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Title:
Assessment of European Ecosystem pressures Concept, Data, and Methodology
Type of Document:
Final Report – task 18413_Ecosystem_pressure
Prepared by:
Dania Abdul Malak (UMA)
Date:
24.07.2014
Project Manager:
Markus Erhard
Universidad de Malaga
ETCSIA
PTA - Technological Park of Andalusia
c/ Marie Curie, 22 (Edificio Habitec)
Campanillas
29590 - Malaga
Spain
Telephone: +34 952 02 05 48
Fax: +34 952 02 05 59
Contact: etc-sia@uma.es
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Document History
Version
Date
Author (s)
0
24-07-2014
Dania Abdul Malak
Remarks
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CONTENTS
1
Link to EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 ..................................... 3
2
Goal of the task .............................................................................. 4
3
Assessment of Ecosystem pressures ......................................... 5
3.1 Indicators on pressures ........................................................................... 7
3.1.1 Habitat change...................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.1 Climate change ..................................................................................................................... 8
3.1.2 Overexploitation ................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.3 Invasive alien species .......................................................................................................... 9
3.1.4 Pollution and nutrient enrichment ...................................................................................... 9
3.2 General concept ..................................................................................... 22
4
First Results and Outlook ........................................................... 24
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1 LINK TO EU BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY TO 2020
In order to implement Target 2 Action 5 of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, the assessment of European
ecosystems needs to draw on a wide range of adequate available data for a spatially explicit mapping as outlined
in the MAES report (Maes J. et al., 2013).
Following the DSIPR analytical framework, ETC-SIA identified specific key information to focus at for the working
areas covered by EEA within the MAES WG as dashed in red in figure 1. ETC-SIA´s 2013 report Towards a PanEuropean Ecosystem Assessment Methodology (task 222_5_2)
1
and the MAES 2nd technical report2 addressed
comprehensively the key drivers of change (e.g. land/sea use and management), and the major pressures (air
pollution, eutrophication, climate change etc.) altering the states of ecosystems. These pressures, highlighted in
figure 1, are the main focus of this task as they affect biodiversity and modify European ecosystems (Figure 1).
Source: ETC-SIA 2014
Figure 1. illustrates the approach used by EEA in its progress on the DPSI (dashed) for assessing the biodiversity
functionality and shows the main focus of this report on assessing pressures on ecosystem . (ETC-SIA 2014).
1
The methodology and datasets used for the elaboration of the Pan-European ecosystem map are available in
ETC-SIA (2013) final report of task 222_5_1 on Ecosystem mapping.
2
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/knowledge/ecosystem_assessment/pdf/2ndMAESWorkingPaper.pdf
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2 GOAL OF THE TASK
The final delivery of this task on Ecosystem pressure is a series of reports and datasets on the main inout data
use, methodologies, and indicators developed to assess the pressures on major European ecosystems.
The series of reports includes on general report (Report 1), five ecosystems’ specific reports (reports 2 to 6
covering major ecosystem types) and 2 thematic reports (reports 7 and 8). More specifically, the reports cover
the following:
1: The current report linking this task with the overall MAES work and providing an overview of the concepts used
to assess pressures related to each ecosystems type, the type of data used, as well the as the methodology
used to develop the indicators. This report aims at setting the main concepts, methodology and data used in the
development of the indicators on ecosystem pressures. This report focuses of developing indicators on the main
pressures affecting European ecosystems as defined by MAES.
2: Report 2 addresses the development of the major pressures on woodland and forest ecosystems in Europe,
3: Report 3 addresses the development of an indicator on the condition of agro-ecosystems in addition to
indicators on the major pressures on agro-ecosystems in Europe,
4: Report 4 addresses the main datasets, approaches, and proposed approaches for the development of
Indicators to assess major pressures on grasslands and scrublands ecosystems in Europe,
5: Report 5 suggests an approach to be used to assess the major pressures on wetland ecosystems in Europe
and provides indicators on major pressures.
6: Report 6 develops the approach, data, and indicators to be used to assess the major pressures on coastal and
marine ecosystems in Europe.
7. Report 7 focuses on the development of indicators on land use and land management related pressures in
agricultural as well as in forest ecosystems.
8. Report 8 focuses on the development of indicators on nutrient enrichment and pollution related pressures on
agricultural, grassland, heathland and forest ecosystems.
The indicators produced and provided separately are a list of ecosystem specific indicators on the major
pressures identified as most influencing in each Pan European ecosystem type. The indicators developed have
different levels of reliability as they are data driven and depend on the reliability of input data used in their
development. Each report provides a section on the main constraints of these indicators and outlook on proposed
steps for their improvement or comprehensiveness.
The indicators developed are the keystone to enable the assessment of impacts on the functional traits of
biodiversity in Europe.
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3 ASSESSMENT OF ECOSYSTEM PRESSURES
Ecosystems contain a multitude of living organisms that have adapted to fill a particular physical environment.
Anything that causes a change in the physical characteristics of the environment has the potential to change the
ecosystem. Any activity that removes or adds organisms can change the ecosystem. Things causing change to
an ecosystem are called drivers. The drivers of change modify the health and structure of ecosystems changing
the habitat and the species health, structures and composition (biodiversity) these ecosystems host decreasing
their resilience. The Millennium assessment identified the most important five drivers of change that
unequivocally influence ecosystem processes as being habitat change, climate change, invasive species, land
use management, and pollution and nutrient enrichment (Nelson, G., 2005) causing the major pressures on
ecosystems.
As a result of this spatial and temporal dependence of drivers, the forces that appear to be most significant at a
particular location and time may not be the most significant over larger (or smaller) regions or time scales. The
pressures exerted impact ecosystem biodiversity differently. Some pressures are widespread such as air and
water pollution that can travel thousands of kilometres and affect biodiversity far away from their sources such as
acid rain, low air quality, and eutrophication. Other pressures such as overgrazing, agricultural intensification and
timber extractions have more localised impacts such as the local partial or total loss of biodiversity. A variety of
factors combine to put pressure on ecosystems and the biodiversity they host, and most of these factors can be
traced by human activity. Effects of human activity seriously alter many basic ecosystem dynamics. These
pressures are exerted differently on different ecosystem types. Under each driver, a series of datasets are
identified to be included in the development of indicators on pressures.
Table 1 provides a list of pressures caused by the major drivers of ecosystem change and affecting ecosystem
types. In Europe where land take, land fragmentation and land use changes are direct pressures affecting all
types of ecosystem whereas other pressures are specific to certain ecosystems such as the building of dams in
rivers blocking water flow or deep sea resource exploitation in marine ecosystems.
Drivers produce different types of pressures on ecosystems impacting the distribution and density of species in
addition to the structure and functions of habitats. It is to note that the relations are not 1:1 and different drivers
can exert similar pressures on ecosystems namely, habitat change and overexploitation lead to productivity loss
in different ecosystem types. Under each driver of change, different pressures can exert negative effects on
ecosystem functioning, to provide an example; habitat change affects the structure and health of biodiversity
causing changes in ecosystem extension and in the health of the biodiversity. Major pressures caused by the
main drivers of change are identified (table 1) and need to be measured in order to assess their effect on the
ecosystem functional capacity. Based on a threshold setting, the level or degree of the identified pressures can
be set as very low, low, medium, and high or very high.
In order to measure these pressures, the development of indicators is essential. An indicator quantifies and
simplifies phenomena and helps us understand complex realities by providing an indication about changes in a
system.
Ecosystem
Major drivers of ecosystem change
type
Habitat changes
Climate Change
Exploitation
Invasive species
Pollution and Nutrient
Enrichment
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Forest
Land-use change:
Ecosystem
Degradation
overexploitation of
Fast-growing
conversion to
timber and non-
alien species
agriculture,
wood products
Nitrogen enrichment
urbanisation
Changes in forest
Fires
Felling
Heavy metals
Fragmentation due
Extreme events,
Recreation and
Air pollution and
to roads, land use
drought, frost,
tourism
environmental
changes - forest
fires, floods,
isolation
storms
pattern
contamination
Land take
Eutrophication and
acidification, ozone,
Game and
Critical levels of ozone
overgrazing
Grasslands
Landscape
Extreme events,
Agricultural
Expansion of
fragmentation
Fires
intensification
invasive alien
Fertilizers
species
Land abandonment
Overharvesting
Nutrient run-off
Land take
High irrigated land
Critical levels of ozone
use
habitat loss
Heathland
Land-use change
and scrub
Agro
Overgrazing
Heavy metals
Extreme events,
Lack of appropriate
Phytophthora
Fires
site management
disease
Landscape
Recreational &
fragmentation
urban disturbance
Nitrogen enrichment
Critical levels of ozone
Land take
Water drainage
Land abandonment
Heavy metals
Land take
ecosystem
Extreme events,
Loss in cropland
Expansion of
Fertilizers and
Fires
productivity
invasive alien
pesticide
species
Landscape
Agriculture
fragmentation
intensification
Critical levels of ozone
Agricultural
Nutrient enrichment
intensification
Wetland
Land take
Fragmentation
Extreme events,
Blocking and
Introduction of
drought, floods
extraction of the
predatory
water inflow
fishes
Over-exploitation
Non predatory
of groundwater
fish
Eutrophication
Pesticides
resources
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Drainage for
Overfishing
agriculture
Plant species as
Acid rain
Hydrocotyle
ranunculoides
and Azolla
filiculoides
Water extraction
Heavy metals
Critical levels of ozone
Reed harvest
Changes in
Reed harvest also
rainfall
for biofuels,
Plastic
helofytenfilter
Freshwater
Modification of
Extreme events,
ecosystem
watercourses
Drought
Water extraction
Channeling
Overfishing
River regulation
Fish farm
Fish farm
Pollution
Acid rain
regime
Fragmentation
Gravel extraction
Ozone lexes
(dams)
Marine
Coastal land take
Sea water level
ecosystem
(tourism
rise
Offshore activities
Expansion of
Eutrophication
invasive alien
development)
species
Over-fishing
Heavy metals
Exploitation of oil
Fertilizers and
and gas
pesticides
Aquaculture
Chemical pollution
production
from industries and
shipping
Table 1 The drivers of ecosystem change and the major pressures they exert on biodiversity (ETC-SIA, 2013).
3.1 INDICATORS ON PRESSURES
This section provides information (tables) about the indicators selected to be used to pressures under each driver
of change in each type of ecosystem. It addresses the input dataset needed to create the indicators and
assesses the relevance of the indicator selected in evaluating the pressure. A range of relevance is assigned to
the indicators based on their applicability to assess the pressure exerted on the ecosystem in question.
HR stands for High Relevance and is assigned to indicators that are considered very relevant to be used in the
ecosystem assessment such as the SEBI indicator 009 on exceedence of nutrient critical loads for eutrophication
due to the deposition of nitrogen that is very relevant to provide the trends of changes in the level of nutrients
within European ecosystems over time.
MR stands for Medium Relevance and refers to indicators that can be used in the assessment but that the data
used for the development of the indicator is not validated such as data indicators on pests and diseases
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generated from measured data in plots within Europe that are extrapolated to the whole area and their reliability
to the whole space is questionable.
LR stands for Low Relevance and is used whenever the indicators are already available and fully developed but
that prior validation suggests that the indicator is not very reliable to be used for its purpose in the assessment,
such as the case of the SEBI 010, indicator on invasive alien species in Europe.
Under each type of driver of change, an overview on the datasets available at Pan-European scale capable to be
used for the development of indicators to provide a precise indication (if datasets are of High relevance (HR)) or
a proxy (if the datasets are of Medium or low relevance) on the pressures caused on different European
ecosystem types is presented in the following sections.
3.1.1
Habitat change
Habitat change is the pressure on a habitat causing its loss or degradation. It is considered the major cause of
biodiversity loss and as the result of many direct and indirect pressures leading to total or partial destruction or
removal of a habitat and its replacement by another habitat type. The main effects of habitat change decrease
habitat quality by increasing soil erosion and soil degradation. Furthermore, habitat change modified the structure
of the habitat as well as its health increasing the vulnerability of populations of animals and plants to local
extinction due to hampered migration and dispersal due to destruction, fragmentation or degradation of habitat
being the primary threat to the survival of wildlife in Europe. The main drivers of habitat degradation and loss are
land take mainly due to urban expansion and urban sprawl. Habitat change affects different ecosystems in
Europe as roughly half of its land area is farmed, most forests are exploited, and natural areas are increasingly
fragmented by other land use, urbanization and infrastructural development (EEA, 2010).
A good amount of relevant information to develop indicators on pressures resulting from habitat change is
available supporting the development of ecosystem specific indicators on the change in extension of ecosystems
and change in conservation status of species. Indicators to assess the level of fragmentation are also available
and accessible including the landscape fragmentation map of EEA. A list of the main input data to be used and
the most relevant indicators related to habitat change are synthesized in table 2 where a level of relevance of the
indicator to be used in different types of ecosystem is assigned together with a temporal indication of the
indicator.
3.1.1
Climate change
Climate is an integrated part of nature and thus directly or indirectly affects all other parts of biodiversity. Climate
change has caused advancement in the life cycles of many European animal groups, namely climatic warming
and has pushed them to move northwards and uphill including frog and fish spawning, birds nesting, the arrival of
migrant birds and butterflies and earlier spring phytoplankton blooms (EEA, 2012). Extreme situations resulting
from climate change events such as floods, droughts, and fires change the health and characteristics of habitats
and the species present.
Several indicators are available from the various European institutes and projects, but the quality of indicators is
heterogeneous. The ESPON Climate project has developed a series of climate change indicators. The indicator
on the regional sensitivity to climate change provides information about the level of environmental (protected
natural areas, soil organic carbon content, and the propensity of soil erosion and forest fires), economic (climate
sensitive economic sectors namely forestry, agriculture, tourism, and energy production), physical (settlements,
roads, railways, airports, harbors, refineries, and thermal power plants) and social sensitivity to climate change
(location, age group distribution, density and size of urban areas) effects in Europe.
As the ecosystem assessment addresses mainly impacts on biodiversity, the use of the indicators developed on
the environmental sensitivity of European regions to climate change can be used in the assessments of terrestrial
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and firewater ecosystems. For certain ecosystems, some additional relevant information can be used to produce
ecosystem specific indicator such as the EFFIS database of JRC that provides a historical datasets on forest fire
density that can be accessed through prior petition. Table 3 provides a synthesis of the main input data to be
used and the most relevant indicators related to climate change where a level of relevance of the indicator to be
used in different types of ecosystem is assigned together with a temporal indication of the indicator.
3.1.2
Overexploitation
Overexploitation is the result of unsustainable management practices and over-exploitation of natural resources.
This occurs whenever harvesting exceeds reproduction of wild flora and fauna (i.e. it exceeds sustainable or
optimum yields) and continues to be a major threat on biodiversity. Overexploitation of resources such as
overgrazing of grasslands, overharvesting in forest ecosystems, and overfishing in freshwater and marine
ecosystems are major pressures on ecosystems.
Information available to assess the pressures on ecosystems resulting from unsustainable human management
activities is heterogeneous; a good amount of information is available to address terrestrial ecosystems, specially
agro-ecosystems and woodlands. The reliability of information available to assess overfishing in European Seas
is scarce and not reliable as it is reported using different methods in different Seas. In order to assess the effects
of overexploitation on biodiversity, some information is available to assess the effects of these activities on
reducing biodiversity such as the abundance of species in ecosystems. Table 4 provides a synthesis of the main
input data to be used and the most relevant indicators related to exploitation where a level of relevance of the
indicator to be used in different types of ecosystem is assigned together with a temporal indication of the
indicator.
3.1.3
Invasive alien species
Invasive alien species replace habitats of native species leading to change in their distribution and health. Invasive alien
species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridisation with related
native species. Therefore, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution
of the biota of sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenisation of the fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity.
This pressure affects all the ecosystem types in Europe and the resulting pressures need to be included in the ecosystems
assessment. At the European level, Chytrý, et al., 2009 developed a map representing the level of invasion of Alien plants in
Europe. The level of potential invasion of plant species can be estimated from this map based on the knowledge from habitats
(related to the CLC classes) that welcome alien species based on the level of neophytes in vegetation plots that correspond to
individual CORINE land cover classes. This information is relevant to be used as a risk assessment map of invasions from alien
plant species. Table 5 provides a synthesis of the major data and their relevance in providing indicators on pressure resulting
from alien species invasion in different types of ecosystems.
3.1.4
Pollution and nutrient enrichment
Pollution and nutrient enrichment occur when excessive harmful components are introduced into an ecosystem exceeding the
capacity of ecosystems to maintain its natural balance particularly the effects of nutrient loading including excess nutrients,
pesticides, microbes, industrial chemicals, metals and pharmaceutical products — end up in the soil, or in ground- and surface
water (MEA, 2005, EEA 2010 b). Pollution and nutrient enrichment change the characteristics of soils changing the biodiversity
(habitats and species) they contain causing biodiversity loss and ecosystem dysfunction and in altered plant and animal
communities, loss of species, and other harmful ecosystem changes.
SEBI 009 indicator on critical load exceedance for nitrogen is used to assess the trends in pressures from critical load
exceedances of N as outcomes of major pressures such as habitat conversion, pollution, invasive species, climate change,
overexploitation and underlying drivers. The critical load of nutrient is defined as 'the highest deposition of nitrogen as NOX
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and/or NHY below which harmful effects in ecosystem structure and function do not occur according to present knowledge'.
Table 6 provides a synthesis of the major data and their relevance in providing indicators on pressure resulting from pollution
and nutrient enrichment in different types of ecosystems.
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HABITAT CHANGE
Pressure
Woodlan
Indicator
Datasets
Cropland
Grassland
d and
forest
Habitat quality
according to Habitat
Directive & Natura 2000
Conservation status of habitats
of European conservation
importance
Heathland
Wetland
and shrub
s
Rivers
and
lakes
Marin
e
Reference year
Article 17, article 12 coverage trends,
assessment conclusion (FV, U1,…)
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2001-2006
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2001-2006
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2006
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2006
HD and BD reporting obligation. N2000
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2006 2012
LEAC tools
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
2006
N 2000level of hab. conservation, threat
level (H,M,L)
Article 17, article 12 population trends,
Species quality acc. to
Habitat Directive &
Conservation status of species
assessment conclusion (decreasing, stable,
Natura 2000
of European conservation
decreasing)
importance
N 2000level of sp. conservation, threat
level (H,M,L)
Ecosystem size
Surface
Pan-European ecosystem map (EEA, ETCSIA)
Ecosystem quality (if
data only available at
level of ecosystem type)
Ecological quality
Pan-European ecosystem condition map
status/surface (Ha)
(EEA, ETC-SIA)
Human activity related
to habitat change
pressure
Changes in land use
Degrees of impact of human
managed areas vs. conservation
Assessment of LU change
Changes in land use
1990, 2000,
Land use change
CLC 1990, 2000, 2006, and upcoming 2012
MR
MR
MR
MR
MR
MR
ND
2006, 2012
(upcoming)
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Changes in land use
Phenological changes – change
appreciation in specific
2001-2012, 16-
HANTS NDVI 2000- 2012
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
Species threat and trends
IUCN European assessments
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2008 - 2011
Bird species threat and trends
Birdlife international database
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
2008 - 2011
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
MR
MR
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2000-2006
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
1997-2011
ecosystems
day period
Changes in species
distribution and
number
Changes in species
distribution and
number
Level of fragmentation
Landscape fragmentation map (EEA),
Grid size; Grid density; Distance
Forest fragmentation (JRC),
to other grids
Land accounts, land use change (in time),
2006, 2009,
2012
land take
Physical characteristics
WFD, ecological quality status / altered
e.g. structure of rivers
habitats could be used as proxy for
(meandering, etc.)
River Fragmentation
pressures from river fragmentation,
EEA major damsloss of accessibility to
1860, 1910,
1960, 2010
migratory species due to dams in major
European river basins
Fragmentation
Forest fragmentation or forest
Forest Landscape in Europe: Pattern,
connectivity change
Fragmentation and Connectivity
Loss in soil quality
1990 – 2000 –
2006
Annual per capita and total national losses
Loss of agriculture/ soil quality
of cropland productivity potential in EU
(related to management)
countries expressed in wheat yield
equivalents (2000 – 2006).
Farming sustainability
Organic farming
IRENA 7
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Pressure on biodiversity
HNV farmland being an
in farmland
estimation of the distribution
patterns on the basis of land
IRENA 26
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2000
CSI14, Land take indicator
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2006
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
MR
MR
ND
ND
ND
ND
1950 - 2010
HR
-
cover and biodiversity data.
Land take proportion
Land abandonment/lack
Land take
Surface /NUTS 2 affected
of management
Risk of farmland abandonment
(JRC)probability of occurrence, land use
change (in time)
Land cover formation /loss in
time per km2
1990 -20002006-2012
CLC Land cover flows (1990-2000-20062012)
Pests and diseases
Area damaged flora/fauna
EFI , forest inventories
Ocean Acidification
Changes in ocean ph.
Nceas
Table 2 lists the main pressures threatening ecosystems caused by habitat change and the measures used to assess their effects.
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Climate change
Pressure
Indicator
Datasets
Regional sensitivity
Level of degradation due to
Environmental sensitivity to climate
to CC effects
climate change
change - ESPON climate
coastal storm
Change in exposure to
coastal storm surge events
(ESPON CC)
Floods
Inundated areas due to coastal
storms
Woodla
Heathla
nd and
nd and
forest
shrub
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
MR
MR
MR
2071-2100
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
HR
ND
2071-2100
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
2000-2100
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
2071-2100
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
1981-2011
Croplan
Grasslan
d
d
HR
Wetlan
ds
River
Coast
s and
l
lakes
Mari
Reference
ne
year
ND
2010
Human induced floods (e.g.
climate change,
Change in exposure to river flooding,
canalisation)
Fires – extreme
events
Human induced fires (e.g.
climate change, human
Pot. impacts on forest fires
(ESPON CC),
related)
Average forest fire density (n.
fires/yr./1km2) Fires History data –
Forest frequency (area
affected by recurrent
fires/time)
Drought – extreme
Induced droughts (e.g.
events
climate change,
overexploitation)
Increase in sea
Increase in sea surface
surface T
temperature between
EFFIS),
Seasonal severity index (JRC-)
SSR future projection (2071-2100)
(JRC)
Pot. Impacts of climate change on soil
organic carbon content
ESaTDOR – ESPON (NOAA-OI-SST)
MR
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
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Sea level change
Predicted sea level change
(mm / year)
EEA- hydrodynamics and Sea level rise
ND
ND
Table 3 lists main drivers of change threatening ecosystems and the measures used to assess their effects.
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
15
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
HR
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Human exploitation
Pressure
Indicator
Datasets
Excess harvesting of
C accounts on timber extraction (ETC-
animals or plants
SIA),
Proportion of total
population harvested
Croplan
Grasslan
d
d
Woodla
Heathla
nd and
nd and
forest
shrub
Wetlan
ds
River
Coast
s and
al
lakes
Mari
Reference
ne
year
ND
2000-2010
ND
2006
HR
2008-2009
ND
2000-2010
ND
1990-2005
ND
2000-2006
ND
2000
ND
2000-2010
ND
FAO fishstat, proportion of fish stocks
outside safe biological limits (EEA),
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
MR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
Utilization rate of forests (NFI)
annual felling as % of annual
increment
(Over-/under)grazing
Average grazed biomass /
HNV farmland, HNV forest area
time
indicator
ND
Excess harvesting of
marine fish
Excess harvesting of
timber
MR
Overfishing
Overexploitation of timber
and non-wood products
Non-sustainable forest
management
Forest fragmentation
Loss of core forest area
Pan-European map on
growing stock
Regional fish stock assessments
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
C accounts on timber extraction
ND
ND
MR
ND
ND
ND
SEBI indicator 17
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
Status of marine fish stocks (CSI032)
ND
ND
Change in forest connectivity
Forest MSPA (25m) - JRC
ND
Growing stock and above-ground
woody biomass for coniferous and
ND
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
broad leaved forests
Pressure on agriculture,
forest and grassland
ND
Carbon accounts on grazing livestock
MR
MR
MR
ND
ND
ND
ecosystem
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
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Age differentiation
(flora)
Average age; age groups;
max. age of forest
Agricultural productivity /
year
ND
Ancient forest data
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
Carbon accounts – arable land
MR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Several years
ND
2000-2010
ND
IRENA 7 Area under organic
Share of agricultural land under
farming
organic farming.
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Mandatory
delivery
from 2008
Agriculture intensification
Monodominance
High irrigated land usage
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HD – species diversity
ND
ND
1990 - 2006
HR
2000-2012
ND
2009
ND
2000-2012
ND
2006
HR
MSFD - Biological diversity,
Species abundance
WFD – conservation status of species
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
in fresh, coastal and transitional
waters,
Monodominance
Biodiversity friendly farming
practices
Crop yield
management
of crops, fertilizer input
Maximum yield category/
Average crop values [by crop type] in
pixel
time in tonnes/ km2 (ETC-SIA)
Intensive crop
production – land
CAPRI Arable crop index  diversity
ND
CAPRI irrigation share (JRC)
Irrigation share
ND
ND
Irrigation share (EEA) – CLC 212
Irrigation share – permanent
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
irrigation structures (FAO)
Loss in soil
Vulnerability to loss in soil
Natural capacity to support farming
functionality
functionality
practices (JRC)
Soil erosion
Vulnerability to soil erosion
Database of Hydraulic Properties of
European Soils (HYPRES)
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
17
ND
ND
ND
ND
Several years
P a g e | 18
Soil hardening
Loss in soil drainage
capacity
Aridification
Soil hardness/compactness
Soil water content
Water flow efficiency ->
drainage
Distortion
hydrological cycle
Susceptibility of soil compaction in
Europe (JRC) (low high)
Soil data (ISRIC-WISE) soil drainage
class
WFD  water flow capacity
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
HR
EEA major damsloss of accessibility,
General status hydrological
cycle
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2006
ND
1700-2000
ND
Several years
HR
2004-2008
HR
2002-2009
HR
2006
HR
2008
ND
WFD  % of classified water bodies
impacted by hydromorphological
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
pressures FW, transitional, coastal
waters
Loss of soil organic
Level of soil organic carbon
Topsoil organic carbon content
content
content
(OC_TOP) – (t/ha)
Intensity of maritime
Density of shipping lanes, freight
transport by Direction, cruise traffic
(NCEAS -Eurostat – GISCO)
Intensity of marine
use
Catch intensity
shipping
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Total catch in ICES and
CFCM fishing regions in
Europe
Martitime impact on
Population density
population
impacted by maritime
activities:
Marine aquaculture
Marine aquaculture
production
production relative to
ND
ND
Total catch in ICES and GFCM fishing
regions of Europe
Share of the population of the EU
regions living in maritime service
areas (Eurostat).
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Volume (tonnes) per km
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
coastline length
Table 4 lists the main pressures resulting from human exploitation and their threats on ecosystems and the measures used to assess their effects.
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
18
P a g e | 19
Invasive species
Pressure
Indicator
Invasive alien species
Datasets
Cropla
Grassla
nd
nd
Woodla
Heathla
nd and
nd and
forest
shrub
Wetlan
ds
Rivers
Coas
and
tal
lakes
Marin
Reference
e
year
LR
Number of invasive alien
Invasive alien species in Europe (SEBI
species/ country
010)
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
LR
Proportion of alien species;
invasion of Alien plants in Europe
pressure on native species
(Chytrý, et al., 2009)
Marine alien species
<19002008
ND
Alien species in Europe level of
Invasive alien species
LR
MR
MR
MR
MR
ND
ND
ND
1970-2008
MR
EEA is working currently developing 2
Invasive alien species (marine) MAS
between 1960´s and 2012 about
2 indicators on marine alien
species (MAS)
trends in:
1) MAS (showing decadal cumulative
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
1960s 2012
n. of species per MSFD region
2) pathways of MAS (showing total n.
of species per major pathway of
primary introduction
Presence of alien
Several indicators on
Number of alien species in terrestrial,
species
presence (number) of alien
freshwater and marine ecosystems in
species in terrestrial,
Europe - European Alien Species
freshwater and marine
Information Network (EASIN)
ecosystems
(terrestrial, freshwater, marine)
Number of invasive species
Number of invasive species per grid
by shipping (10km2)
(NCEAS –ESaTDOR (ESPON))
Marine Invasive
species
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
1000-2014
HR
-
MR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Table 5 lists the main indicators available to assess the pressures caused by invasive species threatening ecosystems and the measures used to assess their effects.
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
19
P a g e | 20
Pollution and nutrient enrichment
Pressure
Indicator
Datasets
Soil nutrient
N, P accounts (ETC-SIA) : change in
enrichment
N/P deposition in ecosystems in time
N,P content
(kg/h/year
Croplan
Grasslan
d
d
Woodla
Heathla
nd and
nd and
forest
shrub
Wetlan
ds
River
Coast
s and
al
lakes
Mari
Reference
ne
year
ND
2000-2010
HR
2000-2010
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ISRIC-WISE  N content
Nitrogen enrichment
HR
SEBI indicator 009
Pesticides content
critical load exceedance for nitrogen
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
Exceedance of pesticides in soils
LR
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HAIR2010 - Harmonized
Environmental Indicators
HR
depending
ND
for Pesticide Risk
Heavy metals
Heavy Metals (Changes in
content
soil metal content are
model based)
Ozone levels
data
Concentration of NM components in
arable land and grassland (ETC-SIA)
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
ND
ND
natural vegetation, soils, surface and
ND
2000 – 2050
HR
damage assessment to forests, crops,
Critical levels of ozone
on input
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
ND
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
HR
ND
groundwater
Soil salinization
Salinity
Air pollution
Soil salinization map of Europe (JRC)
concentration
Concentration of NO2/
Air Directive quality  conc. NO2/
NH3/ SO2
NH3/ SO2
HR
ND
2009
HR
HR
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
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P a g e | 21
Hazardous
Hazardous substance levels
substances
in biota, sediments, and sea
HR
EEA waterbase / WFD
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Total kg of contaminants per year
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Total kg of pesticides per year
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
HR
HR
HR
1998-2010
HR
2006
water
Inorganic marine
pollution
Organic pollution
Volume of contamination
Volumae of organic
contaminants
Maritime accident
density
Marine pollution
Emission of heavy
metals
Proxy to pollution in the Sea
Oil spill pollution
Number of accident density in the
seas around the EU (EMSA)
Location and quantity of the major oil
spill incidents (EMSA /ITOPF)
Emissions of mercury and
Based on E-PRTR reporting of 2007
cadmium to water
data - MS reporting (Art 7)
21
HR
MR
HR
HR
MR
2009
HR
2012
MR
2007
MR
Table 6 lists the main drivers of change threatening ecosystems and the measures used to assess their effects.
European Ecosystem Assessment Concept, Data, and Methodology
HR
3.2 GENERAL CONCEPT
A methodology to develop indicators on single pressures and on cumulative pressures accounting for their interactions is set in
this section.
Single indicators on ecosystem pressures can be developed based on quantitative (such as Volume of nutrients/km2) or
qualitative (level of specific exploitation) input datasets. In order to transform data to indicators, certain criteria need to be
identified on the effect of certain actions on ecosystems. These criteria will support defining ranges of data that can be used to
estimate ranges of pressures and to identify classes or level of pressure on ecosystems. Once these ranges are defined, they
are then transformed into a qualitative pressure gradient ranging for example from very low to very high pressure or from 1 to 5
(Figure 3).
In line with this reasoning, and following the gap analysis that highlighted the main areas where indicators to support the
development of the assessment were not available (Abdul Malak, et al., 2013), EEA is developing specific indicators to support
the assessment of ecosystems whenever gaps exist. Furthermore, it is developing a meta-analysis to support the identification
of knowledge base on the potential impacts of changes and pressures on the wellbeing of biodiversity.
As ecosystems are normally subjected to different types of environmental threats and to human pressures and that individual
pressures do not act independently, the interaction of pressures in an ecosystem needs to be considered. This interaction is
complex and supported by little research so far. As this interaction is not necessarily the sum of individual pressures, certain
decisions need to be taken, mainly by thematic experts and stakeholders on a certain weighing of each pressure included in the
analysis. In order to do so, first single pressures need to be normalized in order to be comparable among each other’s. These
single pressures included in a cumulative pressure assessment need then to be set and their level of influence in the cumulative
pressures assessment needs to be set, ideally through expert consultation. Based on an agreed weighing of normalized single
pressures, a final cumulative pressures indicator is calculated providing a qualitative ranging between very low to very high (or
15) as shown in figure 3.
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European Topic Centre Spatial Information and Analysis
Layer C
Layer 3
Layer B
Input datasets
Layer 2
Layer A
(vol./area)
Thresholds P1
Layer A , B, C
R1,… Rx
(vol./area)
Layer III
Layer II
Layer 1
Layer I
(% occupation)
(events/area)
Thresholds P2
Thresholds P3
Layer 1,2,3,
Layer I,II,III
R1,… Rx
(%occupation)
R1,… Rx
(events/area)
SP1
SP2
SP3
[1-5]
[1-5]
[1-5]
1
2
Single pressures
(SP)
3
2
4
3
4
2
4
4
1
5
1
5
1
2
5
very low pressure
Low pressure
medium pressure
high pressure
very high pressure
1
Cumulative
pressures (CP)
||
||
Weight of SP
(expert
judgment)
CP
[1-5]
3
4
1
5
Figure 2. Approach used for the development of single pressure and cumulative pressure indicators based on input datasets
to assess the major pressures affecting ecosystems under each driver of change
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European Topic Centre Spatial Information and Analysis
4
FIRST RESULTS AND OUTLOOK
In terms of data availability and development of indicators to support Pan-European ecosystem assessment, this report
synthesizes for each ecosystem type, the most suitable datasets identified and evaluated to be used in the development of
pressure and threats indicators building on a previous ETC-SIA report. 1
Figure 2 provides a methodology to develop single pressures and threat indicators based on the input datasets selected. Based
on single pressures indicators, figure 2 as well provides the way to assess cumulative pressures. This step needs to be
developed together with thematic experts in order to identify the weight of each single pressure in the cumulative pressure
indicator. It is to note that the series of reports develop on this approach to develop single pressure indicators, and some
attempts towards cumulative pressure indicators. The outcomes of the cumulative pressures are to provide an overview of the
applicability of the approach, but as no expert judgment agreement has been done, the results of the cumulative pressures
presented in the reports need to be considered as a first attempt and future efforts need to be set to validate the results through
expert consultations.
1
The methodology and datasets used for the elaboration of the Pan-European ecosystem map are available in
ETC-SIA (2013) final report of task 222_5_1 on Ecosystem mapping.
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