Draft brief report
Water Management in Balkh Ab River Basin
Dr. Muhammad Jamal Khan and Abdul Hakeem Khan
Introduction
Balkh is one of the thirty fourth provinces of Afghanistan and its economy mainly depends on
agriculture. The province has al an irrigated area of 2, 24,500 ha, which is mostly irrigated by
Balkh river. Balkh River originates from Bandi Amir located in Bamyan and its flow discharge
varies from 19.8 to 168 m3/s with overall average of 53.35 m3/s as per record of 1964-1978.
From Balkh river 18 main intake brings water to 18 canals. These canal irrigation systems were
traditionally developed by communities with some recently capital investment from
government side.
Balkh River has a total length of 400 km with the watershed area of 18,700 km2. The livelihood
of 114, 883 inhabitants of Balkh province depend on agriculture and livestock (FAO, 1996).
Realizing the importance of irrigated agriculture in the province, a two weeks irrigation system
diagnostic analysis (DA) study was conducted in the three sampled canals of Balkh river system
to find the strength, weakness of the irrigated agriculture and to explore the possible
interventions for improvement of the irrigation system. The study was organized by the Afghan
Water Agricultural Technology Transfer (AWATT) project in joint collaboration with Ministry
of Energy and Water (MEW) and Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) for
the capacity building of their staff. Besides that one of the objectives of the study was to find the
critical issues and problems of water management and agriculture related to productivity capacity
building of all stakeholders in the system. This section of the report deals with water availability
in the Balk River, existing water management practices, operation and management of the
irrigation system as well issues related to water management.
Methodology
A group of 30 officials of Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW), Ministry of Agriculture,
Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL and other Government and Non Government organizations of
Afghanistan participated in two weeks intensive Diagnostics Analysis (DA) of irrigation system
in Mazar-e-Sharif . During the first three days background information about the water
management issues, crop water requirements, farm economics were presented and discussed.
After discussion about the water management issues, water law, Mirab system, crop water
requirements, operation and management of irrigation system, a tour was organized to see the
Nahre Shahee intake and flow control and division structures along the canal.. Then the group
visited Mirzae’s Canal intake, flow control and division structures.
For this study, three sampled canals (Siah Gard , Mirzae and Balkh ) of the Balkh river system
were selected. Keeping in mind the overall goal of the study, to find problems and constraints
related to low agricultural productivity and possible solutions for better management of the
system. A formal detailed questioner was developed by the workshop management team and
information related to agriculture and water management was collected through measurements,
observations and through the survey of farmers on random basis. Information was collected from
farmers in the upstream, midstream and downstream on the water availability, water
management, water loses, water distribution, Mirab Role, canal maintenance, cropping pattern,
farm budget, marketing, plant protection issues, livestock and etc in the service areas of the
sampled canals. Salient features of the sampled canals studied during DA process are as follows:
Table 1. Service area, number of off takes and observed discharge of sampled canals.
S. No
Name of the
canal
1.
Siah Gard
2.
3.
Service
Area (ha)
Length of
the main
canal
Measured
discharge on
13/06/09 (m3/s)
No. of tertiary
canals/Off takes
10,800
40
1.560
9
Mirzae
1,620
6
0.400
11
Balkh Canal
4,816
15
0.67
9
Results and Discussions
Balkh Ab River Flow
The flow of Balkh Ab River at Rabat-i- Bala during the period (1964-1978) ranged from 19.8 to
160 m3/s (Figure 1). It is clear from the flow record that average flow for the past three decade
has decreased about 34.38%, which means overall less water availability in the system. Due to
conflict and war in the country, no river flow data available during the period 1979 to 2007 for
Balkh Ab River.
Figure 1. Flow in Balkh Ab River at Rabat-i- Bala during 1964-1978.
(Source Afghan Government Central Statistics’)
Relative Wate Level
(Actual water level/average
water level)
As there is no reservoir in the Balk river system for management of water, the canal’s intakes get
water directly from the river. Therefore, the water diverted to canal systems varies according to
the water availability in the river system. During the winter months snowfall occurs in upper
mountains of the Bakh River basin. After winter season, with rise in temperature, the flow in the
river increases (Figure 2) and the highest flow occurs in summer (May, June, July and August)
and lowest during the winter months (November, December, January and February). As
compared to the average discharge (53.35 m3/s) of Balkh River, the highest discharge of 1430
m3/s was observed during May, 2009. The duration of floods in the river are relatively short and
ranged from 1 to 3 days. The variations in flow level in the river influence the water supplies in
the canal system and generally the management of the system becomes more difficult due to
siltation and lack of head regulating structures.
2.000
1.600
1.200
0.800
Rabaat
0.400
Pul Barq
0.000
Date
Figure 2. Variations in relative water levels of Balkh River during February, 2008 to May,
2009(source: MEW, Mazar Sharif)
Irrigation Canals of Balkh River
Balkh Ab River provide irrigation water to two distinct systems (a) Shogara valley situated
upstream in the Balkh River basin being served by seven canals and the dominant cropping
pattern is rice-wheat. The downstream irrigated area along the Balkh river consist of Hazdha
Nahr irrigation network, which serve an estimated area of 424,880 ha through a system of 11
separate canals with a total length of 475 km across Mazar, Balkh, Aqcha and Jawzjan regions
(Lee, 2003). In this system, the water allocation is based on allocation rights expressed in a unit
called Paikal and one Paikal is equal to 360 to 400 Jareebs (72 to 80 ha). As per Mirab the water
rights were fixed on an agricultural taxation systems exist in that period expressed in a unit
called a paikal (ADB, 2002). The service areas of irrigation canals of Balkh River system range
from 5,040 to 79,200 ha with overall average of 34,383 ha Table 2).
Table 2. Balkh River Canals and service area with water rights.
S.No.
Name of Canal
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Total
Imam Sahib
Nahr-e-Shahi
Siagard
Balkh
Mushtaq
Chimtal
Abdullah
Daulatabad
Charbolak
Faizabad
Aaqcha
Service Area with Water
Right
Paikal*
Hectares
200
14400
560
40320
150
10800
70
5040
209
15048
164
11808
700
50400
750
54000
750
54000
600
43200
1100
79200
5253
378216
*1 Paikal = 360 Jareeb =72 ha in this system
Water Losses in the sampled Canals
The objective of water measurement was to estimate losses in the sampled canals; this would give an
idea of the availability of irrigation at upstream and downstream reaches of the systems.
The losses were determined by the in-flow out-flow method using the constructed weirs and gauges in
the system as well. Measurements were made at the beginning and end of each reach in question, any
off takes such as watercourses that were flowing were measured, and the difference between the two
points was the loss.
Details of measurements taken are in the field notes and supporting report and a summary of the
results are presented in Table 3. It must be stated that neither the time nor available resources under
the DA studies allowed for a comprehensive evaluation of canal water losses, which in itself should be
a separate study. There are many variables that can affect results and a few quick measurements may
not compensate for them. Losses in unlined channels are a function of the wetted perimeter; this
coupled with the daily changes in channel water levels make it difficult to derive estimates of losses in
a short period of time. Soil conditions of the channel can affect results. Only a program that can take
sufficient measurements over time and changing conditions can provide precise data. These results are
the indicative values and may change due to flow and maintenance condition of the canals. The
conveyance losses in the three sampled canals ranged from 0.85 to 31.67 % per km. In two of the
sampled canals the overall losses in the whole length of the canals were 33.85 and 30.14 % in Siah
Gard and Mirzae accordingly. It can be concluded about 1/3 of the water was lost in the whole length
of the canal due to relatively poor maintenance and weeds growth on the sides of canal. A significant
amount of water can be saved through the lining of some of the sections of the canal with relatively
high water losses. Better maintenance and proper weed control will also be helpful for better
conveyance efficiency in the canal system.
Table 3. Conveyance losses in the sampled canals of Balkh River.
S.
No.
Name of the
canal
Discharge
measured
at the head
Length of
the canal/
Branch
(m3/s)
(km)
Conveyance Total
Conveyance
Losses
Conveyance Losses (% per
3
(m /s)
losses
km)
(%)
1
Sia Gard
1.560
40
0.528
33.85
0.85
2
Marzai
0.292
6
0.088
30.14
5.02
3
Balkh Brach
0.345
0.742
0.035
10.14
13.67
Water Distribution
Water distribution is managed through a three-tier system: for each main canal there is one water
bailiff, a mirab bashi, who is helped by mirabs responsible for the major secondary canal
intakes. At the tertiary canal level they are assisted by chak bashi .The water distribution are not
equitable and lot of farmers at the down streams of canal mentioned the excessive use of water
by the upstream users for rice cultivation is one of the major problems for not having sufficient
water the downstream areas in the river basin.
Adequacy and Reliability of Irrigation Water
Measurements of outlet discharge were undertaken on fifteen tertiary units. Based on our sample,
head reaches in the sampled canals system received relatively better water supply as per their water
allocated share as compared to downstream reaches in the system. A wide variation was observed,
some of the outlets received less than their due share. The water allocation system does not consider
the losses in the system. This condition is one of the main problems resulting in the inequitable
distribution of water throughout the system, especially at the tail end of canal systems.
The allocated and observed water share in different tertiary channels in Siah Gard canal system
is shown in Table 4 and Figure 2. It can be seen from the table that the first four tertiary channels
located upstream in the systems were receiving close to their allocated water share and the
remaining tertiary canals were getting less than their due share. The water distribution in the
Mirzaee canal was relatively better may be due its relatively small length as compared to Siah
Gard Canal (Table 5). Relatively better water distribution was observed at Mirzae’s canal, one
of the reason may be due to its small length as compared to Siah Gard canal which is about 40
km long.
Table 4. Tertiary channels service area, allocated and observed water share in Siah Gard Canal.
S.
No
Name of the
Tertiary Unit
Area
Area
(Paikals) (ha)
1
Khasa Paz
14.17
2
4.00
288.00
2.67
0.034
2.18
3
Farm e
Daulate
Deh Qaji
10.67
768.24
7.11
0.095
6.09
4
Zambo Kan
14.17
1020.24
9.45
0.135
8.66
5
Dera Gai
20.00
1440.00
13.33
0.069
4.45
6
Nawagil
Urtagul
Urtagul
1.50
108.00
1.00
0.000
0.00
17.50
1260.00
11.67
0.098
6.30
7
Allocated Observed
Observed
Water
Discharge on Water
Share
13/06/09(m3/s) share (%)
(%)
1020.24
9.45
0.143
9.17
Remarks
Silted,
no flow
8-A
Siah Gard
63.99
4607.28
42.66
0.441
28.29
8-B
Nawagil Sia
Gard
4.00
288.00
2.67
0.016
0.46
Allocated and
Observed Water
Share (%)
Allocated Water Share(%)
Observed Water Share(%)
60
40
20
0
Figure 3. Allocated and observed water share at Siah Gard Canal.
Table 5. Tertiary channels service area, allocated and observed water share in Mirzaee Canal.
S.
No
Name of the
Tertiary Unit
Area
(Paikals)
1
Haji Faqeer
1.00
2
Arbab Qalinder
4.50
324.00
20.00
0.052
18.07
3-A
1.00
72.00
4.44
0.007
2.27
1.00
72.00
4.44
0.007
2.27
7.00
504.00
31.11
0.082
28.38
4-B
Haji Abdul
Bhai (Right)
Haji Karim
Bhai (Left)
Thaghaee
Baghaee
Ashani
1.00
72.00
4.44
0.007
2.53
5
Haji Qurban
2.00
144.00
8.89
0.023
8.07
6
Baig Ali
0.33
23.76
1.47
---
----
7
0.25
18.00
1.11
---
----
8
Haji Noor
Bahie
Haji Gul Alam
0.67
48.24
2.98
0.008
2.60
9
Mirzae
3.75
270.00
16.67
0.052
17.85
3-B
4-A
Area
(ha)
Allocated
Water Share
(%)
72.00
4.44
Observed
Discharge on
13/06/09(m3/s)
0.015
Observed
Water
share (%)
5.11
Remarks
Table 6.
S.No
Tertiary channels service area, allocated and observed water share in Balkh canal.
Off take name
Area (Paikal)
Area (ha)
1
Ghulba off take baghaat
1
72
Water Share
(%)
1.42
2
Hayatajat off take
1
144
1.42
3
Qala off take
4.25
216
6.04
4
Asyab qonigh off take
8.5
288
12.07
5
Palas posh watani off take
10.29
360
14.60
6
Palas posh now warid off take
5.64
432
8.00
7
Kushkak off take
12.75
504
18.11
8
Hesarak and Dahrazi off take
8.51
576
12.08
9
ghandian off take
7.44
648
10.56
10
Ofmalik watani off take
8.50
720
12.07
11
Ofmalik now warid off take
2.12
792
3.01
In general, it can be concluded that the outlets at the head reaches were getting more water than the
tail reaches in the sampled canal system.
Five tube wells were found on the downstream reaches of the canal systems. They are concentrated
particularly on the tail sections of the sampled canals. This undoubtedly is due to this area receiving
insufficient water from the canals and is in agreement with responses received to other similar
questions related to adequacy of water.
Adequacy of Water Distribution
About 59% of the respondents interviewed were not satisfied with water supply especially during
winter season and they received less than enough or too little water. In Siagard canal service area
85% of respondents reported less than enough or too little water as compared to Balkh and Marzae
canal. In Marzea canal 76% of the farmers reported enough (Figures 4 and 5).
Percent Respondents
Summer Season
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Too much
Enough
Less than enough
Too Little
Figure 4. Adequacy of water in summer season of the sampled canals.
Percent Respondents
Winter Season
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Too much
Enough
Less than enough
Too Little
Figure 5. Adequacy of water in winter season of the sampled canals
This ineffectiveness of the system to provide adequate water to the farmers is caused by a number of
problems, all of which contribute to the tail end problems of water users. These include:
 poor maintenance which, in general, leads to excessive losses;
 seepage losses in the channels;
 due to losses the travel time , which is not considered in the allocation of water and to
allow sufficient water to reach the tail;
 cultivation of high water use crop (rice) in the upstream reaches of the Balkh River
Basin; and
 Illegal and excessive use of water by upstream users.
Other Observations on the Water Distribution System
Based on direct observation during walk-through and discussions with farmers, some of the problems
in the Balkh Ab River’s Canal system related to water distribution were:
 Shortage of water in the system due to excess use of water in the upstream reaches of the
canal.
 Illegally obstruction by the farmers to increase flows into the specific outlets.
 Due to non consideration of canal filling and drainage time the overall water distribution
is not equitable.
 The system is vulnerable for manipulation by powerful influential landowners.
 In some places like, farmers at the head reaches and those who are powerful tend to apply
water during the daytime and let the water flow at night. Tail reach farmers complain
they are being turned into permanent night irrigations.
Time of Water Application
The time of water application applied to alfalfa crop ranged from 1.83 to 6.97 hrs per ha with
overall average of 3.91 hrs per ha. In general, at the middle and tail reaches the water application
to alfalfa crops was 30 and 40% less than the head. The higher application of water at the
upstream reaches did not resulted higher yields as compared to middle reaches of the sampled
canals. It seems to be that with better management some water at the upstream can be saved that can
be used to irrigate more area at the downstream reaches of the system.
Table 1. Water application practiced by farmers in the sampled canals service area.
Average
Head
Middle
Tail
S.
Sample
Canal
No.
Size
Irrigation water applied to Alfalfa crop (hrs per ha)
6.97
4.30
1
Siagard
16
3.00
2.92
2
Marzae
16
5.08
4.79
4.27
4.71
3
Balkh
27
3.41
2.95
1.83
2.73
5.15
3.58
3.01
3.91
Overall average
Source: DA survey data, 2009.
Role of Mirab in Water Management
As observed, Mirab takes care of the system along the canal, all the structures and distribution
system. If requires, he collects and do expenditures for the maintenance of the canal under the
supervision of the elders. Mirab resolves the disputes of water if occurs. Mirab is responsible for
arranging, cleaning of the canal at the end of each year. Mirab performs the following in
management of irrigation system in Afghanistan. Generally people were satisfied with the role of
Mirab.
Main responsibilities of the Mirab are as follows:






water conveyance and distribution
Major link between government and water users
Carry out maintenance with help of people
Collection of funds for maintenance
Take care of the system
Collects and do expenditures for maintenance and operation





Solving of disputes if occurs
Responsible for cleaning of canal
Collects and do expenditures for maintenance and operation
Solving of disputes if occurs
Responsible for cleaning of canal
Government Contribution:
Since the canals in Balkh province has been excavated traditionally by the communities and the
distribution issues managed by the water users, the government only contributes in
constructing and maintaining the basic structures along the system. In Afghanistan almost 88%
of the irrigation canals are managed by the community while 12% of the canals have been
excavated and managed by the government as in Nangarhar, Parwan, Helmand and etc. The
government intends to take over the management issues of the traditional canals in the long
term, for the purpose of preventing water loses, land loggings and salinities. In the mean time
disputes if arises along the system, will be resolved through Mirab in the light of new water law.
The intakes will be constructed in an appropriate way by the government, thus the current
disputes and illegal interferes will be completely over.
Community Contribution:
The community can organize volunteer works to clean the canal or collect funds for providing
services to the system. The community must be convinced about government activities and
improving the irrigation systems. The community also can participate in solving disputes.
Prevention of water loses in the canal and on-farm level.








Cleaning of canal
Collect fund to provide services to system
Solving disputes
Using water on the bases of crop requirement,
Introduction of new technology.
Developing water associations,
Improving structures,
Proper maintenance,





Using water on the bases of crop requirement,
Introduction of new technology.
Developing water associations,
Improving structures,
Proper maintenance,
Maintenance
Overall maintenance of the distribution system varies from less than adequate to needs for major
improvement both in term of canal design and flow regulating and distribution structures. Areas of
maintenance can be categorized into three major need categories, essential, priority and annual. A
particular maintenance item on one canal may fall into one category, but on another canal it may be
in another category depending on conditions. As per DA survey the following ed maintenance practices
were observed.
• De-silting of sampled canals and irrigation channels are performed once or twice a year
• For canals and irrigation channels maintenance funds are collected on the basis of land holding
• De-silting is mainly done manual and for de-silting of main canals it takes 15-30 days of work
and about 500-600 irrigators participate in the activity
• For major repair, government help is sought
Essential Structural Improvement Needs:




De-silting of canal and removal of weeds on the bank of canal.
Install of new permanent fixed staff gauges at appropriate locations for water measurement at
all the distribution points.
Make necessary installation of flow regulation and distribution structures.
Locate and paint making system at each 1000 m interval for location of structures and water
distribution points on the canals.
Annual Maintenance Needs:




Removal of all vegetation along canal banks and embankments
Establishment of excess road along the canal.
De-silt and remove all vegetation from canal banks and bed.
Repair or damaged canal banks and/or scour holes at structures.
Plate 1. Condition of the part of the canal
Major Water Issues
 Water shortage in the system
 Fluctuations in canals water supply due to variation in river flow
 1/3rd of their land is cultivated each year due to shortage of water
 Lack of water control and regulation structures
 Water regulating devices were not installed in the intakes for determination of
water rights.





Weeds on the banks
Inequitable water allocation and distribution
Water shortage in the upstream as a result of paddy cultivation in the Sholgara
Illegal pumping of water
Most of the farmers lack technical knowhow of water management of the main
canal systems; some branch canals never have the basic off takes, resulting un
equitable water distribution.

Cultivation of High Delta Crop: The farmers in the upstream reaches of the Balkh Ab River
basin (Sholgara valley), grow extensive rice on an area of 260-280 ha. Without proper
government regulation the rice cultivation is expected to increase due to relatively better
return of the crop. Besides they grow on significant area cotton, fruit trees, grape and
vegetable (FAO , 2003). The water users of Sholgara valley do not follow inter community
water management practices and they divert water from the Balkh River when they require,
the government intervention is very limited for regulation flow in the system.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The condition of canals infrastructures, distribution and management system is not at a level to ensure
equitable water distribution without major improvement. Therefore, the capacity of the management
teams at all levels need to be enhanced and the canal infrastructures should be improved to a
sustainable and fully functional level.
The MEW and MAIL staff has to be trained for to be able to deliver water efficiently to the farmer’s
fields and how could they make better use of it. The current research resulted in several new
approaches including developing farmer organizations for improved O&M practices, lining of
irrigation channels in critical reaches, installation of control and social structures, precision land
leveling, improved irrigation practices at the farm level, and improved flow of technical information to
the farmers.
WUAs has to be strengthened for improve performance and maintenance of the system.
MED and MAIL must initiate an intensive awareness and training program to increase the farmers’
knowledge of irrigated agriculture and judicious use of irrigation water. This can be done through
demonstrations in typical settings, practical “in-the-village” training programs and through
appropriate and applicable audio-visual means. To fully accomplish the broader MED and MAIL
objectives requires a complete overhaul of the organization is required—including staffing, training,
and provision of necessary resources.
Lack of easy access through crossings is a general problem that occurs in most canal-irrigated areas.
Future plans should allow for improved access. With the magnitude of losses observed in the system, a
good operation and maintenance program can reduce losses and should be promoted in joint
collaboration of all stakeholders.
The distribution of irrigation water among farmers is through a water right per cultivated land, it is
an allocated right based on the owned land area. If practiced according to schedules (and if outlet are
proportional), amounts of water delivered to each farmer would be equitable to some extent due to
non consideration of canal filling and draining times
Due to physical, management, socio-cultural, political, and financial constraints, an equitable water
distribution is almost never achieved. As a result tail-end farmers often receive the least water and
suffer the greatest inequity while those at the head receive the most.
Measuring devices be installed at all distribution structures to serve the dual purpose of promoting
equity as well as allowing system operators to understand what it occurring throughout the system. At
a minimum, though this will not serve system operators’ needs fully, depth markings should be painted
on all permanent structures showing the percent of full flow in the canal. In this way, farmers could
easily see (and easily understand) whether the water level at their outlet was at a par with those
upstream. It is hoped that making disparities obvious in this way will lead to improved equity. Also the
cost is minimal and maintenance is simple.
Significant variability exists in outlet discharges as compared to allocated share of water; this
variability was higher in downstream reaches of the canal. A detailed hydraulic performance
assessment of the canals should be carried out to make the system more equitable.
 Judicious use of irrigation water may be promoted through capacity building of all
stakeholders.
 Strengthening of basin wise water users’ association of all stakeholders may be
encouraged. There must come some understanding between upstream and
downstream water users. The upstream should save some water to be used by
downstream users.
 Better management of irrigation water supply in the canal through capacity building
of all stakeholders.
 Since water shortage is felt by farmers in all the sampled irrigation systems
especially at the tail of the canals, there is a need to increase the supply of water in
canal systems. The fluctuation in supply of water is due to variations in yearly
precipitation and rainfall. Climate change may contribute more fluctuations of water
availability in the river system in future. Therefore, a water reservoir in Chashma-eShafa may be explored for storage of flood water to be used during the water
shortage period. If feasible, for sustainable water supply in Balkh River Canals’
system a water reservoir in Cheshma-e- Shafa may be constructed for conservation of
flood water.
 Assessment of water availability and use in the basin for feasibility of construction of
storage reservoir, online and farm storages
 Assess the feasibility of construction of water reservoir in Cheshma-e- shafa to
conserve flood water to overcome the shortage of water in the system.
 Water shortage can also be tackled by using underground water provided that if
does not harm water availability for Karizes and springs and recharge regularly.
It looks like to be great water loses on canal and on-farm level.
Water loses in Mirzaee canal upstream position was calculated to be between 10 – 12%.
This issue could be solved by training farmers about better canal and on-farm water
management, introduction of water saving technology like drip irrigation, minimum of
zero tillage, land levelling, plastic layering of the ditches about half a meter down,
cleaning the weeds along the water flow, understanding crop water requirement,
(important issue), adjusting crop to water availability, building some concrete structures
on ditches to prevent physically water loses.
 Conjunctive use of surface and ground water may be promoted for enhanced
agricultural productivity, if does not harm water availability in the karezes or
resulting ground water depletion.
 To increase water productivity, the manager and farmers need to understand water
requirement in different growth stages of each crop and make use of the technical
advice of the agriculture extension about number of irrigation for each crop
 Training is needed for farmers about better canal and on-farm water management,
introduction of water saving technology like drip irrigation minimum or zero tillage,
land levelling, plastic layering of the ditches about half a meter down, clearing the
weeds along the water flow, understanding crop water requirement, adjusting crop to
water availability, building concrete structures on ditches to prevent physical water
loss.
 Assessment of quality and quantity of ground water in the Balkh river basin.
 Strengthening of water users’ association for better management and judicious use of
irrigation water. There must come some understanding between upstream and
downstream water users. The users at the upstream should save some water to be used
by downstream users in the system.
 To increase water productivity, farmers need to understand water requirement in
different growth stages of each crop and make use of the technical advice of the
agriculture extension about number of irrigation for each crop.
 There must come some understanding between upstream and downstream water
users. The upstream should save some water to be used by downstream.
REFERECES
Lee, J. L. 2003. Water Resources Management on the Balkh Ab-river and Hazhda Nahr
Canal network, from Crisis to Collapse.
Adamec, L. and W. Mazaha, 1979. North and Central Afghanistan (Graz, Australia).
Development Alternatives, Inc, 1993. Earth Satellite Corporation. Afghanistan Land
Cover and use report.
Mc Chesney, R.D. 1991. Waqf at Balkh, Princeton University press.
UNIDATA, 1992. A socio-economic profile of Balkh.
AWATT Report September 2009
(Paulo & Becky & Osman)
Survey Results and Methodology
(A) Sampling Process and Survey Design
(B) Key Characteristics of the Sample - Paulo
B.1 Tenancy Status
One of the key characteristics to analyze a sample in this type of diagnostic analysis is the
tenancy status of the farmers. The tenancy status shows us the kind of property rights a farmer
operates. Overall, the ownership across head, middle, and tail accounts for about 65% of the farmers
are both (owner and tenants) for about 25% of the respondents (Graph 1). Observing the data across
canals (graph 2) the majority is owner and the results show almost no producer rents in Balkh Canal.
Graph 1:
Tenancy status - percent of total
0.8
0.6
Head
0.4
Middle
0.2
Tail
0
Owner
Graph 2:
Tenant
Both
Tenancy status - percent of total
0.8
0.6
Merzai
0.4
Siyagard
0.2
Balkh
0
Owner
Tenant
Both
B.2 Land Area
Another key characteristic is the ownership of the land area of the farmers surveyed. We looked at the
land area of the location (head, middle, and tail) across canals. Overall, there is more owned land area in
the middle of all canals (see tables below) and Balkh Canal is the one which has the least owned land
are, specifically in tail location (Table 3). It seems that farmers own more land around the head and
middle parts of the canals, except for the Siyagard Canal which has a high number of land area owned, it
happens maybe because of Siyagard Canal is bigger comparing to the others so that the tail location has
more water availability? (I don’t know if I can assume that…..correct me if I am wrong) (if you guys
prefer graphs, I also have it)
Table 1:
location
H
H
H
canal
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
Own_area
60
164
202
Rent_area
38
119
191
canal
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
Own_area
52
50
65
Rent_area
32
40
55
Table 2:
location
M
M
M
Table 3:
location
T
T
T
canal
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
Own_area
133
860
0
Rent_area
75
183
70
B.3 Education
Another key characteristic to be observed on the survey was the level of education of the farmers.
Overall, Table 4 shows that approximately at least 50% of the farmers across canals have no education
and about just 5% have 11 years of education or more. Results across canals and by location show no
real differences among the different levels of education.
Table 4
canals
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
0
years
68%
72%
48%
Education level - percentage
6-10
11 +
1years
5years years
16%
0%
16%
6%
22%
0%
35%
4%
13%
B.4 Age
The main aim of the age variable in this preliminary analysis is to identify the correlation between
education and age. Almost all the farmers in the age range of 21-40 years old have no education. The
results show no real differences among canals and locations (see graphs 3 and 4).
I could not think about any reason why this pattern happens, is it because of the war?
Graph 3:
Correlation Education x Age across all canals
100%
90%
years of education
80%
70%
60%
no education
50%
1-5 years education
40%
5-10 years education
30%
11+ years education
20%
10%
0%
0-20
21-40
41-60
61+
Age
Graph 4:
Correlation Education x Age across Head,
Middle, and Tail
100%
90%
years of education
80%
70%
60%
no education
50%
1-5 years education
40%
5-10 years education
30%
11+ years education
20%
10%
0%
0-20
21-40
41-60
Age
61+
(C) Water, irrigation and production practices
C.1 Water and Irrigation practices (Becky)
In this section the survey “Diagnostic Analysis of Irrigation Systems in Balkh Afghanistan” will be
analyzed with respect to six of its questions relating to water, irrigation and production practices
which are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Is the water availability sufficient for your crops?
What are the main types of irrigation methods used? (border/furrow/basin)
Is there any difference between the availability of irrigation water at day and night?
How often is your watercourse cleaned?
What are the days you spent on watercourse cleaning in a cropping season? (No. of days)
Do you get improved seed varieties?
Water Sufficiency
Afghanistan has a semi-arid climate and water is a scarce resource and if not properly allocated
farmers will face water scarcity. Based on intuition it is expected that farmers located at the head of the
canal will be less likely to face scarcity issues while the farmers in the tail will be most susceptible to
scarcity. Graph 1 illustrates that across the three canals in this sample this intuition holds, the head has
greater percentages of farmers reporting sufficient amounts of water than does the tail. The tail does
not appear to be significantly different from the middle, but this may be due to the small amounts of
middle farmers in some of the samples. Some caution should be taken when analyzing this variable as
the definition of “sufficient” amounts of water is subjective, and will depend on the crops being grown
and the expectations of the farmer.
Graph 1:
Is Water Sufficient? (in percentage of farmers )
100%
80%
60%
40%
No
20%
Yes
0%
Merzai
Siyagard
Head
Balkh
Merzai
Siyagard
Balkh
Merzai
Siyagard
Middle
Balkh
Tail
Night Irrigation:
Another informative result of the survey comes from the comparison of farmer’s night and day
irrigation. Graph 2 indicates that the head is least likely to irrigate differently at night and the tail is
most likely. When compared to Graph 1 it is observed that the farmers with the least water are the
ones that are most likely to irrigate differently at night. This leads to a possible case of water stealing in
the night where water is otherwise insufficient.
Graph 2
Do You Irrigate Differently at Night?
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Yes
No
Head
Watercourse Cleaning:
Middle
Tail
Another aim of the survey was to gain information on the upkeep of the watercourse by the farmers
who are utilizing it. Graph 3 and Graph 4 illustrate farmer’s responses to the question: How often is your
water course cleaned. Results show that overall farmers find value in cleaning their canals, as the
majority of farmers say that they do spend time cleaning the canals. Graph 3 shows large differences in
watercourse cleaning frequency across canals. Siyagard is the only canal in which farmers reported
never cleaning the canal and Balkh has the greatest percentage of farmers cleaning the canal more than
once per season.
*** could these differences across canal be due to canal size? Theoretically a canal with a smaller
group of farmers would have more incentive to clean the canal as their not helping is more observable
by the others. Also what about the hetero/homogeneity of the population? Would influence their
ability to cooperate to clean the canal. Outside research indicates that the closer the canal is to the
market the less likely the individuals in the canal are to cooperate. Kind of a streach but could be linked
to education – say that more education leads to leadership which in turn will lead to more
cooperation***
Graph 4 shows watercourse cleaning frequency across head/middle/tail. The head and middle are
similar when it comes to cleaning frequency while the tail on average cleans more frequently than the
other two. Next Graph 5 and Graph 6 show the number of man days spent cleaning the canal each
season. The results indicate that not only does the tail clean more frequently but they also spend more
man days cleaning the canal. This result corroborates with expectations that the tail has the greatest
private incentive, as they have a high marginal value of water, to clean the canal and thus will put the
most effort into cleaning their watercourse.
Graph 3:
Frequency of Canal Cleaning - as Percentage of
Respondents
100%
80%
60%
Never
Once
40%
More than Once
20%
0%
Merzai
Graph 4:
Siyagard
Balkh
Frequency of Canal Cleaning - as Percentage of
Respondents
100%
80%
60%
Never
Once
40%
More than Once
20%
0%
Head
Middle
Tail
Graph 5:
Average Man Days Per Farm Spent Cleaning the Canal
25
20
15
10
5
0
Head
Graph 6:
Middle
Tail
Days Cleaning the Canal - Percentage of Farmers
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
10 or less
11 to 20
21 +
Head
Middle
Tail
Land Levelling
Based on notes and looking at land leveling again I think this is something that we should just drop as it
is very subjective, how do they know their land level status and what is poor to one farmer may be good
to another it is all just relative to their expectations. But if this variable is kept point out that poor land
leveling seems to be most problematic in the Siyagard canal and non- existant in the Balkh canal. Point
out that Siyagard seems to have many inconsistencies with the other canals.
Graph 7:
Percentage of Farms with Poor Land Level Status
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
Improved Seed:
An important production practice which can help lead to more profitable farms involves the use
of improved seed varieties. In this sample as you move down the canal there is less use of improved
seed varieties. Also notable is that the majority of the “no’s” came from the tail of the Siyagard canal.
From Graph 9 it can be seen that there is more variation across crops than across canals (need to be
careful with any conclusions made from this graph as the only information we have is whether they used
improved seeds as a farmer not which crop they used improved seeds, it is being assumed that if a
farmer used improved seed that they used it for all crops that they grow which is probably not an
accurate assumption)
Graph 8:
Do you use improved seed varieties?
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Head
Middle
Tail
Yes
No
Graph 9:
percentage of Farmers by Crop Who Use Improved
Seed Varieties
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Alf
Bar
Corn
Cot
Veg
Wh
Cuc
Tom
On
Mel
Wat
C.2. Production Practices – Osman
C.2.1 Acreage
Our survey showed that total area is greatest in Siyagard (2510 jeribs) followed by Balkh (2088 jeribs)
and Merzai (655 jeribs). Siyagard has the largest average farm size of 25.4 jeribs compared to 13.6 jeribs
in Balkh and 8 jeribs in Merzai.
Graph 1 illustrates the distribution of fallow and cropped areas by canal. It indicates that irrigated area
as a percentage of total area varies across canals. It constitutes about 40% of total area in Balkh canal,
followed by Merzai (31%) and is lowest in Siyagard (29%).
Graph 1
Fallow and Cropped Areas by Canal (%)
100%
90%
80%
70%
%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Merzai
Siyagard
Fallow
Balkh
Cropped
Table 1 shows the distribution of fallow and cropped area by growing season. Total cropped area during
the summer growing season is 503.5 jeribs compared to 1249 jeribs in the winter growing season.
Generally a large percentage of land is fallowed during both growing seasons (53% during winter
compared to 81% during summer). Expectedly fallow area is greatest during summer due to lack of
adequate irrigation. Graph 2 demonstrates the percentage distribution of fallow and cropped areas.
Table 1 - Distribution of fallow and cropped area by growing season (jeribs)
Fallow
Winter
Summer
1381.5
2118.5
Cropped
Total Area
1249
503.5
2630.5
2622
Graph 2:
Fallow and Cropped Area by Season (%)
100%
80%
%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Winter
Fallow
Summer
Cropped
Graph 3 extends the analysis of the distribution of fallow and cropped area by including both the canal
location and growing season. It reveals the fact that irrigated area is greater in the head and middle
compared to the tail during both growing seasons. During winter more area is cropped than fallowed in
the head and middle; in comparison more area is fallowed in the tail. In contrast, during summer
cropped areas are less than fallowed areas in both locations and constitute 28% of the total area in the
head & middle and only 10% in the tail.
Graph 3:
Irrigated and Fallow Areas by Season &
Location (Jeribs)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Head & Middle
Tail
Head & Middle
Winter
Tail
Summer
Fallow
Cropped
Graph 4 illustrates the across canal comparison of cropped and fallow areas expressed as a percentage
of total area during both growing seasons. In all three canals the ratio of fallow to cropped area is higher
during summer compared to winter. Siyagard exhibits the highest fallow to cropped ratio during
summer (88%) followed by Merzai ( 81%) and Balkh (73%).
Graph 4:
Cropped and Fallow Areas by Canal & Season (%)
100%
%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Winter
Summer
Merzai
C.2.2. Number of Farms:
Winter
Summer
Siyagard
Winter
Summer
Balkh
Graph 5 shows the number of farms by season and crop. Wheat is the most cropped by number of farms
in the Winter and cotton and melon in the Summer.
62
47
Winter
4
1
Vegetables
Other
Melon
6
Cotton
Wheat
Other
1
Corn
33
45
36
Barley
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
alfalfa
# of Farms
Number of Farms by Season & Crop
Summer
C.2.3. Land Ownership:
Table 2 shows the division of farm land into owned and rented land. On average Siyagard exhibits the
largest farm size with average owned land in the order of 60 jeribs. Smallest owned land is found in
Balkh. Land rental is lowest in Merzai.
Table 2 - Average Owned & Rented Land by Canal (Jeribs)
Canal
Rented
Owned
Merzai
7.60
12.89
Siyagard
19.00
59.78
Balkh
10.90
9.21
Graph 6 shows average area owned and rented by farmer age. Large landholdings (> than 100 jeribs on
average) are concentrated among landowners in the 21-30 age group. Landowners in the 61-70 age
group have the smallest average area rented. Landowners younger than 20 years rent more area on
average than what they own.
Graph 6:
Average Area Owned and Rented by
Farmer Age
Area (J)
150
100
50
0
0-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
Farmer Age
Average Area Owned
Average Area Rented
C.2.4 Yield
Graph 7 shows the average crop yield by canal location during the winter growing season. In general
average crop yield is higher in the combined head and middle canal as compared to tail canal. This could
result from greater water availability in the head and middle and maybe a reflection of water shortage in
the tail canals.
Graph 7:
Average Crop Yield during Winter by
Location
600
Yield (kg/j)
500
400
300
200
100
0
Head & Middle
Tail
Barley
Wheat
Graph 8 illustrates the same pattern across the three surveyed canals. For all three canals average crop
yield is higher in head & middle than in the tail, the only exception is barley yield in Merzai tail canal
which could be attributed to the few number of observations available.
Graph 8:
Yield (kg/j)
Average Crop Yield during Winter
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Head &
Middle
Tail
Merzai
Head &
Middle
Tail
Head &
Middle
Siyagard
Canal & Location
Barley
Tail
Balkh
Wheat
We notice the same pattern in cotton production during the summer growing season as can be seen
from graph 9. Cotton productivity is higher in the head and middle as compared to the tail.
Graph 9:
Cotton Average Yield by Canal & Location
600
Yield (kg/j)
500
400
300
200
100
0
Merzai
Siyagard
Head & Middle
Balkh
Tail
C.2.5 Irrigation:
Average number of irrigations is highest in Merzai; Siyagard has the lowest number of irrigations during
summer as can be seen from graph 10.
Graph 10:
Average Number of Irrigations by Season &
Canal
# of Irrigations
15
10
5
0
Merzai
Siyagard
Winter
Balkh
Summer
As expected the tail canal receives less irrigation as can be shown by graph 11. In both growing seasons
average number of irrigations in the head & middle is higher than in the tail.
Graph 11:
Average Number of Irrigations by Season &
Location
# of Irrigations
15
10
5
0
Head & Middle
Tail
Winter
Summer
(D) Use of Extension and sources of information - Paulo
D.1 Extension Agent visits you
This part of the survey sought to gain information on the frequency of an extension agent
visiting the farmer. It is assumed that the extension service helps farmers to improve irrigation
and agricultural practices so one of the assumptions was that the extension visits help farmers
to clean the canals. However, Graphs 1 and 2 show the opposite, that farmers visited by the
extension agents clean the canals less frequently (this is a pattern across locations and canals).
Could these results be due to extension agents don’t prioritize the cleaning of the canals when
visiting a farmer? not aware of the problem? not very well trained in this area? Or maybe this is
not a very good assumption to have yet!
Graph 1:
Extension Visits and Canal Cleaning - total
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
no extension
visit
extension
visit
Mirzai
siyagard
Balkh
cleaning
Graph 2:
Extension Visits and Canal Cleaning - total
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
no extension visit
extension visit
Head
Middle
Tail
cleaning
Graph 3 shows the percentage of farmers by crop who is visited by extension agents. The
hypothesis is that the farmers who are visited by extension agents are the farmers who produce
crops already needed to take to town, however, this is not a very accurate assumption since
cotton probably takes more time (I think, I not sure?). however, we can see that farmers who
are visited by EA are the ones who grow the major crops per unit of farm both summer and
winter seasons (from production slides from Osman) and maybe we can assume the crops which
are most profitable such as wheat, melon, watermelon (can I conclude it)? Also from Osman
slides we can see that Wheat, Melon and watermelon farmers are the ones with most irrigated
land area so we could assume water-related crops are the ones which need more extension
service??
Graph 3:
Percentage of farmers by crop who is
visited by EA
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
%
10%
5%
0%
Alf
Bar Corn Cot
cuc mel okr
on
tom veg wat
wh
farmers by crop
D.2 Farmer visiting an extension agent
The aim of this question was to find information on how often a farmer visits an extension
agent. Due to not enough observations the graphs constructed below has the data compiled in
just visits and no visits. Contrary to the hypothesis assumed, the results from the graphs 4 and 5
show the farmers who visit the extension agents clean less often the canals. graph 6 shows that
the farmers from the crops who visit extension agents are almost the same farmers who are
visited by the extension agent service except for onions (there is a fair number of farmers who
grow onion who visit extension agents, why?) Could these be due to farmers seeking extension
advice wants information about other issues and extension agents are not aware of the
problem?
Graph 4:
Farmer visits to EA and Canal Cleaning
100%
80%
60%
farmer does not visit
40%
farmer visits
20%
0%
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
cleaning
Graph 5:
Farmer visits to EA and Canal Cleaning
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
farmer does not visit
farmer visits
H
M
cleaning
Graph 6:
T
Percentage of farmers by crop who
visit EA
50%
40%
30%
20%
%
10%
0%
Alf
Bar Corn Cot
cuc mel okr
on
tom veg wat
wh
farmers by crop
Graph 7 shows the correlation between farmers by crop who are visited by EA and also visit EA.
According to the results, the farmers who visited by EA are almost the same farmers who visit
EA. We can conclude that there is a reciprocity relationship among EA and farmers from the
crops below.
Graph 7:
Percentage of farmers by crop who is
visited and visits EA
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
%
10%
5%
0%
Alf
Bar Corn Cot
cuc mel okr
on
tom veg wat
wh
farmers by crop
D.3 Farmer Involvement
The objective of this section was to gain knowledge about the farmer’s involvement in extension
activities during last year across canals and locations. The graph 8 indicates that farmers
participate more in different activities in Mirzai and almost no farmer is involved in extension
activities in Balkh. Graphs 9 and 10 show that the most favorite activity among farmers is the
Zari Mela across locations and canals.
Graph 8:
Extension Activities farmer involved in
0.35
0.3
0.25
Field visit
0.2
Farmer day
0.15
Zari Mela
0.1
Field day
0.05
0
Mirzai
Siyagard
Balkh
Graph 9:
Extension Activities farmer involved in - total
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
all canals
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Field visit
Farmer day
Zari Mela
Field day
Graph 10:
Farmer Activities farmer involved in - total
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
total HMT
15%
10%
5%
0%
Field visit
(E) Livestock - Paulo
Farmer day
Zari Mela
Field day
Livestock is one of the components of the economic activity in the Afghan society. Given its
importance, one of the questions on the survey is to identify the number of livestock per farm
mainly cows, bullocks, sheep and goats. Other animals were dropped due to small number of
observations. The outcomes show that on a per farm and per jeribe basis the results are almost the
same i.e. farmers own more sheep and goats across all canals and locations.
Graph 1:
Livestock per farm across canals
40.00
farm
30.00
Mirzai
20.00
Siyagard
10.00
Balkh
0.00
Cow
bullocks
sheep/goats
Graph 2:
Livestock per Jeribe across canals
0.80
0.70
0.60
jeribe
0.50
Mirzai
0.40
Siyagard
0.30
Balkh
0.20
0.10
0.00
cow
Graph 3:
bullock
sheep and goats
Livestock per farm across location
35.00
30.00
farm
25.00
20.00
Head
15.00
Middle
Tail
10.00
5.00
0.00
Cow
bullocks
sheep/goats
Graph 4:
Livestock per jeribe across location
1.40
1.20
jeribe
1.00
0.80
Head
0.60
Middle
Tail
0.40
0.20
0.00
Cow
bullocks
sheep/goats
CROPS’ WATER DEMAND AND IRRIGATION SUPPLY
Muhammad Jamal Khan and Abdul Hakeem Khan
Introduction
Agriculture in Afghanistan, besides providing food and fiber employs about 47% of the country’s labor
force. The economy of the country depends heavily on the agriculture sector development. The
irrigated agriculture plays in important rule and more than 70% agriculture production comes from
an irrigated area due to arid and semiarid climatic conditions that prevails in the country. To cater
the food and fiber demand of ever increasing population there is a need for judicious use of the scarce
water resources. In this regard, the management of AWATT project is working on the development of
replicable agricultural production models to increase overall crop productivity in the target area,
which will also improve farm incomes and lessen the incidence of poverty.
For judicious use of irrigation water, the knowledge related to when to irrigate and how much to
apply per irrigation is very important. In this section, average potential evapotranspiration, rainfall,
crops and irrigation water requirements of major crops grown as well as irrigation water supply to
sampled canals (siagard, Mirzae and Balkh) in Mazar-e-Sharif have been assessed and discussed.
Potential Evapotranpiration and Precipitation
The average monthly potential evaportranspiration and precipitation is shown in Figure 1. It is
clear the figure that the highest monthly precipitation (40 mm) occurs in March, followed by
April and February of about 33 mm. In general for the months of June, July, August, September
and October the precipitation received in the area is negligible (less than 5 mm). On the other
hand, the highest monthly potential occurs during July, followed by August and June. It is
obvious that agricultural production depends heavily on availability of irrigation water in the
area. It seems to be that agriculture production without irrigation has very little potential for
development due to low annual rainfall.
Monthly ETo and ppt
(mm/month)
ETo (mm/month)
PPt (mm/month)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Figure 1. Monthly potential evapotranspiration (ET0) and precipitation (ppt) in Mazar Sharif.
Crop Evapotranspiratoin
The crops’ evapotranspiration grown in Mazar-e-Sharif was computed by multiplying crop
coefficients with potential evapotraspiration. It can be seen from Figure 2 that the maximum and
minimum daily crops evapotranspiration for major crops grown in Mazar-e-Sharif varies from
less than 1 mm/day to 9.5 mm/day. During summer due to high temperature and low rainfall, the
daily crop evapotranspiration is relatively higher ( 1 to 9.5 mm/day). In summer season, the
maximum Etc of the crops grown was about 9 mm/day. The crop water requirements of wheat
and barley were relatively low as compared to other crops. In general, the average crops’ water
requirements throughout the year ranged from 2 to 5 mm/day.
10.0
ETc (Min)
ETc (Max)
ETc (Avg)
9.0
8.0
ETc (mm/day)
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Figure 2. Daily minimum, maximum and average crop evapotranspiration of major crops in
Mazar-e- Sharif.
Depth of Water Application
Irrigation water requirements of all the major crops grown in Mazar-e-Sharif were estimated on
the basis of 10- days’ irrigation interval and with on-farm application of 70% are shown in
Figure 3. The depths of water application ranged from 10 mm to 135 mm, with overall average
of about 70 mm.
140
Min
Max
Average
120
Depth of Water Application (mm)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 3. Estimated depth of water application for 10-days irrigation interval with assumed onfarm application efficiency of 70%.
Net Seasonal Irrigation Requirements of Crops
The seasonal irrigation requirements (Figure 4) of major crops grown in the area were estimated
by assuming an overall irrigation system efficiency of 50%. It is clear from the figure that
maximum seasonal irrigation requirements of about 2200 mm were found for alfalfa, apple and
apricot. The minimum seasonal irrigation requirements were found for wheat and barley. The
average gross seasonal irrigation requirements of the vegetable crops grown in the area and
melon ranged from 1000 to 1200 mm.
1600
Seasonal Irrigation Requirements (mm)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Figure 4. Seasonal irrigation requirements of major crops in Mazar Sharif with overall assumed
irrigation system efficiency of 50%.
Potential Evapotranspiration and Water Allowance
The potential evapotraspiration estimated from the long term climatic data and the corresponding
water allowance with assumed overall irrigation system efficiency of 50% (on-farm application
efficiency of 70% and conveyance efficiency of is shown in Figure 6. In Afghanistan the major
government canals operates with water allowance of one L/S/ha. The potential
evapotranspiration (ET0) reaches to 9 mm/day with corresponding water allowance with 50%
irrigation system efficiency of about 2 L/S/ha with irrigation system efficiency of 50%. The
water allowance observed in Siagard canal service ranged from 0.16 to 0.20 L/S/ha, therefore
only small percentage (20%) of the area was cultivated in summer. In winter relatively better
(44.7%) of the area was cultivated due to low crop water demand of wheat and barley normally
grown in the area.
Water allowance for the crops grown in Mazar-e-Sharif were determined from daily gross
irrigation requirement per unit area by assuming overall irrigation system efficiency of 50%
(conveyance efficiency of 72% and on-farm application efficiency of 70%). Water allowance of
different crops ranged from 0.232 to 2.084 L/s/ha with overall average of 0.967 L/s/ha (Figure
6). It means that if at average irrigation water supply of 1 L/s/ha is ensure it may be adequate for
the crop grown in the area. However, the maximum water allowance for most of the crops grown
in summer was found to be about 1.7 to 2.1 L/s/ha during the peak water demand period (Figure
7) in June, July and August. In Afghanistan, the average water allowance estimated for major
canals command area was found to be 1.0 L/s/ha, which seems to be reasonable.
ETo and Water Allowance (L/S/ha)
10
9
ETo (mm/day)
8
Water Allowance
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Decade of the Month
Figure 6. Potential evapotranspiration and related water allowance with assumed
irrigation system efficiency of 50%.
2.500
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Water Allowance (L/S/ha)
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
Figure 7. Water allowance of major crops determined on the basis of 50% over all
irrigation system efficiency.
Crop Water Demand and Supply
Crops’ water demand was computed from the existing cropping pattern observed during the DA
data collection process in June, 2009 in the sampled canals service area. The crops water
requirements (ETc) were determined by multiplying reference crop evapotraspiration (ET0) by
crop coefficients and later the net seasonal irrigation requirement were computed by subtracting
effective precipitation (Pe) from the ETc. The gross irrigation requirements were estimated by
dividing the net irrigation requirement by overall irrigation system efficiency of 50%.
The average water supplies to the sampled canals were estimated from the water levels record of
Balkh River and at the headwork of the canals. At present, Nahre-e-Shahi canal is getting water
from the Balkh river through a gated headwork and the discharge of the Nahr-e-Shahi was fond
to be 10.16 m3/s. From Nahr-e-Shahi canal, the first branch canal is Siagard canal with official
water share of 21.11% and the discharge of the canal measured in June, 2009 was 2.144 m3/s.
Plate 1. Nahr-e-Shahi canal head work on Balkh River
Further downstream of Siagard canal headwork, the work on Balkh canal off take was in
progress and it is expected to be completed before the end of 2009. During June, 2009 the Balk
canal was getting water from the Balkh River downstream of the Nahr-e-Shahi headwork. The
farmers were facing severe shortage of water in the system and the discharge measured was far
below their due share.
Plate 2. Under construction Balkh canal off take from Siagard Canal.
The crops demands and water supplies of Siagard, Mirzae and Balk Canals are shown in Figures
8, 9 and 10. As it can be seen from Figure 8, at present the Siagard’s canal was relatively getting
more water supply than their due share. After the completion of Balk canal off take the water
availability is expected to decrease and the part of the water will be diverted to Balkh canal as
per their water right in the system. The water supplies in the Balkh canal are expected to be
improved after the completion of the Balkh canal off take and related conveyance system (Figure
10).
As per present, cropping patter, the crops water demand of Sigard canal’s service area ranged
from 74 to 1995 L/s with overall average of 475 L/s (Figure 8). Irrigation water supplies for the
existing cropping pattern ranged from 1130 to 1973 L/s with overall average of 1444 L/s. After
the commission of newly constructed Balk canal offtake from the Siagard canal the future water
supplies may decreased and the average estimated supplies found to be 967 L/s. The peak water
demand found to be in May and June. In general, the water supplies is not enough for cultivation
of all cultivable area. It seems to be the in line or on-line water storage may be possible during
low water demand and need to be explored further.
The crops water demand and irrigation water supplies of Mirzae canal is given in Figure 9. It is
obvious from the figure the water supplies in the canal was relatively better as compared to
Siagard and Balkh canals. Relatively high percentage (13%) of vegetable crops were grown
which are indicators of better irrigation water supplies as compared to Siagard and Balkh canal
where vegetables were grown on lees than one percent area.
In case of Balkh canal the farmers were facing server shortage of irrigation water supplies. The
crops demand of Balkh canal ranged from 49 to 1571 L/s with overall average of 522 L/s (Figure
10). Irrigation water supplies varied from 252 to 437 l/s with overall average of 321 L/s, which
were two folds short of crops water demand. In future after the completion and operation of the
newly constructed off take from the Siagard canal the irrigation water supplies is expected to
improve at the end of 2009. In general, there is severe shortage of water in all the sampled
canals irrigation service area and the farmers are cultivating small percentage of their cultivable
land. There is a need for conservation and better management of water resources in the area. The
capacity buildings of all stakeholders need to be strengthened. Improved water management
practices like raise bed, better flow control structures and land leveling will be useful for water
conservation in the area.
Crops' Demand and Supply
2500
Siagard Canal
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
30
60
90
Crops' Demand
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Julian Days
Present Supply
Future Supply
Figure 8. Crops’ water demand and irrigation supply of Siagard Canal.
Crops Demand and Supply
450
Mirzae Canal
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Julian Days
Crops' Demand
Irrigation Supply
Figure 9. Crops’ water demand and irrigation supply of Mirzae Canal.
Crop Demand and Supply
1800
Balkh Canal
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Julian Days
Crops' Demand
Present Supply
Future Supply
Figure 10. Crops’ water demand and irrigation supply of Balkh Canal.
Crop Demand and Supply
1800
Balkh Canal
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Julian Days
Crops' Demand
Crop Demand and Supply
1800
Present Supply
Future Supply
Balkh Canal
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
30
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Julian Days
Crops' Demand
Present Supply
Future Supply
Plate 3. Flow measuring in the canal is in progress.
References
Source: Brouwer, C., and Heibloem, M. (1986). Irrigation Water Management: Irrigation
Water Needs. Training manual No 3. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), The International Support Programme for Irrigation Water Management Land
and Water Development Division.
AGRICULTURE
Dr. Muhammad Jamal Khan and Abdul Hakeem Khan
Introduction
Agriculture in Afghanistan, besides providing food and fiber is also a major source of
employment for the rural communities of the country. The economy thus depends heavily on
agriculture sector development, which needs to expand and become more efficient to able to
cope with future food and fiber demand of the ever increasing population of the country.
Agricultural production is a highly complex process involving inters action of a large number of
disciplines from biological, physical and social sciences. Having a sound policy frame work,
especially priced policies for agricultural input and output is the key to development of a
vigorous natural agricultural sector.
Even with in perfect policy frame work, the actual productivity in the farmers’ field is
determined by the three important sets of inputs availability of water, improved form of tested
production technologies and timely provision of proper quality of input at appropriate prices. The
deficiencies in these inputs are causing reduced productivity in farmer’s fields as compared to
the potential.
Keeping in view the above facts, two weeks intensive diagnostic analysis (DA) study was
conducted, to investigate the severity of the problem and to identify potential feasible crops, land
and water management interventions at the farm level to improve the current productivity level.
To find the strength and weakness of the existing agriculture system being practiced in Mazar-eSharif, two weeks DA was carried out by the trainees of the workshop at three sampled canals
service areas of Balkh River system during June, 2009. In the sampled canals command areas,
the cropping pattern and yields of major crops during summer and winter seasons were
determined from the data collected in the field through questionnaire Performa developed for the
study. A total of fifty nine (59) farmers were interviewed for collection of data on landholdings,
cropping pattern, crop yields, number of irrigation and irrigation intervals in the sampled canals
command areas in Balkh River Basin. In this section, the brief findings of the DA study related
to agriculture are presented.
Landholding and Tenancy Status
The average landholding per household in the sampled canals service area ranged from 3.76 to
15.66 ha with overall average of 9.36 ha (Table 1). Due to scarcity of water in the system and
low rainfall most of land is left fallow and the cultivated land per household during summer and
winter in the three sampled canals command areas ranged from 0.74 to 7.25 ha. An average, due
to scarcity of water and relatively high irrigation water demand in summer the farmers cultivate
small area (20% of their cultivated land). In winter two to three times more area is brought
under cultivation as compared to summer season.
The cropping intensities during summer season ranged from 21.1 to 27.8% and in winter at
varied from 44.7 to 53.1% (Table 1). Percent fallow land during summer and winter seasons in
the three sampled canals service area are shown in Figure 1. It is clear from the Figure that
significant portions of the landholdings are left fallow due to non-availability of sufficient
amount of irrigation water. The fallow land during summer and winter seasons ranged from 72.7
to 87.9% and 46.9 to 55.3% accordingly. An average about 80% and 52% of the land is left
fallow during summer and winter season to shortage of irrigation water supply and low rainfall
in the area.
Most of the farmers in the sampled canals service area were owner s (63%) and 19% each were
tenants and owner/tenants (Figure 2). The land holdings per households are small and the overall
average land holding per household was found to be two to three times greater than the cultivated
area. In general, small percentages (20% and 48%) of the total cultivable lands were cultivated in
summer and winter seasons accordingly. Relatively better rainfall and low crops water demand
during winter season, two times more area is cultivated as compared to summer season.
Table 1. Average land holdings and cultivated area during summer and winter seasons
(2008-2009) per household.
Sample
Total land
Cultivated Area per household in ha
size
S. No
Name of the canal
holding per
household in ha
Summer
Winter
15.66
1
Siagard
16
1.83
7.25
2
Balkh
27
8.67
2.40
4.61
3
Mirzae
16
3.76
0.74
1.75
9.36
1.66
4.54
Overall average
Source: DA survey data, 2009.
Summer Fallow
Winter Fallow
Percent Fallow
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
Siagard
Balkh
Marzae
Average
Figure 1. Fallow lands in the service areas of the three sampled canals.
Source: DA survey data, 2009.
63%
70%
60%
50%
40%
19%
19%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Owners
Tenants Owner/Tenants
Type of ownership
Figure 2. Tenancy status of the farmers at Siagard canal service area.
Source: DA survey data, 2009.
Cropping Patterns
The data analysis shows that wheat and barley were the dominant crops grown during winter season on
an area of 33.3 to 39.3% and 4.4 to 10.8% accordingly (Figures 3, 5 and 9). While in summer season,
cotton, melon, watermelon and vegetable were grown on an area of 6.9 to 17.6%, 1.5 to 10.9%, 2.4 to
4.6 % and 0.1 to 13.6% respectively (Figures 4, 6 and 8). Both in summer and winter seasons most of the
cultivated land was left fallow due to scarcity of water and low rainfall. At the upstream reaches of the
sampled canals command areas vegetables were also grown as compared to the tail reaches. Besides
the traditional crops cumin and sesame were also grown by few farmers in the sampled canal
Alfalfa, 1.0%
Barley, 4.4%
Wheat, 39.1%
Fallow, 55.3%
Cumin, 0.2%
command area. In Mirzae canal service area the vegetables were grown on an area of
Figure 3. Winter cropping pattern at Siagard’s canal service area during 2008-2009.
Melon, 1.5%
Cotton, 7.37%
Watermelon, 2.4%
Corn, 0.4%
Orchard,
0.3%
Vegetables, 0.1%
Fallow, 87.9%
Figure 4. Summer cropping pattern at Siagard’s canal service area during 2009.
Alfalfa, 3.3%
Barley, 10.5%
Fallow, 46.9%
Wheat, 39.3%
Figure 5. Winter Cropping pattern at Balkh’s canal service area during 2008-2009.
Mash, 0.1%
Cotton, 17.6%
Watermelon,
4.6%
Melon, 10.9
Fallow, 63.6%
Orchard,
0.1%
Vegetable,
1.9%
Sesame,
1.2%
Figure 6. Summer Cropping pattern at Balkh’s canal service area during 2009.
Alfalfa, 1.2%
Barley, 10.8%
Wheat, 33.3%
Fallow, 54.7%
Figure 7. Winter cropping pattern at Mirzae’s canal service area during 2008-2009.
Cotton, 6.9%
Corn, 0.3%
Sesame,
0.7%
Vegetable, 13.0%
Fallow, 79.1%
Figure 8. Summer cropping pattern at Mirzae’s canal service area during 2009.
Cropping Calendar
Wheat and barley are the major crops grown on relatively large area during 15-October to 15November and harvested in June 1-30 (Table 2). During spring season alfalfa, cotton, melon,
water melon, egg plant, okra, cucumber are mostly grown most in the upstream reaches of the
canals service areas. In summer maize is grown on small percentage of the area, besides that
cumin and sesame are also grown on small percentage of the cultivated area.
Table 2. Cropping calendar
Crop
Wheat
Barley
Cotton
Maize
Autumn
Planting
15 Oct to
15 Nov
1-30 Oct
Harvest
1-30 Apr
1-20 Oct
Summer
Planting
Harvest
15 Apr to
15 May
15 Aug to
15 Sep
Remarks
May 1-30
Melon
Cucumber
Egg plant
Pepper
Okra
Onion
Oct-Nov
Oct-Nov
Harvest
Jun 10-30
Sesame
Alfalfa
Peas
Carrot
Tomato
Spring
Planting
1-30 Apr
20 Feb to
20 Mar
15 Apr to
15 May
15 Apr to
15 May
15 Apr to
15 May
15 Apr to
15 May
15 Apr to
15 May
15 Apr to
15 May
Aug-Sep
Perennial
15 Apr to
15 May
Aug-Sep
30 Aug to
15 Oct
1 Jun to
31 July
Aug –Sep
July-Aug
Aug-Sep
Aug-Sep
May-Jun
M-Jun
Yield of Major Crops
In Balkh river basin, the yield of wheat and barley were 2090, 1725 kg/ha at the head, 2920,
2115 kg/ha at the middle and 2150, 1895 kg/ha at the tail reaches of the sampled canals
respectively (Table 3). In general, the average wheat, barley, cotton and water melon yields were
higher at the middle reaches of the sampled canals as compared to head and tail reaches. One of
the reasons might be over irrigation at the head reaches and under irrigation at the tails due to
relatively lower irrigation water availability. The yield of melon was exceptionally better at the
middle as well as tail reaches of the sampled canals. It might be due to low water demand of
melon and it grows well at dry condition than wet.
Table 3. Yields of major crops grown in the sampled canals command area.
Crop
Sample Yield at the Sample Yield at the Sample Yield at Sample
size
size
size
size
Head
Middle
the Tail
(kg/ha)
(kg/ha)
(kg/ha)
Average
Yield
(kg/ha)
Wheat
14
2090
19
2920
26
2150
59
2210
Barley
13
1725
10
2115
10
1895
33
1912
Cotton
13
2065
12
2445
17
1735
42
2082
Melon
9
13950
8
16925
8
16825
25
15900
Watermelon
9
33778
2
84000
8
54103
19
57294
The minimum, maximum and average production of major crops grown in the area is shown in
Table 4. There is a lot of variation (one to nine folds) between the minimum and maximum
yields of sampled major crops. In general, the average production in the tail reaches was lower
than the head and middle. It seems to be that with better management the wheat production can
be enhanced several folds (Table 4).
Table 4. Range of crops production in the sampled canals command area.
Crop
Sample
size
Wheat
59
Barley
33
Cotton
42
Melon
25
Watermelon
19
Crop production (kg/ha)
Minimum
Maximum
Average
948
3293
2218
875
4800
1912
560
5120
2082
6000
35000
15900
10000
91360
57294
Number of Irrigations
The number of irrigations for wheat crop ranged from 1 to 7 at the sampled canals service area, while
for cotton it ranged from 2 to 22. Majority of the farmers practiced four irrigations in all the sampled
canals service area, which seem to be reasonable number of irrigation (Table 5). For melon and watermelon the number of irrigation ranged from 5 to 30 with overall average of 13. Most of the vegetable
crops are irrigated with interval of 3 to 7 days and number of irrigation ranged from 7 to 24, with overall
average of 16.
Table 5. Number of irrigation applied to major crops in the sampled canal command area.
Crop
Sample
size
No. of irrigation practiced by the farmers in the
sampled canals service area
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Wheat
59
1
7
4
Barley
33
2
10
6
Cotton
42
2
22
11
Melon
25
6
20
13
Water Melon
19
5
30
14
Tomato
5
7
24
18
Onion
4
7
24
14
Effect of Number of Irrigation on Cotton Yield
The number of irrigation vs. cotton yield has been shown in Figure 9. It is clear from the figure
that maximum cotton yield of 4000 kg/ha was obtained with 10 number of irrigation. The
number of irrigations up to 10 has shown in increasing trend, however, after ten irrigations it
seem that further increase in number of irrigations may result lower cotton yield and wastage of
precious water resource. It can be concluded that over and under irrigations may result lower
cotton yield and should be avoided.
Cotton Raw Yield
(kg/ha)
Cotton
6000
4000
2000
0
0
10
20
30
Number of Irrigations
Figure 9. Cotton yield vs number of irrigation.
Livestock
Livestock is one of the main subsectors of agriculture. It has a complementary nature with crop
production. It contributes to cash income of the family improved nutrition and soil fertility. The
power of oxen is used in soil preparation. From the Figure 10 given below it is seen that sheep
and goat is the main activity of the livestock sector followed by cow and bullocks. At average
14.1 sheep and 4.2 goats per household were found in the sampled canals service area. Cow,
bullock and donkey one each is kept by the household.
The dairy cow is mainly raised for family nutrition; however the sheep is grown for cash income.
Bullocks are kept for farm power. Due to drought and shortage of feed especially during the
winter the number of livestock has been reduced. More attention is needed to improve
livestock production and productivity.
Number of Livestock per HH
Siagard
Mirzae
Balkh
Average
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Figure 10. Number of livestock per household (HH) in the sampled canals command area.
There is a great potential for livestock improvement through breeding, feeding and
management.
Important Factors for Productivity Improvement
The DA teams come up with the following factors for improvement of agricultural productivity




Water availability
Availability of improve seeds, fertilizer and farm machinery
Farmers’ capacity building
Access to Market
Agriculture Extension
The department of Agriculture Extension, in Mazar-e-Sharif has a mandate to extend the technology
developed at research institutes to farmers of the area, particularly in Balkh Canal service area. The
Agriculture Research Institutes in Afghanistan are responsible for conducting all types of research
relating to the agriculture in the country.
The DA survey revealed that contact between farmers and extension workers is negligible and the
knowledge of the extension agents about the modern production and protection technologies is
obsolete and they do not have the desired capacity for practical solutions of the problems faced by
farming communities. There is need for the capacity building of the extension workers. Most of the
farmers mentioned that t whatever knowledge the farmers get comes from nearby progressive farmers
and private dealers. It is a very discouraging situation to note the lack of performance of the Extension
Department. There is a great need to mobilize the extension staff so that the farmers of the area can
get full benefits of modern technology developed by the research staff. Extension services in
Afghanistan must be strengthened with the necessary resources, training and leadership to do its job.
Training Need Assessment
Majority of the farmers did not receive any formal training in the selected sampled canals service
area and only very small percentage of the farmers received training through some nongovernment organizations and Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations in plant
protection and production. Small percentage of the farmers mentioned that they visit different
organization to get information related to their agriculture problems. Most of the farmers seek
the guidance of fellow farmers for solution of their agricultural problems. Most of the farmers
desire that they would like agricultural training related to plant protection and production
technologies as well as related to water management.







Water Management
Plant production and protection technologies
Judicious use of fertilizers, pesticide and insecticide
Plant protection (Melon Fly)
Non-availability of farm machinery for machined farming
Improve agronomic practices (seed rate, water application, cultivation methods)
Training of farmers for control of fruit fly
 Demonstration plots
 Strengthening of farmers organizations
 Ecological marginal areas/cropping and farming systems
- Low yielding varieties
- Low soil fertility
- Low productivity due to poor agronomic practices
- Rainfed areas in drought-prone regions
- Areas with poor water management
 Non availability of good Seeds, Insecticides and farm machinery (tractors, combines etc)
 Quality Chemical fertilizers not available and expensive
 Vet clinics not available
 Extension service extremely weak
 Transportation and markets not good
 Good extension service
 Bank loans to small farmers not available
 The diseases and insect infestation is a great problem, farmers complain about the low
quality of the plant protection chemicals, chemical fertilizer specially phosphorus.
Conclusions and Recommendations
 The agricultural department has to provide enough service for plant protection to the
farmers.
 Better control on use of insecticide should be promoted through active participation of
farmers.
 The farmers must be given technical knowledge, how to carry on cost and return
analyses, to understand the net profit and loses.
 An effective marketing system to be set up for the farmers to purchase the input and sale
the products, gain enough income from his land.
 Extension workers from the provincial agricultural departments must have frequent visits
to the farms, informing the farmers for better quality of fertilizers, seeds and pesticides,
and other technical issues.
 Introduction of new technology for better production and water saving
 Training should be arranged for better on-farm water management, introduction of water
saving technologies like drip irrigation minimum or zero tillage, land levelling and plastic
mulching for conservation of moisture should be promoted.
 The farmers must be given technical knowledge, how to carry on cost and return analyses, to
understand the net profit and loses.
 An effective marketing system to be set up for the farmers to purchase the input and sale the
products, gain enough income from his land.
 Extension workers from the provincial agricultural departments must have frequent visits to the
farms, informing the farmers for better quality of fertilizers, seeds and pesticides, and other
technical issues.
 To increase water productivity, farmers need to understand water requirement in
growth stages of each crop and make use of the technical advice of the agriculture
extension about number of irrigation for each crop:
 Stronger extension system is needed to transfer new technology to the farmers. At
present farmer complain about lack of extension service.
 The diseases and insect infestation is a great problem. Most of the farmers (vegetable
growers) complained about infestation of aphids, cutworms, root rots in alfa alfa,
cucumber, okra and other fields. The plant protection service of the agricultural
department must be improved.
 Farmers complain about the low quality of the plant protection chemicals, chemical
fertilizer specially phosphorus.
 The MAIL quality control and food security department must be strengthened.
 To increase agricultural production, productivity and income:
 Quality inputs must be available in the market,
 Farmers must have access to input (credit, purchasing price),
 Plant protection measures,
 Technology transfer through extension,
 Water availability must be enhanced,
 Market linkages,
 Marketing infrastructure,
 Storage and cold chain facilities.
 The farmers must be given technical knowledge, how to carry on cost and return
analyses, to understand the net profit and loses.
 An effective marketing system to be set up for the farmers to purchase the input and
sell the products, gaint enough income from his land.
 Extension workers from the provincial agricultural departments must have frequent
visits to the farms, informing the farmers for better quality of fertilizers, seeds and
pesticides, and other technical issues.