628405
An ecological study of marine fouling
organisms and anthropogenic impacts at
Southsea Marina
628405
Introduction:
Fouling of ship hulls by the attachment and stability of growth of an array of
various microorganisms has been considered as a big worldwide problem, and
with increasing restrictions on the use of biocides alternative approaches need
to be addressed. Marinas are meant to act as nursery grounds set in place for use
as artificial reefs, through increasing habitat complexity, biological colonization
and species diversity (Connell, 2000). Also playing a part in staging posts to
prevent the distribution of invasive species transported via ballast water or for
species fixed onto boat hulls (Fletcher, 1989; Davenport & Davenport, 2006).
Marina-structures in place (e.g. piles and pontoons) may alter the water
circulation, decrease water current flow and by chance increase natural
sedimentation rates (Turner et al., 1997). The innermost parts of marinas are
probable to experience lower water replenishment and therefore suffer with
anoxic sediments with detrimental effects on benthic communities (GuerraGarcia & Garcia-Gomez, 2005). Due to high levels of tourism and anthropogenic
factors influencing the marina due to close proximity, the accumulation of
contamination is considered to be high in these regions (Chapman et al., 1987;
Wendt et al., 1990; McGee et al., 1995). This includes a mixture of both organic
and inorganic chemicals, including trace elements (Hall et al., 1992), tributylin
(Alzieu et al., 1989; Alzieu, 2000), and other biocides sourced from antifouling
paints (AF)(Biselli et al., 2000; Thomas et al., 2002), polychlorinated biphenyls,
chromated copper arsenate, petroleum hydrocarbons and polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (Lenihan et al., 1990; Weis & Weis, 1992; McGee et al., 1995).
One of the most promising alternative approaches as an alternative measure to
AF agents would be to use something naturally occurring in the marine
environment. Sessile marine macroalgae have been proven to be very
prosperous in this aspect, as they are free from settlement by fouling organisms
(Bazes et al., 2009). They are effective in these situations as they are said to
produce chemically active metabolites in their surroundings, used as a defensive
mechanism to protect themselves from other settling organisms (Bazes et al.,
2009; Thabard et al., 2011). Reports have also been noted in the rapid decrease
of Seaweed hydrocolloid growth rates, falling to 1-3 % per year from a previous
3-5 % in the 1980-1990s (Bixler & Porse, 2010), this was said to be due to
emerging markets in China, Eastern Europe, Brazil, tightening seaweed supplies
showing in the over exploitation of brown seaweeds used for extracting
alginates, and in the red seaweeds for extracting agar. There is a desired
equilibrium that needs to be addressed involving naturally produced AFs that
have a broad spectrum activity with a low toxicity to non-targeted organisms,
stability in a paint formulation and readily commercially available (Hellio &
Yebra, 2009). Marine fouling is a result of progressive accumulation of various
organisms; attracted to clean newly introduced surfaces to occupy their
fundamental niches following the settlement of bacteria and diatoms (Costerton,
1999). This fouling presents as a considered ‘slime’, where in actual fact it is a
complex biofilm formation that invitingly provides specialized niches within
their structure, where favourable conditions can allow the attachment of spores
or larvae of larger organisms can establish themselves. This continues until
complex communities comprising of micro and macroorganisms can be
628405
recognized which compromises the hydronamics of ships (Schultz & Swain,
2000; Schultz et al., 2011), leading to the increased consumption of fuel
(Townsin, 2013).
Through this study an ecological analysis of marine fouling organisms at
Southsea Marina will be take place, to illustrate typical marine fouling
communities commonly found distributed in different floating structures
pontoons, ships, boats and yachts) in Marinas. Also to determine effects of
exposure on marine fouling community development, and the toxic coating on
marine fouling community establishment and to deem their effects on floating
structures. The typical hypothesis this study will be based upon will be that
attachment areas situated near channel openings and away from toxic AF agents
will have broader species diversities, and structural communities.
Sampling area:
This investigation will involve the exploration of Southsea Marina in Langstone
with the corresponding coordinates of; Latitude - Longitude: 50° 47' 29.8932" 1° 1' 59.9304" (see figure 1).
1
2
3
Figure 1: Sampling sites of Southsea Marina (Latitude - Longitude: 50° 47' 29.8932" -1° 1'
59.9304") 1-3; 1 = Latitude - Longitude: 50.79216,-1.034045, 2 = Latitude - Longitude:
50.791577,-1.035011 and 3 = Latitude - Longitude: 50.790648,-1.036009.
628405
Fouling organisms were sampled in 5 different groups accounting for the 3
geographically different sampling sites as represented by figure 1 to differentiate
different community structure in regards to distance distribution. Samples were
collected using generic bags, nets and scrapers. Groups 1 collected samples from
both sides of floating pontoons at site 1 (outside the Marine – Visitors Berth),
Group 2 will collect samples from the sides of floating pontoons at site 2, Group 3
will sample from the sides of floating structures at site 3, group 4 will look at
fouling organisms from a section of 4 boats spread along the Marina and finally
group 5 will construct a detailed description concerning layout and
environmental relevant observations of the Marina whilst evaluating salinity,
temperature, dissolved oxygen and pH at the 3 sites.
Results
The determined salinity from each of our sites can be deemed unreliable due to
impossible attainable results (see table 1). Temperature can be seen to fluctuate
as expected with the highest temperature recorded for site 3, expected because
of the lack of replenished water input influencing temperature change closer to
land, pH is also shown to have the most neutral level which can be estimated
because of the close proximity to the shore, and because the other more exposed
sites would have more salinity readily available from the connecting ocean.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) didn’t differ much from different sites, this is probably
due to the junction between the sheltered Marina and the open ocean, this can be
seen to decrease with the closer samples where taken from shore. Water flow
and exposure to inputting flowing water sources are noted and correspond with
their coordinates on the map (see figure 1), pollution sources can also be
determined from the governed water inputs effecting levels of contamination
(see table 1).
628405
Table 1: Observations and variables of experiment with regards to pollution and
seawater conditions for each allocation site.
General
observations
(e.g. potential
pollution, water
movement and
degree of
exposure etc.)
Salinity (ppm)
Temp (oC)
pH
DO mg/L
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Exposed to
channel
Centre of
harbor
Very
sheltered
2.8
4.6
7.57
54
2.9
10.6
7.76
52
No influential
water
inputs/
Boats-oil
Low
Low
2.1
11.3
7.25
53.2
Pollution
source
Channel
Water Flow
Exposure
Medium
High
Boats-Oil
Low
Low
Table 2 shows the different array of organisms founded at each site,
microorganisms were firmly attached to surfaces found at each site with either
the carcasses of remaining life or present organisms embedded within the
complexity of the biofilm structures. Species diversity was the precautionary
parameter focused on in this experiment, overlooking the evenness of these
communities and their abundance of each individual species present to conclude
a biodiversity index; and without this relevant piece of data the Shannon’s
diversity index could not be determined. A total of 15 individual organisms were
accounted for, with 3 present in site 4, 8 in site 3, 6 present in site 2 and another
6 founded in site 1. This shows that AF measure found on boat hulls may be of
use, as the least number of species exist in site 4, with increasing numbers
shown towards the preferred settled catchment area in site 1, with an equal
number of species richness founded between site 3 and 2 in intermediate waters,
where elevated temperatures can be found in the shallow basking water with
hardly any new water flow or exposure to replenish waters.
628405
Table 2: Each accounted for organism and specifically categorized macroalgae
division in each founded site.
Organisms
Anaemonia viridis
Ascidiella sp
Botryllus spp
Carcinus meanus
Ciona intestinalis
Corella eumyota
Cycloporous
papillosus
Gammarid sp
Halichrondria
Hymeniacidon perleve
Macrocheira
kaempferi
Mysida
Nematode
Palaemoetes sp
Polychaete
Site 1
✓
✓
✓
Site 2
✓
✓
✓
✓
Site 3
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Site 4
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Rhodophyta
Ceramium nodulosum
Chondrus crispus
✓
✓
Grateloupia turuturu
Plocamium
cartilagineum
Polysiphonia
✓
✓
Phaeophyta
✓
✓
✓
✓
Fucus vesiculosus
Sargassum muticum
✓
✓
Chlorophyta
Ulva lactuta
✓
Ulva intestinalis
✓
Chaetomorpha linum
Ulva linza
✓
✓
Ochrophyta
Undaria pinnafitida
✓
✓
628405
There were 4 classified groups of macroalgae that were characterized, which
were Rhodophyta, Phaeophyta, Chlorophyta and Ochrophyta. Site 1 was observed
to have the highest species diversity, which would be presumed as there is
increasing amounts of scarce nutrients and dissolved oxygen in areas situated
closely to an opening channel, which can be reflected through the directly
proportional relationship with decreasing species richness closer to the shore in
sampled sites. Results differentiated from the corresponding sampling sites
further concluded this observation as site 1 presented the highest species
richness for Rhodophyta species, Chlorophyta and Ochrophyta sharing an equal
richness with Phaeophyta species. This contrasts with the singular species
belonging to the classified Ochrophyta division highly, and further concludes the
preferred habitat distributions of the successively increasing diversity were seen
to be closer to the oceans channel.
Discussion:
Bathing water quality in the UK is established on the basis of compliance with
standards stated in Directive 76/160/ECC. The procedures concerning the main
standards used to assess the quality of bathing water are total coliforms and
faecal coliforms which are bacteria found in the human and other animals
intestinal tract, and are indicators employed to detect the contamination from
sewage and anthropogenic sources. The incoherent connection of domestic foul
water to surface water drainage can affect the water quality of joining estuaries
and the open ocean; sources of contamination into local surface water drainage
systems of the Solent located close to Southsea Marina in Langstone Harbour,
have been rectified since the 1980s through sewage treatment work discharging
3 km from the shore. The Lee-on-the-Solent beach is designed to protect water
quality, through enforcing ultraviolet disinfection procedures in receiving
discharged waste effluent to eradicate any microorganisms from entering and
polluting water inputs (The Solent diffusive water pollution plan, 2010).
Portsmouth, Langstone and Chichester Harbours are extensive and connected
tidal basins, linking Lee-on-the Solent to the Itchen Estuary which extends along
the eastern shore of Southampton Water including water from the lower estuary
of the River Hamble. There are numerous discharge points including Waste
Water Treatment Works (WWTWs) and trade dischargers (see figure 2).
628405
Figure 2: An indicative map of all of the discharge points accounting for trade
discharges, fish farms and Waste Water Treatment Works (WWTWs). (Adapted
from: The Solent diffuse water pollution plan, 2010).
The majority of WWTWs all experience storm overflows, one of the larger
WWTWs is Chichester WWTW (referred to as Apuldram), which along with its
relative storm overflow, discharges into Chichester Harbour. There are many
sewage discharges to flow into the catchment areas feeding into rivers both from
private septic tanks and treatment works, and from Water Companies WWTWs.
This will result in nitrate loading in surface and ground waters, yet the overall
nutrient load from these points is unknown.
628405
Figure 3: Water Framework Directive (WFD) waterbodies South Downs and
Harbours, the current ecological status. Green = good, yellow = moderate, orange
= poor, bad = blue and pale yellow = not yet assessed. (Adapted from: The Solent
diffuse water pollution plan, 2010).
Many approaches are set in place within European waters involving the Water
Framework Directive (WFD) which establishes a common community
framework for protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters, coastal
waters and groundwater. With the fundamental aim to promote the sustainable
use of water whilst progressively reducing and hopefully eliminating pollutants
for the long-term protection and enhancement which will aid the prevention of
fouling. Work from Leatherland and Burton (1974) have shown that variations
amongst organisms from differing areas in the Solent region compared with
other areas suggests that some possible influences of local waste discharge,
inflicted by WWTWs but at this recorded time there were no signs of major
sufficient evidential factors. Although conclusive evidence shows anoxic muds to
constitute higher concentrations of mercury than in unreduced surface layers,
suggesting mobility in intervening water of the uppermost zone and fixation
under reduction conditions. Tubbs & Tubbs (1983) show that the spread of
green algae in Langstone Harbour has been caused by an increased amount of
treated and untreated discharged sewage effluent. Although prior work from
Soulsby et al. (1982) displayed that this could be due to the decline of wading
bird species leading to the blanketing of the muds by algae, yet this was not
proved in this investigation due to insufficient evidence. Later Soulsby et al.
(1985) continued their research to prove that the large dispersal of the studied
628405
macroalgae, Ulva and Enteromorpha in Portsmouth Harbour and Langstone
Harbour which had been exposed to sewage discharges exhibited no higher
standing crops of algae in the presence of sewage derived nutrients,
contradicting previous findings from Tubbs & Tubbs (1983).
Figure 4: Photos showing the observations of macroalgal mats on intertidal
mudflats in the Solent area. (Adapted from: The Solent diffuse water pollution
plan, 2010).
As briefly discussed in the introduction, prior to the present research the
hypothesis of this study was that increasing species diversity would be indirectly
proportional to increasing distance away from the innermost sites closer to the
opening channel. This was supposed because of the readily replenished water
containing scarce nutrients, DO, thermal regulatory flushes of colder denser
waters to prevent overheating and salinity inputs from the ocean to balance
freshwater inputs (although salinity readings cannot confirm due to error). This
supports findings from Callier et al. (2009) in that the lowest macrofaunal
abundance, and thus other organisms due to the lack of habitat complexity was
recorded at the innermost sheltered sites and differences between organism’s
attachment preferences in relation to distribution and proximity from certain
floating structures could be noticed. It was dually noted from these results that
in Southsea Marina the biotic index (AMBI) was positively correlated to the
sediment metal concentrations (Cu, Zn and Cd) and elutriate toxicity (LC 50),
showing signs of a potential contamination sequestrating metals into sediment
(Callier et al., 2009). A lack of observations of any organism attachment in site 4
was observed, only one Rhodophyta, Plocamium cartilagineum, despite its
temperate preference. This was an unexpected find, especially as Chondrus
crispus has been previously confirmed that crude ethanol extracts of a fresh
source of the macroalgae have anti-germination inhibitory effects, that can act on
spores and the initial AF potency can last up to six weeks (Chambers et al., 2011),
so this was surprising. From these results it seemed possible to determine that a
low attachment and species diversity could reflect the toxicity of AF agents
628405
contained within paint or various other AF prevention enforced in these regions.
Although the absence of the only one macroalgae that displayed to be adapted to
AF agents is slightly contradictory. Yet further analysis would be necessary to
confirm, especially as Kocack et al. (2011) has previously described a lower
species diversity is expected amongst areas that are subjected to pollution
within Langstone Harbour, which site 3 could be representative of due to the
stagnant water accumulating in the sampling region.
Various organisms are showing signs of adaptive defense mechanisms setting in
place, like Sargassum another macroalgal genus that has shown to display
species that produce specific defensive molecules, Sargassum polyceratium
(Thabard et al., 2011), and Sargassum muticum (Bazes et al., 2009). With the
developing recognition of naturally occurring molecules being produced by
macroalgae and even behavioural adaptations presenting in tropical marine
crabs like the founded Carcinus meamus (Becker & Walh, 1996), showing
scientists are looking for alternative approaches to reduce fouling especially with
evidence of AF agents to be harmful, plus proof that a variety of different various
AF toxic painted panels actually colonised initially by bacteria at the same rate as
non coated panels, these later developed to include diatoms and protozoa
further progressing community structures, the only impact to comprise the time
was the AF paint used (soluble matrix, insoluble matrix and self-polishing AF
paints) (Jackson & Jones, 1988). Other research has blamed harbour design itself
on influencing the rate of fouling organism’s recruitment to available surfaces
within Marinas; the entrainment of water encapsulated in Marinas can limit the
dispersal of planktonic propagules but resultantly increasing propagule pressure
to available surfaces, including boat hulls. Floerl and Inglis (2003) conspire that
this is likely to accelerate hull-fouling assemblages, which could potentially
transport non-indigenous species to alien environments to flourish in a reservoir
for potential invasive species that Marinas provide, adding to the decreased
biodiversity and species richness (Minchin, 2007; Arenas et al., 2006).
Conclusion:
It is apparent that the current mechanisms in treating wastewater effluent and
acceptably releasing it into the marine environment, through the justification of
AF measures such as paints on surfaces to prevent the colonization of organisms
are contributing detrimentally. Effecting the fouling organisms assemblages
through the readily contamination of toxins rather than the thought of
precautionary measure that was desired. The whole design of Marinas has is an
ecological disaster with water becoming entrapped and stagnant, allowing
sediment to become toxic and water to be acidic accumulated with pollutants
creating unwanted conditions for desirable habitats with lack of nutrients, food
and structural complexity. Research into natural occurring molecules extracted
from macroalgaes defensive mechanisms need to be looked into for more longterm approaches for Marinas, and also water circulation throughout the whole of
the area where water in the Marina appears non-moving. AF measures and
design have proven to be ecological disasters; more now needs to be looked to
628405
correct human error and then to attack in a more sustainable natural occurring
coherent way.
References:
Alzieu, C. L., Sanjuan, J., Michel, P., Borel, M., & Dreno, J. P. (1989) Monitoring and
assessement of butyltins in Atlantic coastal waters. Marine pollution
bulletin 20(1), 22-26.
Alzieu, C. (2000) Impact of tributyltin on marine invertebrates. Ecotoxicology
9(1-2), 71-76.
Arenas, F., Bishop, J. D. D., Carlton, J. T., Dyrynda, P. J., Farnham, W. F., Gonzalez,
D. J. & Wood, C. A. (2006) Alien species and other notable records from a rapid
assessment survey of marinas on the south coast of England. Journal of the
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 86(06), 1329-1337.
Bazes, A., Silkina, A., Douzenel, P., Faÿ, F., Kervarec, N., Morin, D. & Bourgougnon,
N. (2009) Investigation of the antifouling constituents from the brown alga
Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt. Journal of applied phycology 21(4), 395403.
Biselli, S., Bester, K., Hühnerfuss, H. & Fent, K. (2000) Concentrations of the
antifouling compound Irgarol 1051 and of organotins in water and sediments of
German North and Baltic Sea marinas. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40(3), 233-243.
Chambers, L. D., Hellio, C., Stokes, K. R., Dennington, S. P., Goodes, L. R., Wood, R. J.
K. & Walsh, F. C. (2011) Investigation of Chondrus crispus as a potential source of
new antifouling agents. International biodeterioration and biodegradation 65(7),
939-946.
Chapman, P. M., Dexter, R. N. & Long, E. R. (1987) SYNOPTIC MEASURES OF
SEDIMENT CONTAMINATION, TOXICITY AND INFAUNAL COMMUNITY
COMPOSITION (THE SEDIMENT QUALITY TRIAD) IN SAN-FRANCISCO
BAY. Marine ecology progress series 37(1), 75-96.
Connell, S. D. (2000) Floating pontoons create novel habitats for subtidal
epibiota. Journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 247(2), 183-194.
628405
Costerton, J. W. & Lappin-Scott, H. M. (1995) Introduction to microbial
biofilms. Microbial biofilms, 1-11.
Davenport, J. & Davenport, J. L. (2006) The impact of tourism and personal
leisure transport on coastal environments: a review. Estuarine, coastal and shelf
science 67(1), 280-292.
Directive, C. (1976) 76/160/EEC of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of
bathing water. Official journal of the European Union, 31(5.2).
Fletcher, R. L., Blunden, G., Smith, B. E., Rogers, D. J. & Fish, B. C. (1989)
Occurrence of a fouling, juvenile, stage of Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides
(Goor) Silva (Chlorophyceae, Codiales). Journal of applied phycology 1(3), 227237.
Floerl, O. & Inglis, G. J. (2003) Boat harbour design can exacerbate hull
fouling. Australian ecology 28(2), 116-127.
Guerra-Garcia, J. M. & García-Gómez, J. C. (2005) Oxygen levels versus chemical
pollutants: do they have similar influence on macrofaunal assemblages? A case
study in a harbour with two opposing entrances. Environmental
pollution 135(2), 281-291.
Hall Jr, L. W., Unger, M. A., Ziegenfuss, M. C., Sullivan, J. A. & Bushong, S. J. (1992)
Butyltin and copper monitoring in a northern Chesapeake Bay marina and river
system in 1989: an assessment of tributyltin legislation. Environmental
monitoring and assessment 22(1), 15-38.
Hellio, C. & Yebra, D. M. (Eds.). (2009) Advances in marine antifouling coatings
and technologies. Elsevier: Cambridge.
Jackson, S. M. & Jones, E. B. G. (1988) Fouling film development on antifouling
paints with special reference to film thickness. International
biodeterioration 24(4), 277-287.
Leatherland, T. M. & Burton, J. D. (1974) The occurrence of some trace metals in
coastal organisms with particular reference to the Solent region. Journal of the
marine biological association of the United Kingdom 54(02), 457-468.
628405
Lenihan, H. S., Oliver, J. S. & Stephenson, M. A. (1990) Changes in hard bottom
communities related to boat mooring and tributyltin in San Diego Bay: a natural
experiment. Marine Ecology Progress Series MESEDT 60(1/2), 147-159.
McGee, B. L., Schlekat, C. E., Boward, D. M. & Wade, T. L. (1995) Sediment
contamination and biological effects in a Chesapeake Bay marina. Ecotoxicology
4(1), 39-59.
Minchin, D. (2007) Rapid coastal survey for targeted alien species associated
with floating pontoons in Ireland. Aquatic Invasions 2(1), 63-70.
Rachel Crabbe & Jane Whiteman. 15th December, 2010. The Solent Diffuse Water
Pollution plan. 1.0.
Schultz, M. P., & Swain, G. W. (2000) The influence of biofilms on skin friction
drag. Biofouling 15(1-3), 129-139.
Schultz, M. P., Bendick, J. A., Holm, E. R. & Hertel, W. M. (2011) Economic impact
of biofouling on a naval surface ship. Biofouling 27(1), 87-98.
Soulsby, P. G., Lowthion, D. & Houston, M. (1982) Effects of macroalgal mats on
the ecology of intertidal mudflats. Marine pollution bulletin 13(5), 162-166.
Soulsby, P. G., Lowthion, D., Houston, M. & Montgomery, H. A. C. (1985) The role
of sewage effluent in the accumulation of macroalgal mats on intertidal mudflats
in two basins in southern England. Netherlands Journal of sea research 19(3),
257-263.
Thabard, M., Gros, O., Hellio, C. & Maréchal, J. P. (2011) Sargassum polyceratium
(Phaeophyceae, Fucaceae) surface molecule activity towards fouling organisms
and embryonic development of benthic species. Botanica marina 54(2), 147157.
Thomas, K. V., McHugh, M. & Waldock, M. (2002) Antifouling paint booster
biocides in UK coastal waters: inputs, occurrence and environmental fate. Science
of the total environment 293(1), 117-127.
628405
Tubbs, C. R., & Tubbs, J. M. (1983). The distribution of Zostera and its exploitation
by wildfowl in the solent, Southern England. Aquatic botany 15(3), 223-239.
Turner, S. J., Thrush, S. F., Cummings, V. J., Hewitt, J. E., Wilkinson, M. R.,
Williamson, R. B. & Lee, D. J. (1997) Changes in epifaunal assemblages in
response to marina operations and boating activities. Marine environmental
research 43(3), 181-199.
Weis, J. S., & Weis, P. (1992) Construction Materials in Estuaries: Reduction in
Epibiotic Community on Chromated Copper Arsenate(CCA) Treated Wood.
Marine ecology progress series MESEDT 83(1), 45-53.
Wendt, P. H. (1990) Effects of marina proximity on certain aspects of the biology
of oysters and other benthic macrofauna in a South Carolina estuary. Technical
report/South Carolina marine resources center 74(5), 51-101.