Chapter Four: General Reading in ELT Terminology
This chapter contains key terms for teachers. Each entry includes a definition, an
example illustrating the concept and information about how the concept can be
applied in the communicative classroom teaching context.
1
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how correct learners' use of the language system is, including
their use of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Accuracy is often compared
to fluency when we talk about a learner's level of speaking or writing.
Example
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot
of mistakes).
In the classroom
Language manipulation activities can help develop accuracy. These include
controlled practice, drills, the study and application of grammar rules, and
activities that help students to 'notice' their own mistakes.
2
Acquisition
Acquisition Acquisition is the way we learn our first language, i.e. through being
involved in real communication, and without formal teaching. As we learn, we
hypothesise rules, and use these to communicate until we notice that the rule is
different, or has exceptions. This leads to classic early mistakes such as 'I seed' and
'I buyed'. Language learning programmes that immerse learners in the target
language aim to create the conditions for acquisition to happen in second language
learning. In a communicative classroom, opportunities for natural acquisition are
often provided alongside opportunities for formal learning, to make the most of
both ways of learning.
Example
A learner can acquire language by living in a country where the language they
want to speak is used. They do this without formal training and by being in contact
with it and needing to use it.
In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to acquire language by exposure to authentic spoken
or written language and authentic communicative tasks, such as watching TV in
order to summarise what they understand, rather than to analyse the language they
hear in depth.
3
Approach
An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any
language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it
can be learnt. An approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something,
which use classroom activities or techniques to help learners learn.
Example
The communicative approach is the best-known current approach to language
teaching. Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with it. Other
approaches include the cognitive-code approach, and the aural-oral approach
(audiolingual method).
In the classroom
Learners in the modern language classroom often learn through techniques drawn
from a variety of methods/approaches in what has been labelled an ‘eclectic
approach'. Teachers select techniques from various approaches according to the
different needs of their learners. Most coursebooks mix methods and techniques in
this way.
4
Audio-lingualism
Audio-lingualism is a method of foreign language teaching where the emphasis is
on learning grammatical and phonological structure, especially for speaking and
listening. It is based on behaviourism and so relies on formation as a basis for
learning, through a great deal of mechanical repetition.
Example
The teacher spends most of the time in the class drilling the learners on
grammatical and phonological structures. Error correction is also important.
In the classroom
Audio-lingualism evolved in the context of large-scale language teaching
programmes in the 1950s and 60s. It is unusual in modern language learning and
has largely fallen out of use as a methodology, as cognitive views of language
learning and communicative accounts of language have led to other methodologies.
5
Choral Repetition
Choral repetition is when the teacher or a learner models language and the group of
learners repeat it together.
Example
The class are practising the pronunciation of the schwa sound. The teacher models
words from a list and the learners repeat them together.
In the classroom
Choral repetition is not a very common choice of activity, but it can contribute well
to learning some aspects of language, especially pronunciation of connected speech
and formulaic language such as classroom language. It is also an activity that many
learners enjoy.
6
Class-centred Teaching
The term class-centred teaching draws attention to the importance of behaving in
ways that encourage classes to develop into cohesive groups in which learning is
regarded as a collective, collaborative endeavour and the performance of
individuals is lifted by the positive atmosphere of the overall class group.
Example
A teacher engages in light-hearted banter with the class for a few moments.
Students, appreciative of the opportunity to be involved in group social interaction,
return to the learning task with renewed vigour.
In the classroom
Class-centred teachers develop trusting relationships with their classes and find
themselves teaching in flexible ways. Guided by the principle of inclusivity they
give as many students as possible the opportunity to contribute to the collective
learning of the class group.
7
Collaborative Activity
Collaborative activity involves learners working together in order to complete a
task. Collaboration increases the opportunities a student has to use the target
language, and thereby develop their skills in it.
Example
The task-based learning approach requires learners to work on collaborative
activities.
In the classroom
Learners can benefit from collaboration in a variety of activities, including writing
tasks, projects and inductive approaches.
8
Communicative Approach
The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language
successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners
are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language
acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.
Example
Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about
their colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves
meaningful communication.
In the classroom
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by
trying to produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result
there may be more emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learnercentred, and there may be use of authentic materials.
9
Concept Questions
Concept questions are used to find out if a learner has understood a new item. The
question is designed to test the key concepts of the item and normally requires a
yes/no or short answer.
Example
To test understanding of the use of 'used to' in the example 'I used to swim in the
summer', a teacher might ask 'Do I still swim now?' and 'Did I only swim once?' to
test understanding of 'used to' as a finished and repeated action in the past.
In the classroom
When planning a presentation lesson on a new language point, many teachers
prepare a series of concept questions that will fully test understanding of the new
language.
10
Deductive Approach
A deductive approach to teaching language starts by giving learners rules, then
examples, then practice. It is a teacher-centred approach to presenting new content.
This is compared with an inductive approach, which starts with examples and asks
learners to find rules, and hence is more learner-centred.
Example
The form and use of the third conditional is explained to learners, then they have a
gap-fill exercise to complete, then prepare their own examples.
In the classroom
The deductive approach may be suitable with lower level learners who need a clear
base from which to begin with a new language item, or with learners who are
accustomed to a more traditional approach and so who lack the training to find
rules themselves.
11
Direct Method
The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the GrammarTranslation method. It sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a
first language is learnt. All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is
taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful
‘everyday' language is taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption
that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact
the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.
Example
The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.
In the classroom
Aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the
emphasis on listening and speaking, the use of the target language for all class
instructions, and the use of visuals and realia to illustrate meaning.
12
Drill
A drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves the
teacher modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. There are
different kinds of drilling, such as choral drill, which involves the whole class, and
substitution drill, where the teacher changes the cue words after each repetition.
Example
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill
Teacher: I like cheese
Learners: I like it
Teacher: I like apples
Learners: I like them
Teacher: I like Sue etc
In the classroom
Drilling is a classroom technique which some teachers reject due to a possible lack
of communicative quality and its highly controlled, teacher-centred nature.
However, there are advantages to it also, such as offering learners an opportunity
to practise pronunciation in a non-threatening dynamic.
13
Eclectic Approach
In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic
approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a
range of language teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides
what methodology or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the
learners in the group. Almost all modern course books have a mixture of
approaches and methodologies.
Example
The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different
uses of synonyms of movement using a reading text. They then practise these using
TPR. In another class the input is recycled through a task-based lesson, with
learners producing the instructions for an exercise manual.
In the classroom
A typical lesson might combine elements from various sources such as TPR and
TBL (the examples); the communicative approach, e.g. in communication gap
activities; the lexical approach, e.g. focusing on lexical chunks in reading; and the
structural-situational approach, e.g. establishing a clear context for the presentation
of new structures.
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Errors
Errors are mistakes caused by a learner not knowing something. They can be
compared with slips, which are caused by a learner being tired, nervous, excited or
another temporary factor.
Example
The learner says ‘I buyed a new book' because she does not know that buy has an
irregular past form.
In the classroom
Errors are a key part of the learning process and give teachers essential - and
reliable - information about where their learners are, and what needs to be done
next. It is important to emphasise the positive role errors have and to involve
learners in correction, for example by using correction codes, doing group
correction of writing or by dealing with typical spoken errors as a class after a
speaking activity.
15
Extending Reading
Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop
general reading skills. It can be compared with intensive reading, which means
reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.
Example
A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except
to read and listen.
In the classroom
Extensive reading is often overlooked, especially as a classroom activity. Teachers
often feel it is not an effective use of class time or are just uncomfortable with the
extended silence. Learners can be encouraged to read extensively by setting up a
class library, encouraging review writing, and incorporating reading of books into
the syllabus, and dedicating some class time to quiet reading.
16
Feedback
Feedback is information a teacher or another speaker, including another learner,
gives to learners on how well they are doing, either to help the learner improve
specific points, or to help plan their learning. Feedback can be immediate, during
an activity, or delayed, at the end of an activity or part of a learning programme
and can take various forms.
Example
A teacher agrees with learners that they will not be corrected during a conversation
activity but that the teacher will take notes and give feedback afterwards.
In the classroom
In correction, it is typical to use feedback in a way that shows the learner has made
a mistake, but allows the learner to attempt to correct it themselves. Facial
expression, body language, gesture and intonation can all be used to give this type
of feedback to speaking. Correction codes are used in writing to achieve this; if
learners have made a word order mistake, the teacher marks 'WO' at that point,
allowing the learner to go back and correct it themselves.
17
Flashcards
Flashcards are pictures or photographs mounted on small cards. They are used as a
visual resource in language teaching.
Example
A teacher can use flashcards showing different faces in a lesson on describing how
people look.
In the classroom
In the above class, learners can describe a face on one of the flashcards, and the
other students can guess which one it is. They then follow this with an imaginary
biography for the face they like most. Apart from being used for new vocabulary
items, flashcards can be exploited as a prompt for extended skills work including
discussion and creative writing.
18
Fluency
Fluency refers to how well a learner communicates meaning rather than how many
mistakes they make in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Fluency is often
compared with accuracy, which is concerned with the type, amount and
seriousness of mistakes made.
Example
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot
of mistakes).
In the classroom
Activities that help to develop fluency focus on communication, for example
discussions, speaking games, presentations, task work such as projects and emailing.
19
Fluency
Fluency refers to how well a learner communicates meaning rather than how many
mistakes they make in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Fluency is often
compared with accuracy, which is concerned with the type, amount and
seriousness of mistakes made.
Example
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot
of mistakes).
In the classroom
Activities that help to develop fluency focus on communication, for example
discussions, speaking games, presentations, task work such as projects and emailing.
20
Formal Assessment
Formal assessment uses formal tests or structured continuous assessment to
evaluate a learner's level of language. It can be compared to informal assessment,
which involves observing the learners' performance as they learn and evaluating
them from the data gathered.
Example
At the end of the course, the learners have a final exam to see if they pass to the
next course or not. Alternatively, the results of a structured continuous assessment
process are used to make the same decision.
In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful
assessments of learners' knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the
two, for example by evaluating one skill using informal assessment such as
observing group work, and another using formal tools, for example a discrete item
grammar test.
21
Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is the use of assessment to give the learner and the teacher
information about how well something has been learnt so that they can decide what
to do next. It normally occurs during a course. Formative assessment can be
compared with summative assessment, which evaluates how well something has
been learnt in order to give a learner a grade.
Example
The learners have just finished a project on animals, which had as a language aim
better understanding of the use of the present simple to describe habits. The
learners now prepare gap-fill exercises for each other based on some of their texts.
They analyse the results and give each other feedback.
In the classroom
One of the advantages of formative feedback is that peers can do it. Learners can
test each other on language they have been learning, with the additional aim of
revising the language themselves.
22
Goal
Goals are the targets that learners and teachers have in language learning. These
may be short- and long-term. Goals can be compared to aims, which usually refer
to the targets of one lesson or unit of work.
Example
One learner includes among her goals: to be able to deliver a presentation in
English to overseas colleagues, to understand the music of her favourite band, and
to be able to use all the English language software on her laptop.
In the classroom
Goal-setting is an important activity in the development of a learner's
metacognitive skills and awareness. Learners can be encouraged to set goals about
how, what and when they are going to learn. Teachers need to find out about
learners' goals, since learners may come to the course with goals that are different
from those expressed in the course.
23
Group Work
Group work is when the learners work together on a task or activity in groups.
Example
Learners in threes, a class separated into two, and an open class, are all examples
of groups.
In the classroom
Group work increases the opportunities for all learners to speak the new language,
it allows them to learn from each other, and frees the teacher to monitor individuals
and give them feedback. Examples of typical group work activities include ranking
discussions, jigsaw activities, project work group and group writing tasks.
24
Guided Writing
Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing
task. The aims of the task are based on what they have previously been learning
about the writing process. Guided writing aims to support learners in this
psychologically and cognitively difficult activity.
Example
The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and
compare ideas. They are now writing a short discursive essay on the subject of
animal experimentation. The teacher is working with the groups to guide them in
the correct use of the target language.
In the classroom
Guided writing can be fully exploited by providing learners with the language they
need to complete the task together with the teacher. For example, this may include
making suggestions (‘Why don't we start by saying...?'), agreeing and disagreeing
(‘That's a good idea - let's put that'), and asking for help (‘Is it right to say...?').
25
Horseshoe Layout
A horseshoe layout is a way of organizing learners' seats in a class in the form of a
horseshoe.
Example
The teacher needs to use the board a lot in a class so arranges the seats in a
horseshoe shape.
In the classroom
A horseshoe shape is a very effective way to organize the classroom, as it means
the learners can see each other, the teacher and the board. Thus it is useful for
whole-group work such as an open discussion or for a teacher-centred class.
26
Inductive Approach
An inductive approach to teaching language starts with examples and asks learners
to find rules. It can be compared with a deductive approach that starts by giving
learners rules, then examples, then practice.
Example
Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third
conditional. The teacher checks that the students understand the meaning of its use
through checking learners' comprehension of the listening text, and only after this
focuses on the form, using the examples from the text to elicit rules about the form,
its use and its pronunciation.
In the classroom
Inductive approaches to presenting new language are commonly found in course
books, and form part of a general strategy to engage learners in what they learn.
Some learners may need introduction to inductive approaches since they may be
more familiar, and feel more comfortable, with a deductive approach.
27
Inference
Inference is the technique of finding answers from clues and from prior knowledge
rather than directly.
Example
Learners listen to a discussion between two unidentified speakers and must infer
their relationship from what they hear.
In the classroom
The ability to infer meaning and situation correctly is an important skill, as in
many cultures speakers avoid saying something directly by using implication.
Ways to look at this include analysis of dialogue from films, learner implication inference exchanges, listening tasks, using video and games, e.g. 'Find 10 ways to
say Shut the door!'
28
Intensive Reading
Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims
and tasks. It can be compared with extensive reading, which involves learners
reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills.
Example
The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order.
In the classroom
Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to
answer true or false statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to
match headings to paragraphs, and scanning jumbled paragraphs and then reading
them carefully to put them into the correct order.
29
Interaction Patterns
In ELT interaction patterns are the different ways learners and the teacher can
interact in the class. Using the right interaction pattern is a fundamental factor in
the success of any activity and the achievement of aims.
Example
The class are doing a dictation activity. The interaction pattern is teacher to the
whole group (T-Ss). Other patterns include pair work (S-S), and group work (SsSs).
In the classroom
Different interaction patterns can support the aims of different kinds of activities.
For example, if the learners are doing group writing then small Ss-Ss groups are
best, but for elicitation of ideas the interaction pattern could be Ss-T. Changing
interaction patterns can help vary the pace and choosing an appropriate pattern can
help achieve learning aims, for example, making learners take the place of the
teacher (S-Ss) can be very productive.
30
Intonation
Intonation is the way the pitch of a speaker's voice goes up or down as they speak.
Intonation can be rising, falling or flat and is used to communicate how a speaker
feels.
Example
An English language speaker uses a rising intonation in spoken discourse to show
that they haven't finished a sentence. The intonation commonly drops at the end of
a sentence to show they have finished.
In the classroom
Intonation is fundamental in spoken communication but whilst many languages
share this system, learners often find patterns such as falling intonation difficult.
Drilling is useful to practise this area, as learners sometimes feel uncomfortable
with what they see as exaggerated intonation changes.
31
Leaning Strategies
Learning strategies are tools and techniques that learners develop as they learn.
Learning strategies are an important part of developing autonomy.
Example
A learner keeps a small notebook in their pocket and records interesting new
language when they hear it, then researches it later using online reference material
they have been shown.
In the classroom
There are a wide range of strategies available to learners. A teacher's responsibility
is to expose learners to as many as possible, give them the opportunity to
experiment, and help them identify what works
32
Learning Styles
Learning styles are the different ways people prefer to learn. There are a wide
variety of styles and also terminology used to describe them.
Example
A learner likes to record new vocabulary in lists and sees this list in their mind
when recalling words. This is typical of what some teachers call a visual learner.
In the classroom
In a group of learners there will be a variety of learning styles. Addressing their
needs means using a range of techniques and resources, including visual realia,
colours, movement, music, games and social interaction.
33
Teaching English
Mechanical activities are activities learners do which are not meaningful but which
may be necessary in order to have the tools to use language. The move away from
mechanical to communicative activity has been emphasized and prioritized for
many years.
Example
Learners thinking about the position of the tongue in the pronunciation of certain
sounds, or learning how to write in Roman script are doing mechanical but
necessary activities.
In the classroom
Drills, substitution exercises, and using prompts to produce structures are common
mechanical activities.
34
Medium of Instruction
The medium of instruction is the language used by the teacher to teach. Teaching
the language, or educational content, through the target language increases the
amount of exposure the learner gets to it, and the opportunities they have to
communicate in it, and therefore to develop their control of it.
Example
English is used from the beginning of a course as the main language in class, and
the teacher adapts their methodology to support meaning, by using a lot of visual
information and non-verbal communication to support meaning.
In the classroom
The question of which medium of instruction to use, and the impact on learners
and learning, is a complex one. It is useful to consider how the language used
supports the aims of the class. For example, it may fit the aims to give all
classroom instructions in English in a low level class, because this is useful
exposure to new language and will be learnt, but explaining the methodology
behind an activity to the same group might be done in L1.
35
Model
A model is an example of the target language a teacher shows learners to help them
notice language patterns, or to encourage them to imitate. This could be a sentence,
a model of an intonation pattern, or an entire text, such as an example of a writing
genre.
Example
Learners are looking at different uses of the present perfect continuous. The
teacher writes two models on the board, 'I've been waiting for you for ages', and
'What have you been doing? You look awful'.
In the classroom
Clear, accurate, contextualised models are an important part of language
presentations as they show learners correct form and provide an example of use in
context.
36
Monitor
To monitor is to watch and listen to learners while they are doing an activity but
not to lead them in the activity. Teachers monitor to find out what problems the
learners are having, and to identify the type of errors learners make as they produce
language.
Example
The class break into pairs to practise pronunciation of contracted forms in a short
dialogue. The teacher walks around the class monitoring for difficulties and
corrects where necessary, then talks to the whole class about common mistakes.
In the classroom
Monitoring is an important classroom technique and works best when it is directed
at lesson aims. Teachers can take time to explain to learners why they are doing it,
and negotiate when they will give feedback on problems.
37
Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is communication that does not involve a verbal
element.
Example
Non-verbal communication includes gestures such as waving or tapping your
fingers, eye movements such as winking and rolling, and body movements such as
shrugging your shoulders.
In the classroom
Many examples of non-verbal communication are different in different cultures,
including body movements, gestures and distance between speakers. It can be
interesting and productive to ask learners in a multi-lingual class to compare these.
38
Objective Test
An objective test is a test that has right or wrong answers and so can be marked
objectively. It can be compared with a subjective test, which is evaluated by giving
an opinion, usually based on agreed criteria. Objective tests are popular because
they are easy to prepare and take, quick to mark, and provide a quantifiable and
concrete result.
Example
True or false questions based on a text can be used in an objective test.
In the classroom
Marking objective tests together in the class is a useful way to exploit them further
as it gives the learners the opportunity to discuss answers, try to justify choices,
and help each other etc.
39
Open Questions
Open questions are questions which cannot be answered with just 'yes' or 'no'.
Many of them begin with 'wh': why, where, who etc. Open questions can be
compared to closed questions, which need only yes or no answers.
Example
'Why did you decide to study English?' is an example of an open question.
Compare this with 'Did you decide to study English because it's useful for work?',
a closed question.
In the classroom
Asking open questions can encourage learners to expand on their answers, which
requires them to construct longer examples of language. A series of closed
questions can be useful for checking concepts.
40
Pedagogic Grammar
A pedagogic grammar is a description of how to use the grammar of a language to
communicate, for people wanting to learn the target language. It can be compared
with a reference grammar, which just describes the grammar of the language.
Pedagogic grammars contain assumptions about how learners learn, follow certain
linguistic theories in their descriptions, and are written for a specific target
audience.
Example
How English Works and Grammar in Use are pedagogic grammar books, as they
help learners use the grammar of English for communication.
In the classroom
Learners can be asked to compare different explanations of a language point from
different grammars. This allows learners to think about grammar and its role in
communication.
41
Phonetics
Phonetics is the study of human speech. Phonetics includes the study of how
sounds are physically produced (by positioning the mouth, lips and tongue), and
how sounds are perceived by a listener. Phonetics can be compared to phonology,
which is the study of the particular sound units (phonemes) of language.
Example
The different mouth movements of the short /i/ and long /i:/ can be compared to
help learners notice the difference.
In the classroom
Articulatory phonetics, how sounds are made, can be useful for teachers and
learners. Problems with the pronunciation of certain sounds can be discussed in
terms of how they are made with the mouth, and learners can be made aware of the
differences between their first language phonemes, and English phonemes
42
Phonology
Phonology, also known as phonemics, is the study of the particular sound units
(phonemes) in languages. It can be compared to phonetics, which is the study of
human speech in general, and includes the articulation and perception of sounds.
Example
Phonology aims to describe the sounds (phonemes) that are distinctive in a
language. This can be done by identifying minimal pairs such as 'tin' and 'bin'.
In the classroom
Phonological areas looked at in language teaching include phonemes, intonation,
stress, accent and features of connected speech such as elision, intrusion and
catenation
43
Proficiency Test
A proficiency test measures a learner's level of language. It can be compared with
an achievement test, which evaluates a learner's understanding of specific material,
a diagnostic test, which identify areas to work on, and a prognostic test, which tries
to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam. Proficiency tests
are uncommon within the classroom but very frequent as the end aim (and
motivation) of language learning.
Example
IELTS and TOEFL are examples of proficiency tests.
In the classroom
Proficiency tests often have a significant backwash effect on the classroom, as
learners' focus narrows to preparing the test items. One way to make practice for
exams more meaningful is by asking learners to prepare their own practice
questions for the group.
44
Self-assessment
Self-assessment is where learners assess their language proficiency, rather than a
teacher doing it.
Example
Learner portfolios often include a form of self-assessment, such as a checklist that
relates to the completion of the learning aims. For a writing task, this might be a
list of questions such as: Have you included an introduction? Have you got clear
paragraphs? Does each paragraph cover one main idea?
In the classroom
Like all forms of evaluation, self-assessment needs clear criteria in order for it to
work. Learners can be encouraged to participate, by developing assessment criteria
together. This helps them become aware of what they have to work on.
45
Summative Assessment
Summative assessment evaluates a learner's progress up to that point and provides
a summary of where they are. It can be compared to formative assessment, which
gives the teacher and learner helpful information for future work.
Example
At the end of the course, the teacher gives a test to see if the learners know and can
use what they have learnt.
In the classroom
One way to make summative assessment more meaningful and helpful to the
learner is to think about how work done previously contributed to the results.
Teachers can ask learners questions such as ‘What did we do in class that
helped/didn't help you in this test?' and ‘How did your own way of working
help/not help?'
46
Mind Map
A mind map is a visual record of new vocabulary, or other content. Vocabulary
mind maps are also known as word maps or spidergrams, and are organised in a
way that shows groupings or relationships between the words.
Example
The teacher writes a list of words based around the topic of food on the board.
Learners organise the words in a mind map and then compare ideas on how they
have grouped words and related them.
In the classroom
Mind maps are often used as a tool in the planning stage for writing exercises, as
learners can structure ideas and discuss how they are related
47
Tag Questions
Tag questions are short questions which speakers use at the end of a statement. If
the intonation of the tag is falling, then the speaker is asking for confirmation of
the statement. If it is rising, then the speaker is unsure and is in fact asking a
question. There are rules to the formation of tag questions.
Example
'Your name is Paul, isn't it?' is formed by using the verb 'to be' and changing the
positive statement to a negative question.
In the classroom
Many learners have problems with the intonation of some tag questions so need
practice in this area.
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Time Lines
Time lines are diagrams used to represent the relationship between a verb tense and
time, by showing what time - past, present or future - that tense covers.
Example
Yesterday, I met Bob.
In the classroom
Time lines are one of many ways to talk about how verb tenses work. They are a
visual representation, so they are useful for some learners with learning styles that
respond to visual information. However, they can be confusing for others
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Terms
Definitions
Behaviourism
Habit formation, drills, focus on accuracy,
audiolingual method
Articulator
Parts of the mouth, throat and nose use to make
speech
Alveolar ridge
between teeth and hard palate (roof) of mouth
Assessment
Collecting information about student knowledge to
measure progress
Evaluation
Effectiveness of overall course or program
Acculturation
The degree to which somebody integrates into a
culture
Proficiency Test
Measures overall ability
Achievement
Test
Tests what learners have learned in a given period
of time
Gradable
Adjectives which can have different degrees 50
adjectives
quite good
Adverbial
Comment (Generally speaking), Circumstance (In
winter), Link (As a result the pipes burst)
Adjuncts
Adverbial which functions as internal structure of
sentence (As soon as)
Disjunct
Adverbial which stands apart from sentence
(attitude - Not surprisingly)
Linker
Adverbial which connects clauses, sentences or
paragraphs (on the other hand)
Advising
Should, You'd better, If I were you, ought to
Affect
Emotions or feelings, key principle in humanistic
teaching
Affective filter
Krashen - controls amount and quality of input
leaners receive
Affordance
Language learning opportunities that exist in the
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learner's environment
Agency
To be in control of your learning
Appraisal
Expressing feeling, judgement and appreciation
Appropriacy
Using language to suit cultural context and
meeting lısteners expectations
Appropriation
Making something your own - Key in sociocultural learning theory. E.g. Dictogloss
Definite article
The
Indefinite article
a, some
Automaticity
To perform a task without having to pay to much
attention to it
Causative
Passive, when someone performs a service for
someone else - John had his car fixed
Clause
Largest grammatical unit smaller than the whole
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sentence
Finite clause
A clause where the verb is marked for tense and
agree with the subject. When the door opens, you
can go in
Non-finite
clause
Clause which has a participle or infnitive as its
verb; To open the door use the key
Co-ordinate
clause
When 2 or more clauses of equal ranks are linked
by a conjunctıon
Main clause
Contains the main idea of a sentence
Subordinate
clause
Is outranked by the main clause in a sentence
Relative clause
Provides more information about nouns. A woman
who had been sittıng at her desk
Reported clause
I don't remember what she said
Cleft sentence
Sentence split in two to foreground one element of
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a sentence; It was Dorothy who gave Toto the
bone
Cloze test
Where every nth word is removed and replaced by
a space. Not the same as gap fill
Gap Fill
Test where chosen words are removed and
replaced wıth blanks for students to fill in
Cognates
Words which have the same or very similar in
form and function in 2 languages
False Friends
Words which look like cognates but have different
meanings
Coherent
A text which makes sense depending on context
Cohesion
Connectedness of elements in a text achieved
using ellipsis, substitution, linkers, parallelism,
back reference
parallelism
Sentences that echo each other (cohesive device)
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anaphoric
reference
pronoun which refers to a previously mentioned
noun
cataphoric
reference
pronoun which refers to a noun mentioned later in
the discourse
substitution
replacement of a noun phrase or clause by a single
word
Pragmatics
Study of language and it's context of use
Contrastive
analysis
Comparison of 2 language systems
back chanelling
verbal signals given by the listener to show
interest, surprise, attention
Co-operative
principle
Grice - 4 Maxims (quantity, quality, relation.
manner)
Critical
pedagogy
Liberating form of education based on dialogue,
equality and hope
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Declarative
Statement such as Richard has great teeth
Deduction
A rule is taught to the learner which they then
apply
Induction
Learner works out the rules for themselves
deixis
The way language points to a spatial and temporal
features of context: See you then, come here now
determiners
a, this, that, my, some, few, what, which
Direct Method
Method - No translation, realia used, questionanswer exercises
Discourse
marker
Well, anyway, I mean, actually. Orient the listener
to what will follow
Display question
Type of question used by teacher to find out what
learner can say
Dogme ELT
Reaction against coursebooks. Leraner-centred
instruction
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Ellipsis
Leaving out elements of a sentence
Mentalism
Learners actively working things out for
themselves (experiential learning)
Formulaic
language
sequences of 2 or more words that operate as a
single unit (collocations, phrasal verbs, ıdiomdi
discourse markers)
Genre
Any type of spoken or written discourse which is
used and recognized by members of a particular
culture
Homonym
Word which are written and pronounced the same
way but have dıfferent meanings
Humanism
Learning approaches that assert the central role of
the 'whole person' ın the learning process
Hyponym
Describes the relationship X is a type of Y
Meronymy
Objects that are all part of another object (e.g. face
- eyes, ears, nose)
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Immersion
When school children are taught some or all of
their subjects in a language that is not their mother
tongue
Interlanguage
The grammatical system that the learner creates
when learning a new language
phonemes
Individual segments of speech
Inversion
When 2 grammatical elements are reversed (Kim
is having lunch - Is Kim having lunch?)
Priming
Co-occurence of words by grammar and habits of
association
Linking Verb
Verbs that take an obligatory compliment (be,
look, seem, fee)
Inflection
Alteration of the form of a word (spoke, speak,
speaks) to agree with tense, person and number
Morpheme
Smallest meaningful unit in written language
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Scaffolding
The temporary support given to learners while
they are learning
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