these test pits could then be compared stylistically to the pre-existing Nancy Patterson
collection at the Edge of the Cedars State Park Museum12.
For the documentation and mapping of the cave and petroglyphs, a portable Geographic
Positioning System (GPS) will be employed. Points will be taken at all cave features, including
entrances, rock art, and wall features, as well as possible trails between the cave and village site.
Alternative points will be determined in the field. The documenting of the rock art panel will use
several methods, including digital photography, had drawing and computer aided drawing13. The
drawing specialist for phase 1 will be responsible for ruled and grid drawings of the Spirit Bird
11
I have also considered for gathering subsurface data, the use of Ground Penetrating Radar, a method of subsurface
detection which sends short radio pulses sent through soil (Renfrew 2012, 98). These radio pulses echo to reflect
changes in soil conditions. This is especially helpful in regards to detecting subsurface features and burials. I have
not been able to find cost information as of yet.
12
The Edge of the Cedars State Park Museum is a museum and archaeological repository located by and Ancestral
Puebloan site in Blanding, Utah.
13
Computer Aided Drawing: A method I came across which makes a light print from a digital photograph in the
field (this could be accomplished in Blanding, approximately 30 minutes’ drive from the site), then returning with
the print to the panel to sketch in areas which may not have been picked up in the photograph (Walt 1994).
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Cave panel. A ruled drawing uses a flexible ruler to measure key features and is done on graph
paper. A grid drawing makes use of a string grid over the original to produce accurate scale
(Walt 1994). An appropriate scale should be selected and recorded on the drawing. The artist
should note on the drawing any cracks in the rock, rock surface features, scratches, or the like.
"North" and “Top” should also be designated. Site, unit and panel designations should be
recorded along with the date, the location and the artist’s name. The use of a total station will
also be employed to document the panel in context of other cave features.14
Photography of the rock art panel will provide documentation in itself, and also provide
prints for computer aided drawing. The photography specialist for phase one will be a master of
digital camera technology, and able to judge orientation and lighting necessary for good
documentation. The photographs should reveal as much as possible about the form and style of
the petroglyphs, without any major distortions of scale.
Considerations for Phase 1
A primary consideration for phase 1 implementation will be the timing of research to the
summer solstice. When I attended the 2011 field school, we had just missed this window of time,
and no solstice markers were apparent. The field work for this phase is aimed to be conducted
early summer of 2013 (the summer solstice is estimated for June 21, 2013), so that final mapping
and analysis can be completed for a final senior thesis spring 2014. The required field time
estimated for phase 1 is six weeks. The first four weeks will be devoted to data collection. This
includes any survey, mapping, and recording. Week five is reserved if subsurface data is needed.
Week six is reserved for analysis and comparison with the Nancy Patterson Collection. Post
processing will occur after August, and finalized with publication by 2014. Cost estimates below
reflect a minimum for field technology only (For total station specialists and GPS and
photography specialists). Should funding for this technology not be available, more manual
methods may be employed, however this would greatly increase data collection time. The field
kit for the drawing specialist should include regular drawing paper, graph paper, erasers, pencil
sharpeners, colored pencils, pencils of assorted hardness, and mechanical pencils.
Cost Estimates for Phase 1
The primary expenses for phase 1 implementation will be technology related. A laptop
will be utilized in the field to record and analyze images for computer aided drawing, and to
check the locational data. A typical laptop now costs $1,500.-$2,000. The cost of Surveying
Total Station Equipment and its ancillary equipment will cost $7,000. - $9,000. An added data
collector to program the measurements and automate the down-loading of location data costs an
added $2,500-$3,000. A GPS unit capable of sub-meter accuracy (after differential correction
14
Another consideration for the documentation of the Spirit Bird Cave rock art panel would be the use of a threedimensional scanner. This would allow for a more precise, to scale documentation of the petroglyphs. I am however,
unaware of any potential effects this technology may have on the rock art in the documentation process.
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assuming a nearby accurate base station) would cost $10,000. There are several models which
are far less expensive; however the accuracy drops to 2-5 meters. A digital camera should be
used to photograph glyphs, panels, complexes and units. The benefits to a digital versus film
camera are that the results can be field checked. The best camera of this type for this field is the
2 Kodak DCS200C. The Kodak camera costs $10,000. A high resolution printer will also be
utilized for the computer aided drawing process. Such printers range from $199-$699.
Phase 2: Regional Site Comparison (“The Spirit Bird Cult”)
Phase 2 will utilize Geospatial Information Systems15 to compare various data of rock art
sites that bear the above mentioned ceremonial elements. For this study, the focus will be on
panels that depict bird-like images; however it should be taken into account that there are
occurrences of other animals in a similar manner. The focus of birds was chosen due to the
overabundance of this imagery in the region compared to quadruped animals.
Methods for Phase 2
Phase 2 will mimic phase 1 in terms of crew size and specializations. The field season
will be extended however, due to the increased scope of this portion of the project. Phase 2 will
begin with a literature search and ethnographic interviews to locate rock art panels which bear
the three ceremonial elements. These “Spirit Bird Panels” will then be compared using geospatial
informational systems to analyze these similar panels for evidence of cult activity. Data of
interest will be: style/host surface of rock art, location (cave, canyon, or rock shelter), evidence
of boundary zones, astronomy (solstice markers). Also of interest will be if any roadways exist
between the sites, and proximity of sites to water or to other village sites. I will also compare
artifact styles from preexisting collections from these sites. If the site has no preexisting
collection, test-pits may be a consideration, but only if expected data yield is relevant to this
project. The recording process for phase 2 is similar to phase 1 however; emphasis will be on
computer aided drawing technology, to allow for more efficient field processing. The same
technology from phase 1 will be employed.
Ethnographic data will utilized in terms of ceremonial data. Modern culture groups will
be consulted, as well as ethnographic texts (an important consideration is that relation of the
Ancestral Puebloans to later culture groups is only assumed, these sources are being used to
provide a wide basis of possible data, and better knowledge of regional plant varieties). Data of
interest are incense plants and mind-altering substances (which may have been used to induce a
trance state), or possible ceremonial offerings. I can then use this data to test vessels from these
sites for organic materials, provided these artifacts have not been cleaned. If that is the case, the
alternative would be to obtain soil samples from spirit bird panel sites via auger. Pollen analysis
Geospatial Information Systems are software systems that use “layers” to collect, organize, store, retrieve,
analyze, and display spatial and digital geographic data (Renfrew 2012; 579).
15
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of the soils, including floatation, would not be able to show specific vessel use, but could place
these substances at the site.
Considerations for Phase 2
Access to many of the Spirit Bird Panel sites will not be an issue, as many are located on
State Park land. Land ownership is something to take into account for this phase, especially
when excavations are concerned. This phase is due to be completed by 2016, which is a rough
ballpark year as I am unaware whether this will be carried out as a master’s thesis, or postmasters work. The cost estimates for phase 2 diminish greatly, if the technology proposed for
phase 1 had already been obtained. If this is not the case, more manual methods can be utilized,
but this would greatly increase time spent in the field. Crew costs increase, with the increased
time spent in the field.
Conclusion
This research is significant, because it provides a new interpretation for an area which
still offers many questions. Through my ongoing research of the San Juan region, I plan to
challenge or reinforce the already accepted ideas that have been published over the years. A main
consideration for my research is conservation and preservation of rock art and it is my hope that
publications of the like may result from this project in addition to the two possible theses.
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Bibliography
Cutrone, Daniel. Middle Shrines in the Prehistoric Southwest. Society for American
Archaeology Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah. 2005.
Cutrone, Daniel. Spirit Bird Cave: Emergence Shrines and the Legitimization of Settlement
Space. California State University-Los Angeles, 2007.
Edge of the Cedars State Park Museum. Museum and Indian Ruin Trail Guide.
Hurst, Winston, and Joe Pachak. Spirit Windows: Native American Rock Art of Southeastern
Utah. Blanding, UT: State of Utah, Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation,
1992.
Hurst, Winston, and Teri L. Paul. Edge of the Cedars State Park Museum Collections, 19782008. Virginia Beach, VA: Donning, 2008.
Janetski, Joel; Winston Hurst. The Nancy Patterson Village Archaeological Research Project:
Field year 1983-Preliminary Report. Brigham Young University Museum of Peoples and
Cultures Technical Series No. 84-7.
Kidder, Alfred Vincent. An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology. New Haven,
CT: Yale UP, 1962.
Kitchell, Jennifer A. "Basketmaker and Archaic Rock Art of the Colorado Plateau: A
Reinterpretation of Paleoimagery." American Antiquity 75.4 (2010): 819-40.
Nielsin, Rachel; Michelle Bradford. The 2008 Nancy Patterson Archaeological Project:
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Renfrew, Colin, and Paul G. Bahn. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. London:
Thames & Hudson, 2012.
Schaafsma, Polly. Indian Rock Art of the Southwest. Santa Fe: School of American Research,
1980.
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Sofaer, A., Sinclair, R.M. & Doggett, L.E. "Lunar Markings on Fajada Butte, Chaco
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Sofaer, A., Zinser, V. & Sinclair, R.M. (1979), "A Unique Solar Marking Construct," Science,
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Walt, Henry, and John Brayer. "A Petroglyph Recording Demonstration Project for Petroglyph
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