what happened in the other colonies, and the Puritan origins of the USA have been
magnified.
Chapter IV – Religion and Society in the USA since 1890
Tous les mots soulignés sont définis dans la fiche des Indispensables.
Argument/idea
Religion was the main motivation. Notion
of sacrifice of the early settlers, who
abandoned everything to find a place to
worship freely. Familial and courageous
emigration to the New World.
I – The end of the protestant majority in the American society
A - The Protestant base
1 – The Puritans and the Pilgrim Fathers

Who were the Puritans?
The Puritans appeared in England in the second half of the 16th century. They thought
that Anglicanism was too close to Catholicism. They were pious and devoted people, and
strictly adhered to the principles of the Bible. Many were influential and wealthy people
(some were members of Parliament). They wanted to purify and simplify the old
practices of religion, like getting rid of the Church hierarchy (inherited from
Catholicism).
 Looking for a promised land of Religious Freedom...
They were persecuted in England so many fled to the Netherlands – Amsterdam, following
the minister Robert Browne (so the group was known as the Brownist English Dissenters)
in 1581. But concerned about loosing their cultural English identity, they left for the
New World aboard the Mayflower on Sept. 6, 1620. Only one man died on the 66-day
trip: this was a sign of God’s protection. They founded Plymouth, along the Massachusetts
Bay, in New England, thirteen years after the founding of Jamestown in Virginia, in 1607.
Idealized vision of the early Puritans:
their motivations were also economic
(strike it rich) or personal (fleeing
personal problems, desire for adventure,
etc.). Religion mattered, but was not the
only factor.
Historians / historical sources
Virginia DeJohn Anderson (University of
Colorado) said that only religion could
motivate such a courageous emigration of
ordinary people.
Rev. John White (1575-1648) said that
early settlers wanted to convert Indians
and spread their religion: this emigration
was a real strategy.
David Cressy (Ohio State University) says
that talking about a “Puritan emigration” is
simplistic and hides the complexity of the
motivations of the early settlers.
William
Bradford
(1590-1657),
the
organizer of the Mayflower voyage, said
that there were not only Puritans onboard.
2 – The Manifest Destiny and the “City upon a Hill”: America’s exceptionalism
The expression “Manifest Destiny” was coined by the influential American journalist
John L. O’Sullivan (1813-1895) in 1854 to designate the religious belief that the USA
should expand from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean in the name of God,
that the USA’s territorial expansion was protected by God and made by divine
intervention: “It is our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by
Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions”.
The phrase “a City upon the Hill”, taken from the Parable of Salt and Light in Jesus
sermon on the Mount, was uttered by the Puritan John Winthrop, in a sermon he made
in 1630, while he was about to land in the New World: the new colony (Boston) would
be a “city upon a hill”, watched by the World. This was both an idealistic and hopeful
vision.
Both expressions/ideas spread the belief that the USA was a country protected by
God, with an exceptional destiny.
 The early years of the Plymouth colony
The Puritans were strict and intolerant with people who did not believe like they did.
This exclusiveness and unity made the strength of their community in a hostile foreign
land. Half of them died of starvation through the first winter. It is said that local
Wampanoag Indians helped them, teaching them how to grow crops (corn, beans,
pumpkins, etc.). In October 1621, the Pilgrims organized a harvest feast, inviting their
Indian saviors. This would become Thanksgiving, celebrated on the 4th Thursday of
November every year.
Their number rose, reaching 106,000 in 1700. They were mature and sophisticated,
intellectually speaking. They attached a great importance to the education of the
children (free schooling for all, creation of Harvard College in Cambridge, 1639).
 The Puritan origin of the USA, a founding myth
Historians disagree on the motivations that brought the early settlers to the New
World: were they only religious?
The Pilgrims' story of seeking religious freedom has become a central theme of the
history and culture of the United States. The story of New England has overshadowed
3 - The Great Awakenings
The minister and historian Joseph Tracy (1793-1874) coined the expression, with his
1842 book entitled The Great Awakening. The different Great Awakenings were
characterized by an increased religious enthusiasm, and by the appearance of new
denominations and many new conversions.
1
Dates
The First
Great
Awakening,
1730s and
1740s
Characteristics
It consisted in a spiritual
renewal, i.e. people started
praying with more emotion
and fervor. The aim was to
establish an individual and
intimate relationship with
God based on direct dialog.
This went against the
strict Puritan doctrine
from which people
emancipated.
The Second
Great
Awakening,
first half of
the 19th
century
It coincided with the
population growth and with
the Frontier westward
movement. Like the former
one, this Second Great
Awakening was marked by
an emphasis on personal
prayer and practice.
The Third
Great
Awakening,
from 1850 to
the early 20th
century
This was a very dynamic
Awakening, characterized
by an active missionary
work, the birth of many
denominations and one
million new converts!
that Catholics distanced themselves from the Church and adapted to the society and
culture of the USA. This movement was condemned by Pope Leo XIII in 1899.
Figures/actors
The preacher Jonathan Edwards (170358) emphasized a new and more
personal/individual approach to religion,
condemned the Puritan intolerance
toward other religions, and called for
unity amongst all Christians.
The charismatic British minister George
Whitefield (1714-70) was nicknamed the
"Great Itinerant" because he preached
both in Europe and in the new World
between 1740 and 1770. His lively
sermons led to many conversions.
Presbyterian, Methodist and Baptist
preachers and ministers travelled to the
West and evangelized the isolated
families living near the Frontier.
Among the Baptists especially, ordinary
farmers frequently got the God call and
became “self-made” ministers. Their
dynamic proselytism gave birth to the
Bible Belt.
This Third Great Awakening saw the rise
of the Social Gospel movement (early
20th century): it applied Christian ethics
to social issues (poverty, alcoholism,
crime, racial tensions, bad hygiene, child
labor, etc.) and believed that Jesus
Christ would not come back until Mankind
got rid of all social problems.

The Catholics and politics
Two remarkable political careers may be underlined:
- In 1928, Al Smith became the first Catholic presidential candidate in the history
of the USA, running for the Democratic Party. His religion became an issue during
the campaign, many Protestant fearing a Vatican’s interference in the affairs of the
USA. Al Smith lost (40%) against H. Hoover (58%).
- In 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy (Massachusetts) won the primaries within the
Democratic Party and ran for presidency. But his religion became a major issue
during the campaign: many influential Protestants declared that Kennedy could not
escape Catholic Church control, unless he publically promised to respect the
separation of Church and State. John F. Kennedy answered with a famous speech on
September 12, 1960: "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the
Democratic Party's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I
do not speak for my Church on public matters, and the Church does not speak for
me."
Today, the Catholic Church still opposes abortion and embryonic stem-cell research,
but there is no significant difference between the opinions of Catholics and nonCatholics on these questions.
Catholicism gathers 62 million people and is the first denomination of the USA.
Roughly 30% of the Catholic population is Hispanic and this percentage keeps on rising
(high birth rate, many new immigrants). For the 2012 presidential election, they
represented 10% of the electorate (and 71% of them voted for Obama).
2 – The American Jewish community

A massive immigration
The Jewish immigration started in the 1880s, when Eastern European Jews fled the
pogroms in Russia. In the mid-1920s (quotas), they were 3.5 million in the USA. This
number rose in the 1930s when Hitler came to power in Germany, and then following
WWII, many survivors of the Holocaust went to the New World. Among them was
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) who moved to the USA (1932), applied for citizenship and
got it in 1940.
They are rather located in the East: New York is the largest Jewish City in the World
(2 million Jews). There are more than 6 million Jews today in the USA.
B – Immigration changed the face of America
1 - The Catholics in the USA: from rejection to integration
 The Catholics in the USA in the late 19th century
Many American Protestants saw the Catholic Church as an old and authoritarian
institution that stood against the modern and progressive American society and its
democratic political institutions. More particularly, Irish Catholics (White Negroes)
were discriminated against, suspected of being more loyal to the Pope than to the
USA, and of being unable to assimilate and integrate in their host country.
But in the late 19th century, a movement called Americanism developed: it was a liberal
and progressive thought (freedom of conscience, political commitment, etc.), meaning

From the slums to the upper classes: climbing the social ladder
Until the very end of the 19th century, most Jews were living in slums, working in
sweatshops and engaged in retail activities (shopkeepers, peddlers, etc.). The following
generation climbed the social ladder, moving to more prestigious economic sectors, such
2
as business, the professions, academia, journalism/communications or other artistic
fields (arts, movie industry – Woody Allen is Jewish, television…). Jewish writers are
numerous (from Emma Lazarus to Philip Roth). Generally speaking, the Jewish cultural
life is rich: arts festivals, museums (not only about the Holocaust), etc.
b - Other examples of intolerance and racism
Concerning African Americans:
 The Jim Crow laws (proclaimed after the Civil War) instituted segregation and the
“separate but equal” doctrine in all public places (hospitals, churches, cafés, public
transports, schools, etc.). They were lifted thanks to the Civil Rights Movement, one
century later.
 Laws were denying some African Americans the right to vote. For instance, Blacks
had to prove that their ancestors voted in the 1865 election (but records were not
kept so it was hard to prove), or they had to pass a literacy test (but many were
illiterate), etc.

A successful integration
The Jews forms a prosperous and established community, despite pockets of
poverty. There are 350 Jewish day schools in America, most of which are elementary,
providing education for about 29% of Jewish children in the United States (a day
school provides Jewish children with both a Jewish and a secular education, on a fulltime basis).
Joseph Lieberman illustrates this successful integration: he ran for vice-presidency
with the Democratic candidate Al Gore in the 200 presidential elections. His nomination
caused enormous excitement among American Jews, and was accepted by everyone.
Concerning other minorities, prejudices remained. The WASPs were influential and
wealthy, and they were worried about the waves of immigration they found too massive.
In 1917, a literacy test was created: immigrants had to pass it to enter the country.
Besides, they encouraged the establishment of quotas in the 1920s: quotas limited the
annual number of new immigrants, per provenance, to a percentage (2-3%) of the
community already residing in the USA. More, in 1921, all Asian immigration was
forbidden.
To conclude, in both cases (Catholics and Jews), the integration was, in most cases,
eventually successful. But it was slow and difficult, as some “Nativists” (i.e. WASPs and
early settlers established in the USA for a long time) were strongly opposed to the
arrival of immigrants because of their religions, among other reasons.
3 – Opposition to new immigrants remained
a – The Ku Klux Klan
Creation
Action
The First KKK was created
Against the end of
in 1866, just after the Civil slavery. Very racist.
War (1861-65) by veterans
Violent methods:
of the Confederate Army
intimidation, lynchings and
(secessionist states’ army). other murders.
The second KKK was
Lynchings, tarring and
created in 1915, near
feathering, branding the
Atlanta. Peak in the 1920s letter KKK, etc. A burning
when the KKK gathered 4
cross became their symbol.
million people.
Wider targets: Blacks but
also non-WASP people
(Catholics, Jews)
The KKK today was born
during the Civil Rights
Movement (1950s-60s).
The Civil Rights movement
saw the end of segregation.
The KKK was against this
emancipation.
C - The religious scene in the USA today
1 – Data
85% of Americans believe in
There are 350,000 places of
ration in the world!). They are
Americans change at least one
strong
End
Forbidden in 1871 by the
Klan Act (established by
Congress). It had already
killed 3,500 people (mostly
African Americans).
Criticized for its violence.
Officially forbidden in
1928. Beside, some leaders
were involved in corruption
affairs and scandals
(including a murder).
It faded away with WWII
(many people went to war).
The KKK gathers 5,000 to
8,000 people, and is
considered a terrorist
group (i.e. it is illegal).
God, 75% pray every day and 70% belong to a Church.
worship, i.e. one for 850 inhabitants (it is the highest
important places for sociability (during their life, 1/3 of
time of religious community!!).
2 - The Bible Belt
The Bible Belt is an informal term, coined by the journalist Henry Louis Mencken in the
1920s, which designates the South and Midwest of the USA where Evangelical
Protestantism is widely practiced, where the Baptist denomination is highly represented,
and where Church attendance is bigger than everywhere else. The writer Douglas
Kennedy wrote a book after he travelled in the Bible Belt, entitled: In God’s Country,
Travels in the Bible Belt, in 1989.
3 - Case study: the Muslims in the USA today
There are 2.6 million Muslims in the USA today; most of them are Shia, and many
come from Lebanon and Iraq. Their number has soared since 2000 when they were only
one million. An important place to be associated with Muslims is the Islamic Center of
America, located in Dearborn, Michigan, the largest in North America. Opened in 2005,
it is a Shia mosque, but it welcomes all Muslims, whatever their denomination.
3
But this tiny minority, scattered all over the country, gets massive attention. Like
former waves of immigrants before (Irish, Italians, Chinese, etc), the Muslims are
raising fear among the American population and are disparaged. A good example is
Park51 Islamic Community Center opened in September 2011, near Ground Zero. It is
370m² big, but it is part of a larger project (consisting in the construction of a 13story building, with a prayer room, an auditorium, a childcare area, a bookstore, a food
court, a basketball court, etc.), that would be opened to the general public (and not only
Muslims) to promote interfaith dialog. But the whole project remains controversial: it is
close to Ground Zero and it would destroy the 1850 Burlington Coat Factory (opponents
wanted to make it a National Landmark, but they failed).
Still, according to the political scientist David Campbell, 84% of Americans say
“religious diversity is good for America”.
Establishment Clause
Free Exercise Clause
“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion”: this clause forbids the establishment of any
official religion.
"or prohibiting the free exercise (of religion)": the
government cannot prevent citizens from exercising their
own personal religious beliefs. It encourages religious
pluralism and avoids the domination of one specific religion.
c - The “wall of separation” (1802)
The US Constitution stated that Religion was a private matter in which the State
should not interfere. In an 1802 letter, Thomas Jefferson formulated this idea using
the metaphor/image of a “wall of separation between Church and State”. But this
“wall” does not mean hostility or rejection. The paradox is that this separation led
to an increasing influence of the civil religion in the USA.
It is the main difference with France: the secular Republic and the Roman Catholic
Church separated in 1905, but the relationship between both has remained stormy.
II – Religion at the heart of the American democracy
A – The secular foundations of the American democracy
1 – The Founding Fathers
In 1787, 55 Founding Fathers gathered in the Constitutional Convention in
Philadelphia to create the US Constitution. They were from various religious
affiliations: most were Protestants, with a majority of Episcopalians (Church of
England), but others were also Methodists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Deists, etc, while
two of them were Catholics. This is why they agreed that religion could only sow
discord among them: religion had to stay away from political affairs.
3 - The Supreme Court’s intervention to preserve the wall of separation
To maintain this “wall of separation” and to enforce the First Amendment to the
Constitution, the Supreme Court had to intervene many times. The Supreme Court is
the highest Federal Court in the USA: composed of nine Justices (nominated by the
President), the Court is the final Court of Appeal, whose authority is superior to State
Courts.
a - The Blue Laws
Blue laws are old laws dating back to the colonial period, usually referred to as Sunday
closing laws (because they prohibit certain activities on Sunday), so as to observe a day
of worship. Many of them have been repealed because they violated the First
Amendment's Establishment Clause, but some others remain as a legacy from the past.
2 - The Founding documents
The 1776 Declaration of Independence only mentions “Nature’s God” and the
“Creator”, but does not allude to any specific religion.
a - The US Constitution, 1787
The US Constitution does not mention religion at all. The only reference (Article VI,
Section 3) stipulates that the people in charge of a Public Office (Senators,
Representatives, public officials) are not required to pass any religious test. More,
when they start their Office, they are not obliged to mention God in their oath of
Allegiance to the Constitution (they may say “so help me God”, but it is not compulsory).
Examples of evolution
In Pennsylvania, sportive
competitions were banned
on Sunday. But under the
pressure of athletic clubs,
the blue laws were repealed:
baseball and other sports
could be played on Sunday
(from 1933 onwards).
b - The First Amendment to the American Constitution, 1791
The First Amendment states: “Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise (of religion)”. This
Amendment is divided into two Religious Clauses:
4
Examples of preservation
- The Supreme Court (McGowan versus Maryland,
1961) declared that Maryland's blue laws, restricting
commercial activities on Sunday, were constitutional
and did not violate the First Amendment.
Pros: Businesses deserve a day of rest, and it is
better to have a common day off, so as to preserve a
fair competition between businesses.
Cons: Sunday was originally chosen as a day off in
order to encourage attendance at Christian churches.
- In many States, selling alcohol or purchasing
particular items (cars, groceries, domestic appliances,
Arch R. Everson was a New Jersey taxpayer who pretended that the reimbursement
given for children attending private schools (96% of them were Catholic) violated the
First Amendment’s Establishment Clause.
Question
Did the New Jersey law violate the Establishment Clause?
Conclusion of the Court
No (Everson lost) with 5/9 votes. The Court held that the law did not violate the
Constitution, because the reimbursements were offered to all students regardless of
religion. It was simply a law assisting parents of all religions with getting their children
to school.
Generally speaking, services like financial aids for transportation or fire protection
to private schools are "separate (…) from the religious function": providing them does
not violate the First Amendment and should be maintained, based on the principle of
“benefit to the child”.
etc.) is still forbidden: car dealerships have to be
closed on Sunday in Colorado; many retail stores
(including groceries) are closed on Thanksgiving and
Christmas in Massachusetts and Connecticut; hunting
the deer, turkey, dove and duck is forbidden on
Sunday in Virginia.
b - The States, the Federal Government and religion
In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was added to the US Constitution: it prohibited
States and Local governments from depriving persons of their basic rights like liberty
and property, by stipulating that every American citizen had to be treated equally.
From then on, the States could no longer decide freely on religious matters: the
Supreme Court could interfere if the Bill of Rights was not respected.
 Cantwell v. State of Connecticut, 1939
Facts of the case
Newton Cantwell and his two sons, Jehovah’s Witnesses, were proselytizing in a
predominantly Catholic neighborhood in Connecticut. They were going from door to
door, and approaching people on the street. Two pedestrians reacted angrily after
voluntarily hearing an anti-Roman Catholic message on the Cantwells' portable
phonograph. The pedestrians restrained themselves from hitting the Witnesses. The
Cantwells were arrested and sued by the State of Connecticut:
- for not having the permit/license they needed to solicit the people. Indeed, a
Connecticut local statute required licenses for those soliciting for religious purposes.
- for inciting a breach of the peace.
Question
Did their arrest violate the Free Exercise Clause, preventing the Cantwell from
exercising their religion freely?
Conclusion of the Court
Yes (the Cantwells won), unanimously:
- The Court stated that requiring permits/licenses for those soliciting for religious
purpose was violating the Free Exercise Clause. This State law was unconstitutional.
- Besides, the Cantwells' message sounded offensive to many Catholics, but it did not
entail any physical threat: there was no breach of the peace.
c - Engel v. Vitale, 1962: the end of prayers in public schools?
Facts of the case
Saying a prayer in public schools was something common until the 1960s. The first case
to come to the Supreme Court regarding school prayer was that of Engel v. Vitale in
1962. In the State of New York, pupils started the school day by voluntarily uttering
a prayer known as the “Regents prayer” (written and provided by the State of New
York itself): “Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence on Thee, and we beg Thy
blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our Country." Students who did not wish
to say it could remain silent or stand outside the room.
A group of ten parents, led by Steven L. Engel, sued the Board of Education of
Union Free School District No. 9 in Hyde Park (New York) presided by William J.
Vitale for having the Regents prayer said aloud every morning as a violation of the
Establishment Clause.
Question
Did the reading of this nondenominational prayer at the start of the school day
violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment?
Conclusion of the Court
Yes (Engel won, 6 votes for him and 1 vote against him).
Vitale’s arguments: the prayer was nondenominational (it did not favor a specific
religion) and it was not compulsory.
Court’s and Engel’s arguments: by providing the prayer, the State of New York
officially approved religion, thus violating the Establishment Clause. The Court used
the 14th Amendment to repeal the prayer.

Everson v. Board of Education, 1946
Facts of the Case
A New Jersey law authorized local school boards to reimburse the cost of
transportation for children travelling by bus, operated by the public transportation
system. The law made no distinction between public and private/parochial schools.
Some people wrongly believe this decision outlawed all the prayers in public school,
but it did not. It was the first in a series of cases in which the Court used the
5
Establishment Clause to eliminate religious references in public schools:
- In 1985, the Supreme Court stated that Alabama's law permitting one minute for
prayer or meditation at school was unconstitutional.
- In 1992, the court prohibited prayer at high school graduation ceremonies.
Still, these decisions remain unpopular for many Americans.
It was during the American Revolution. It
had two possible meanings:
- Out of many colonies emerged a single
nation: the USA. Allusion to the war
against the UK.
- Out of many peoples, races, religions
and ancestries emerges a single nation
(illustrating the Melting Pot).
Other elements regarding religion in public schools:
- Sacred texts can be studied at school (Bible, Koran, etc.), but in an unbiased and
neutral way, without promoting a particular religion.
- Conspicuous religious signs are tolerated (skull cap worn by Jewish boys, Hijab headscarf worn by Muslim girls, etc.) as long as they are not vulgar or insulting. But it
is forbidden to give a special treatment to the pupils wearing them, especially to
discriminate against them (giving them bad marks, interdiction of wearing these
items, etc.)
- Public schools can have a Gospel Choir performing religious songs, because this is
part of the country’s heritage.
- Students or staff can pray as desired, even at school, as long as they are not
disrupting the daily life of the school. One cannot be penalized for being absent
for religious holidays.
It is still displayed on the Great Seal of
the US to authenticate official documents issued by the Government, and
displayed on US passports. It used to be
displayed on coins.
b – The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag
The Pledge of Allegiance was written by the Baptist Minister Francis Bellamy (18551931) in 1892 as a proposal to the “Official Programme for the National Columbia Public
School Celebration of October 12, 1892”, to celebrate the 400 th anniversary of
Columbus' discovery of America.
It is today recited in millions of schools every morning (although pupils are not
compelled to recite it) as well as in Congress or other local political meetings.
Bellamy’s proposal
Today
Text
“I pledge allegiance to my
“I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United
flag and the Republic for
States of America and to the Republic for
which it stands, one nation,
which it stands, one Nation under God,
indivisible, with liberty and
indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.”
justice for all.”
It has become more specific, more unique to
the USA. And the “under God” was added in
1954 in the context of the Cold War (fight
against Atheism/Communism).
Salute
Every pupil had to lift the
It resembled the salute of the Nazis, so it was
right arm, palm downward.
abandoned in 1942. Today, people must stand
At the words “to my Flag,”
and face the flag, with the right hand placed
the right hand was
over the heart. Men wearing hats must remove
extended, palm upward,
them. People need to be respectful, and the
toward the Flag.
moment must be solemn and meditative.
B – The American Civil Religion
1 – What is the American Civil Religion? Something difficult to
understand for French people…
The expression was coined by the sociologist Robert Bellah in 1967, but the American
Civil Religion dates back to the creation of the USA. Indeed, the USA is a secular state,
with no established religion. But religion is present everywhere, especially in the
political life of the country. The Americans do not belong to a single religion (they are
scattered between many different denominations), but they share quasi-religious
beliefs, values, behaviors, symbols, where politics mix with religion: this is American
civil religion which brings people together.
This is the paradox that makes the specificity of the USA: while Church and State are
separate, religion and politics rely on the other.
2 – Examples of American Civil Religion
a - The official motto of the USA: “In God we trust”
Original motto
“E Pluribus Unum”, a Latin phrase meaning
“one from many”, adopted in 1782.
'In God is our trust’. The poem eventually
became the National Anthem of the USA.
It was during the Cold War which opposed
the USA to atheistic Communism. The USA
wanted to reassert its Christian values.
The motto has remained even after the
Cold War, and 90% of the Americans
agree. Some people think this motto
questions the separation of Church and
State: the motto was challenged in several
lawsuits/trials, but the Court always
declared it “constitutional”, being more
patriotic than religious.
"In God we trust" was already displayed on
some coins as soon as the 19th century and
on all coins since 1938. It has been
displayed on notes since 1957.
New motto
In 1956, the Congress adopted a new
motto: “In God we trust”. It came from
Francis Scott Key’s The Star Spangled
Banner 1814 poem: And this be our motto:
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c – The secularization of holidays: the example of Thanksgiving

Origins
The harvest festivals already existed among Native Americans: every fall, they celebrated
the moment when the corn got ripe. It is said that the Pilgrims Fathers were helped by the
Wampanoag Indians during their first difficult year at Plymouth, who taught them how to
grow local crops (beans, squash, corn, etc.). In November 1621, the Pilgrims held a harvest
feast to thank the Wampanoag for their help. Progressively, this harvest celebration became
a Thanksgiving feast with a religious meaning, to thank God for the past year.
President Obama had recourse to the Bible (Christian religious book), but the first one
belonged to the President who abolished slavery in 1863, and the second one to the
Reverend who led the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. And President Obama is Black.
So the meaning is more political than religious.
e - Places of worship of the civil religion: Arlington, the National Mall

Arlington National Cemetery (located in Virginia, just beside
Washington DC)
Arlington National Cemetery near the Potomac River, not far from the National Mall. In
this military cemetery created during the American Civil War (1861-65), more than
330,000 American servicemen as well as many famous Americans (like President John
F. Kennedy) are buried. The Tomb of the Unknowns, dedicated in 1921 and containing
the remains of soldiers from WWI, WWII, Korea and Vietnam, is an important place of
civil worship. Around 4 million people visit the cemetery every year and meditate at
these National Heroes’ graves.

The birth of a National Holiday
In October 1789, President G. Washington made the Thanksgiving Proclamation: “(I)
recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to
be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty
God.” Thanksgiving was officially celebrated on November 26th.
In 1863, President Lincoln declared that the last Thursday of November would be
dedicated to celebrate Thanksgiving, in the whole country. But many Confederate States
ignored the law even after the Civil War.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the celebration was losing its religiosity: kids
went for trick-or-treat from house to house. This later became the tradition of
Halloween, celebrated earlier in the month.
During the 1930s and 1940s, school principals and other officials worked hard to make
Thanksgiving a family holiday, where people would gather around a traditional meal
(turkey).

The National Mall (Washington DC)
The National Mall is located in Washington DC, not far from the Potomac River. It is a
National Park, covered with grass. It hosts, from the West to the East, many political
institutions: Lincoln Memorial, Vietnam/Korea/WWI memorials, Washington
Monument (marble made obelisk), White House, Capitol (Congress), Supreme Court.
It welcomes an average of 24 million visitors each year. It is a central place in the
political life of the country: the Presidents’ inaugurations are made on the steps of the
Capitol, other demonstrations bring people to the Mall (like Martin Luther King’s March
on Washington in 1963 when he uttered his “I have a Dream” speech), etc.

Thanksgiving in Rockwellian America
Norman Rockwell (1894-1978) painted a Thanksgiving meal in his 1943 Freedom from
Want painting. In 1941, in the midst of WWII, President F. Roosevelt made a speech
where he listed Four Freedoms for which the USA stood: Freedom of Speech,
Freedom of Worship, Freedom from Want, Freedom From Fear. This was a
propaganda speech. Norman Rockwell decided to illustrate each of these Freedoms with
four painting that were published in The Saturday Evening Post magazine (for which N.
Rockwell worked) for four consecutive weeks, from February 20 th to March 13th, 1943.
The paintings were acclaimed, especially in the difficult context of World War II. They
conveyed an idealistic a positive vision of the USA: this was Rockwellian America.
C – God and the White House
1 – President Eisenhower (1953-61) (Republican)

A new Church member
Dwight Eisenhower did not belong to any Church until he was elected: encouraged by Billy
Graham, he joined the National Presbyterian Church. He was the only president to be
baptized while in office. As he could not attend the religious class dedicated to all new
members, he regularly invited Rev. Edward Elson to instruct him at the White House.
The Christian weapon against the atheistic communist enemy
during the Cold War
The President took his churchgoing seriously. He emphasized religion during his mandate:
- He invited cabinet members to open cabinet meetings with prayer.
- In June 1954, he added the phrase “under God” to the Pledge of Allegiance, to
“reaffirm the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future.”

d - Obama and the Lincoln Bible
For his first inauguration on January 20, 2009, President Obama took the oath of
office by laying his left hand on the Bible that the President Lincoln had used for his
own inauguration on March 4, 1861. For his second inauguration, President Obama took
the oath of office on Lincoln Bible and on another Bible which belonged to Rev.
Martin Luther King. This illustrates the paradox of the American Civil Religion:
7
-
In 1956, he made “In God We Trust” the new national official motto and mandated
it to be printed on all American paper currency.
Eisenhower understood that the American Civil Religion was a unifying and reassuring
force to contrast with the Soviet understanding of religion as the “opiate of the
masses” (Karl Marx).
4 - Ronald Reagan (1981-89) (Republican)
Ronald Reagan was a Presbyterian and considered himself to be “born-again”, like J.
Carter had done years before: many political analysts and historians think this was a way
to have the support of Evangelicals and other conservative Christians in the election.
He won a landslide victory:
- He designated 1983 as the National Year of the Bible (approved by Congress),
acknowledging the role of the Bible in the shaping and history of the USA.
- The USA had no ambassador in the Vatican since an 1867 anti-papist law. The latter
was repealed: great admirer of Pope John Paul II, R. Reagan named William
Wilson to be the 1st US ambassador in the Vatican.
- R. Reagan was a supporter of prayer in US schools even if he did not make any law
to restore/impose school prayer. He questioned the relevance of the First
Amendment in a 1984 speech: “Can it really be true that the first amendment can
permit Nazis and Ku Klux Klansmen to march on public property (…) while the same
amendment forbids our children from saying a prayer in school?"
- He was against abortion, even if he did not end up in a constitutional amendment.
- On March 8, 1984, he pronounced his famous “Evil Empire speech”, addressed to the
National Association of Evangelicals. This was a very manichean propaganda speech
where he opposed the Communist Evil Empire (USSR) to the USA, described as a
Christian model: “Americans (are) far more religious than the people of other
nations. (…) Let us pray for the salvation of all of those who live in that totalitarian
darkness, (let us) pray they will discover the joy of knowing God.”
2 – John F. Kennedy and the Anti-Catholic prejudice, 1960 (Democrat)
John F. Kennedy, a Catholic of Irish descent, was confronted with a strong AntiCatholic prejudice. Even during the primaries within the Democratic Party, he fought
hard to prove that he would make a viable presidential contender.
On September 12, 1960, he made a landmark speech in front of influential Protestant
Ministers: “I believe in an America where the separation of church and state is
absolute, (…). I believe in a president whose religious views are his own private affair,
(…). I would not look with favor upon a president working to subvert the First
Amendment's guarantees of religious liberty. (…) If this election is decided on the basis
that 40 million Americans lost their chance of being president on the day they were
baptized, then it is the whole nation that will be the loser (…).”
This eloquent performance was a success: it won the support of the press while 500,000
copies of the transcript were distributed all over the country, and the contender’s
religion was no longer seen as a problem. Kennedy won the presidency against the
Republican candidate R. Nixon by a very narrow margin (118,000 votes out of 69 million).
3 – Jimmy Carter (1977-81) (Democrat)

A self-made man
J. Carter took over the family farm (he grew peanuts) after his father’s death. But the
early years were so difficult that the family had to live in a public housing apartment.
His farm later became more successful and wealthy, allowing him to finally become the
Governor of Georgia, a springboard to the White House.
5 – George W. Bush (2001-2009) (Republican)
George W. Bush is a Methodist. He always claimed that he was delivered from
alcoholism through prayer, and that he is a born again. He saw his 2000 victory as a
divine mission: God wanted him to be President.
Jesus is “his favorite political philosopher”. Historian Sebastian Fath says: “he is less
idealistic than Wilson, he practices less than Carter, he is less spiritual than Clinton,
(but) he has worked on his pious image in the media for electoral purposes.”
Indeed, President George W. Bush worked a lot on communication and media to convey
the image of a devout President. And it worked: 80% of the Evangelicals voted for
him in the 2000 election! After 9/11, he said: “The face of terror is not the true faith
of Islam. That’s not what Islam is all about. Islam is peace. These terrorists don’t
represent peace. They represent evil and war.” He wanted to avoid the confusion
between Islam and terrorism.

The first openly “born-again” president
Actually, J. Carter claimed to be “born again”, but he was not! Indeed, he had always
been a Baptist. He was very religious: he always said grace before meals (even at
official dinner with foreign leaders!!), he prayed several times a day, and he even
continued to teach Sunday School during his White House years.
Why did he win the 1977 election? First because he wanted to moralize the political
life after Nixon’s involvement in the Watergate scandal, then because he was the first
contender from the Deep South for long and Evangelical Baptists of the Bible Belt
massively voted for him.
Yet, he was not elected for a second mandate. It was due to the economic slump of
the 1970s, but he also disappointed most evangelicals because he supported legalized
abortion.
6 – President Obama, on the inauguration ceremony at the National
September 11 Memorial in New York, September 11th, 2011
President Obama, for the 10th anniversary of the attacks at Ground Zero, observed a
moment of silence at 8.46am (the exact moment the first plane hit the WTC ten years
8
before), then read Psalm 46 from the Bible. The latter is about persevering through
difficulties and standing firm in adversity, to get over it. It refers to America's
strength and determination during hardship. The President made no other speech, he
only read the Psalm.
-
The Inquisition was an ecclesiastical tribunal (established in the 13th century) to
fight against heresy, particularly active during the Spanish Reconquista against
Jews and Muslims. It was known for its severity (it burnt people alive!).
3 - An example of mobilization: Black Church and Civil Rights Movement

The Black/African-American Church
The Black/African-American Churches were born because, encouraged by racism and
segregation, most Blacks formed separated congregations. They inherited Christianity
from their white masters. The African-American Church became a real way of
emancipation.
The first Black churches were located in the Old South, mostly rural and very poor
(the Black ministers also had secular jobs in order to support themselves economically),
but there was an important solidarity between the members. With the Great Migration,
the Black Church became more urban and split into more various denominations (mostly
Methodist and Baptist), and helped new Black comers, mostly illiterate, seeking for a job
in cities. The Black Church played an important role in the Civil Rights Movements.
III – Religion: the key element of « the American Way of Life »
A – Church mobilizes or divides Society
1 - The Puritans and Prohibition, 1919-1933

The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, 1919
th
The 18 Amendment to the Constitution stipulated that manufacturing, selling and
drinking alcohol was illegal. Indeed, the WASPs (of Puritan descent), influential in
Congress, thought that alcoholism was immoral, triggered violence and went against
labor productivity. More, it was a way to penalize German immigrants (the debate on the
Amendment occurred during WWI) who own many of the breweries in the USA.

But the law was far from being respected
People found other ways to get alcohol: smuggling and organized crime (gangs, criminal
networks which stroke it rich thanks to the illegal trade of alcohol), corruption of the
police who were offered bribes, etc.

The failure of Prohibition
Prohibition did not prevent people from drinking, it just forced them to drink
underground: it was lifted in 1933.

The Civil Rights movement: the role of Rev. Martin Luther King
The Civil Rights Movement started when Rosa Park refused to give her seat to a white
person, in a bus, in Montgomery – Alabama (where segregation was legal) in 1955. A
Montgomery Baptist pastor, Rev. Martin Luther King, organized the boycott of the bus
company to protest against the arrest Rosa Park. From then, the Civil Rights Movement
was anchored in the Black Church. Martin Luther King initiated several decisive actions,
all praising non-violence, like the protest march he organized in Washington in 1963,
gathering over one million people, where he uttered his famous speech “I have a Dream”.
He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 but was murdered in 1968. This
movement was a success because segregation and racial discrimination in employment,
in education, in the use of public places, in voting, etc. became illegal in 1964.
2 – McCarthyism: an anti-communist “witch hunt”, 1950-54

What was McCarthyism?
It was a period of anti-communist suspicion and paranoia in the USA between 1950 and
1954, named after the initiator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican Senator of Wisconsin.
He suspected an insidious atheist Communist infiltration that would undermine the
democracy and disrupt the Christian foundations of the USA.
He organized hearings where people were aggressively questioned, bullied, encouraged
to sneak (give names). All was based on slander/smear/defamation, and people who did
not cooperate where blacklisted.

A Christian crusade
McCarthyism is sometimes called the Witch Hunt and compared to Inquisition, two
Christian references:
- The Witch Hunt alludes to the Puritan village of Salem (Massachusetts) where
hysteria and paranoia spread across the population in 1692 because of the
unfounded accusation of two young girls (Betty Parris and Abigail Williams,
respectively the daughter and the niece of Rev. Samuel Parris) who accused some
inhabitants of witchcraft. 150 people were jailed and 19 were hung.

Andrew Young: an example of a successful Black emancipation
This self-made man, born in 1930, Baptist pastor and famous activist in the Civil Rights
movement in the 1960s, is a democrat. Member of the House of Representatives
(Georgia) (1973-77), Mayor of Atlanta (1982-90), he remains famous because he was the
first African-American US Ambassador to the United Nations, appointed by
President Carter in 1977.
4 - From “the Moral Majority” to “the Christian Coalition”: the growth
of the conservative Christian right (la droite chrétienne conservatrice)
a – The Christian right’s revival of the 1970s
The conservative Christian right has always existed: it designates very conservative
people, Evangelicals, fundamentalists. Following the Scopes Monkey Trial in 1925,
9
that they considered a failure, the Christian right decided to retreat from the
political life of the country. This lasted until the 1970s, when the “born again” President
Carter was elected (1976), showing that religion could be a key element in the
elections. Jerry Falwell gave a new boost to this Christian right, giving birth to
organizations, associations, interest groups/lobbies. Here are two examples of these
organizations:
Name of the
organization
Moral Majority
founded in
1979, disbanded
in 1989
Christian
Coalition
created in 1989,
remains very
influential today
Created by…
Jerry Falwell (1933-2007), an
Evangelical fundamentalist
Baptist Pastor (very
conservative), televangelist,
charismatic. Following the
1973 legalization of abortion,
he decided that conservative
Evangelicals/ fundamentalists
should intervene in the
political life of the country.
He organized numerous
meetings, sermons,
conferences, etc. He remains a
controversial figure: he said
9/11 was God’s punishment for
America’s sinful behavior (legal
abortion, increase of gay
rights, etc.)!
Pat Robertson (born in 1930),
a Baptist televangelist,
Republican (he lost against G.
Bush at the Republican
primaries of 1987). He widely
uses the media to convey his
conservative ideas.
b – Successes and failures of the Christian right
The Christian right is always trying to break the “wall of separation”. These are
examples of successes and failures of its actions.

An example of a failure: Roe v. Wade or the legalization of abortion (1973)
In the 1960s, there was no federal law on abortion. It was forbidden in many States,
including Texas. In 1969, Jane Roe (her real name was Norma McCorvey, but she wanted
to remain anonymous) was a 21-year-old young mother, divorced, unemployment, who
became pregnant for the third time: she wanted to abort, but the Texas law forbade
abortions. She challenged the law against Henry Wade, the attorney of Dallas County.
The case, first trialed in Dallas, was brought to the Supreme Court in 1972: the latter
declared the Texas Law on abortion unconstitutional (because it was violating the 9th
Amendment), and invalidated the law. This is how abortion became legal. Here is a
summary of the trial:
Jane Roe, 21 years old, unemployed and
Henry Wade, attorney of the
divorced, pregnant for the 3rd time
county of Dallas
Arguments used:
Pro-life arguments: life begins at
- Jane Roe should have the right to decide by
conception. The fetus has legal
herself. The right to choose/decide what is rights: he deserves the right to live.
best for yourself is not written in the
An abortion is a murder.
Constitution, but the 9th Amendment The right for a child to live is
stipulates that “the naming of certain rights
superior to that of woman to decide
in the Constitution (like freedom of speech,
what is best for her.
of thought, etc.) does not take away from
the people the rights that are not named
(like the right to decide what is best for
you)”.
- Life begins at birth, not at conception. The
fetus is not a human being: an abortion is not
a murder.
The Supreme Court invalidated the Texas law (1973). Jane Roe won (she had given her
baby to adoption) with 7 votes for her, 2 against her. The law stipulated that:
- Abortion was entirely allowed in the first three months of the pregnancy, in all
States.
- States were allowed to restrict (but not to forbid) the right to abortion, but only in
the second trimester.
- Abortion was forbidden in the third trimester (too late).
Aim / action
J. Falwell and followers mixed
religion and patriotism, and
wanted to prevent Carter
(democrat) from being
reelected, so they supported R.
Reagan for the 1980
presidential elections. They also
wanted to elect conservative
Senators and Representatives.
They fought against evils that
threatened the country:
homosexuality, pornography,
women’s liberation/emancipation,
etc.
The Christian Coalition supports
Republican candidates. For
instance, for the 2000
presidential elections, they
distributed 70 million voter
guides (leaflets), including 5
million in Spanish (remember that,
usually, Latinos rather vote for
the Democrats). It is against
abortion, against the teaching of
evolutionism at school, and for
the re-establishment of prayers
in public schools.
The decision of the Supreme Court was condemned by the Catholic Church and by the
fundamentalist and Evangelical Protestants. The battle has raged since 1973 and pro-
10
life groups are an important lobby in the USA until today. Protesters regularly picket
outside clinics where abortion is practiced.
law. Indeed, in the US, a citizen arrested for violating a law asked for a magistrate to
examine its constitutionality (it could end in the Supreme Court). John T. Scopes
volunteered to violate the law by teaching evolutionism.

Two successes of the Christian right
The Christian right has also achieved successes:
- It supported the establishment of a National Day of Prayer (1st Thursday of May),
decided by H. Truman in 1952, supported by Billy Graham, and put on a fixed annual
day in 1988. People are required to "to turn to God in prayer and meditation". Its
constitutionality has been challenged since (by groups which say that this Day is
against the First Amendment), but unsuccessfully.
- A second victory for the Christian right concerns the Equal Rights Amendment
(ERA), a proposed amendment designed to guarantee equal rights for men and
women. It was not ratified in 1972, so it was not adopted: this is a success for the
conservative Christian right which opposes the liberation of women.

The trial
The Scopes trial opened in July 1925
represented the two sides.
William Bryan, attorney of Tennessee
Presbyterian, conservative, former
Secretary of State of President Wilson, 3
times a Democratic presidential candidate.
Presented in the media as the protector of
the Bible and of the religion of the
Fathers.
B – Religion between resistance and adaptation to the evolutions of the
US society
in Dayton. Two famous personalities
Clarence Darrow, attorney of J. Scopes
Famous criminal lawyer, agnostic, not
retired but growing old, member of the
ACLU.
Presented in the media as the symbol of
atheism,
modernity,
science,
the
"Yankee."
Most media were biased and made a caricatured presentation of the trial. Still, many
journalists who had come for the trial were surprised to see girls wearing short skirts
and people listening to the radio: not everyone in the Bible Belt was fundamentalist.
The trial took place peacefully, despite some tensions. The jury was composed of 11
fundamentalists on 12 people. C. Darrow’s aim was to prove that Darwin's theory did
not contradict the Bible and the Butler Act. The Judge refused to listen to the
scientists proposed by C. Darrow. So the latter called W. Bryan himself as witness, to
testify as an "expert in the Bible”. After one hour and a half of questions, it was a
complete disaster for W. Bryan who lost his credibility and was disconcerted by C.
Darrow’s questions.
1 - The Scopes Monkey Trial, 1925

Darwinism/evolutionism versus Creationism
Darwinism/evolutionism
Creationism
Born with the publication of Charles
Based on the Book of Genesis (Bible),
Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species in
praised by fundamentalists who think
1859:
that the Bible is inerrant (the content of
- It explains how species evolve, change
the Bible is entirely true):
and adapt by natural selection
- The World was created by God. All
(evolution of DNA to adapt to the
the species were created by God,
environment).
there is no possible evolution of
- Man is an animal descending from
DNA.
different species (notably the monkey).
- God created man in its own image.
- Darwin estimated that the age of the
- The Book of Genesis starts with “in
Earth was 200 million years (current
the beginning”. There is no
estimate: 6 billion).
reference to a specific time.

The end of the trial and its consequences
The outcome was very disappointing for fundamentalists: J. Scopes was declared
guilty, but all he had to do was to pay the $100 fine imposed by the Judge for
breaking the Butler Act! And in 1927, the Supreme Court of Tennessee invalidated the
judgment because the fine should have been determined by the jury, not the Judge. So
even if the Butler Act remained in force until 1967, the fundamentalist movement
suffered a serious defeat (and decided to avoid any further political involvement until
the Roe v. Wade case in 1973).
The Scopes Trial was given a lot of media coverage around the country. Songs were
even composed! The New York Times called it "the most amazing courtroom scene in
Anglo-American history". The trial highlighted the differences between the North
(more modern, liberal) and the South (Bible Belt, conservative, importance of religion)
of the country.

The origin of the trial
Teaching evolutionism was forbidden most public schools. Fundamentalists succeeded
in enacting anti-Darwinism laws in some States of the Bible Belt. It was the case of
Tennessee where the 1925 Butler Act prohibited the teaching of "any theory that
denies the divine nature of human creation, as described in the Bible, and claims that
man descended from a lower order of animals."
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a pro-Darwin organization, wanted to
invalidate the Butler Act and looked for a teacher who would be willing to violate the

11
Creationism today in the USA
In 1967, the Butler Act was repealed. And in 1973, Tennessee became the first
State to allow public school the right to teach evolutionism (but as a theory, not a fact),
along with creationism, but the law was repealed in 1975. Since then, the battle
between both is raging, and it depends on the States because there is no federal law:
Kentucky teaches both theories, while Colorado and NY teach only evolutionism. It is up
to the schools, teachers and countries to decide how to teach the origins of mankind.
There are 16 Creation Museums across the USA. One opened in Kentucky in 2007. It
displays, in its lobby, a Tyrannosaurus beside a human being, but dinosaurs disappeared
around 65 million years ago while scientists estimate that men appeared around 10
million years ago: such a scene is therefore impossible, according to scientists.

The origins
The Amish (a traditional Anabaptist subgroup) fled the Netherlands and north of
Germany where they were persecuted to reach Pennsylvania in 1720. It is impossible to
become Amish, you inherit it.

A community that remains aloof from the US society
They are known for their separation from the world (including their refusal of the
military service) and for their pacifism. They speak Pennsylvania Dutch. They are living
very simply, generally refuse technology and live in rural areas. They dress in a very
sober way (wearing black and white, not wearing buttons which are considered jewels,
not shaving the beard after getting married, etc.). Their radical discipline is dictated
by the Ordnung, a book which gathers very precise rules like the colors authorized for
the buggies or size of the hats.
The Amish officially enter the community when they get baptized (between 15 and 25
years old): children cannot be baptized, it has to be the person’s will. They are allowed
to leave the community and try the modern life before asking for baptism.
There are around 249,000 Amish in the USA today. They have the highest birth rate
of the country (7 children per family) and are scattered in 21 states in the USA.
2 – The Counterculture
The counterculture flourished in the 1960s: it rejected the conventional social norms
of the 1950s. It was embraced by young people who rejected the cultural standards
of their parents and praised “peace and love” in a context of Vietnam War and
segregation.

The hippies: LSD to be closer to God
It appeared in the mid-1960s. Hippies initiated a sexual revolution and were taking
drugs (such as cannabis or LSD) that produced hallucinations. They rejected the
traditional form of religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience, helped by
drug addiction. They gathered in meetings called “love-in” which were peaceful public
gatherings focused on meditation, love, music, and/or use of psychedelic drugs. Some
historians considered that it was a new form religiosity.


School and the Free Exercise Clause
The Amish do not educate their children past the 8th grade (13-14 years old), which
goes against the law of many States regarding education. In the 1972 “Wisconsin v.
Yoder” case, the Supreme Court decided in the favor of the Amish (Yoder) against the
State (Wisconsin), affirming that Amish children could not be placed under
compulsory education past 8th grade, because of the First Amendment’s Free Exercise
Clause.
The New Age
It shares similarities with the Hippie movement. It flourished in the 1970s and still
exists today. It is an eclectic spiritual movement which gathers several cultural
influences, including environmentalism, mysticism, and fascination for Eastern religions
(Hinduism and Buddhism). The figure of Jesus became the model of this New Age
spirituality.
b - The Mormons: an example of a successful adaptation

Origin and context
A Mormon is a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, a religion
founded in the US in 1830 by Joseph Smith. The latter claimed that an angel named
Moroni showed him where an old Golden Book was buried (a book since named Gold
Plates), and helped him to translate it into English. This book does not replace the Bible,
it is an adjunct to the Bible. It relates a sacred history of the early inhabitants of
the Americas, a group of Hebrews whose ancestors left Jerusalem around 600 BC and
settled in the New World. They established in Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1847 under
Smith’s successor, Brigham Young.

Jesus Christ Superstar
In the 1960s, the Youth rediscovered Jesus, he became fashionable and popular. He
was even the hero of a Broadway musical Jesus Christ Superstar, a rock opera played on
Broadway since 1971, about the last week of Jesus’ life. Some Christians qualify the
musical as blasphemous, too far from the Bible. Still, it remains a great success.

Doctrine
Mormonism denies Trinity, insists on grace and work to attain salvation, believes that
God used to be a man on another world and that people have the potential of
3 - The Amish and the Mormons: between resistance and successful
adaptation
a - The Amish: an example of resistance
12
becoming gods and goddesses. Mormonism emphasizes missionary work and the Second
Coming of Christ. Mormons consider themselves to be Christians, but other Christian
denominations do not agree.
churchgoers. The congregations of megachurches are different from congregations of
smaller churches: the proportion of singletons is bigger (1/3 of the attendees compared
to 10% in a normal church), the average age is younger (40 compared to 43) and
attendees are wealthier. California tops the other States with 178 megachurches,
followed by Texas (157).
Praying in megachurches generally resembles a show: people are demonstrative, they
pray with fervor (they can cry, raise their arms/hands, etc.), they applaud during the
sermon/preach that they see on giant screens, etc.

The “Mormon Way of Life”
Mormons give a lot of time to their church. Many young Mormons choose to be
missionaries for two years (like Mitt Romney who came to France between 1966 and
1968, while there are currently more than 50,000 Mormon missionaries across the
globe). They have a health code (excluding addictive substances like alcohol, tobacco,
coffee, tea). They tend to be very family-oriented, having a birth rate bigger than in
other countries. They have a strict law of chastity (no sex before marriage and
fidelity). They are known for being chauvinistic (which explains why there are so many
Mormons in the CIA).
b – Examples

Lakewood Church, Houston, Texas
Founded in 1959, it is the largest megachurch in the country with over 45,000
attendees per week! The Pastor is Joel Osteen. The church can host is 650,000 square
feet big with 14,000 seats and giant screens all around. The budget of the Church
reaches $70 million (2008).

Baptism for the dead
To be accepted in the Kingdom of God, the Mormons think that a person has to be
baptized and they can do it even after the death of a person. Mormons are
encouraged to baptize their ancestors, whether or not they were Mormons. They even
baptized Adolf Hitler and Anne Franck, which remains very controversial! Missionaries
compile data on people to be baptized: the Mormon Church has built the most extensive
genealogical library in Salt Lake City with more than 2 billion names.

Second Baptist Church, Houston, Texas
Located just five miles away from Lakewood, it is the biggest Baptist megachurch in the
USA with 24,000 attendees per week. Pastor Edwin Young, 73, enlarged the
congregation by focusing on youth: up to 700 teenagers can be baptized at once during
annual beach retreats (i.e. the person is entirely plunged in the seawater by the pastor).
The annual budget of the church reaches $53 million per year. The octagonal balconied
church itself can host 6,500 people, but it is part of a larger campus with facilities
including a bookstore, a café, a school and even a fitness center!

A very powerful church
The main source of the church's wealth is tithing: Mormons are required to give 1/10
of their annual income to the church, which accounts for $5 billion per year. The
Church encourages its members to succeed and get wealthy, praising economic
entrepreneurialism. They are active in humanitarian aid, which also contributes to their
success. For instance, 0.5% of the South American population is Mormon. Their
missions allow them to defend American values and spread the 1950s American Way of
Life, hence “Americanizing” the new converts.
Today, there are 6.1 million Mormons in the US (14 million in the World), and it is the
4th largest religion of the country. Mitt Romney (Republican candidate against Obama in
the 2012 presidential election) and Katherine Heigl (actress of Grey’s Anatomy) are
Mormons.

Central Church of God, Charlotte, North Carolina – “My God is awesome!”
Central Church of God is a nondenominational Protestant church, created in January
1977. The pastor is Loran Livingstone. It gathers 6,000 people per week, Blacks and
Whites.
c - Critics
Megachurches raise many critics:
- They draw members away from smaller churches.
- They are more concerned with entertainement than religion, and the theological
content of the sermons is too light.
- They generate a lot of money while they don’t have to pay taxes (tax-exempt
status). They send a lot on advertisement and worry about their popularity. This is
far from the teachings of Jesus Christ who praises charity and poverty.
- Scandals tarnish the image of some megachurches: illegal contribution to the political
campaign of Republican candidates, or pastors involved in sex- or drug-related
C – The Faith Market
1 – Megachurches
a – Presentation: definition and attendees
A megachurch gathers a congregation exceeding 2,000 attendees per week. They were
50 in 1970, they are 1,300 today and the phenomenon expands, even outside the USA. But
the megachurch phenomenon does not represent the majority of American
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scandal, like the Evangelical pastor Ted Haggard (Colorado) who was accused of
having paid a male sexual partner in 2006 and purchased drugs, or the Pentacostal
pastor Earl Paulk (Atlanta) accused of child molestation and extra-marital affairs.
-
2 - Televangelism
a – Definition
Televangelism is the recourse to television in order to convey Christian ideas. Hence,
televangelists are ministers (generally of a megachurch) who devote a large portion of
their ministry to television broadcasting.
More, Joel Osteen and his wife Victoria have been travelling across the USA and
other countries (like Canada or England) since 2005. The meeting is called "A Night
of Hope", including worship music, a testimony by Joel's mother and a sermon from
Joel Osteen.
d - Critics
Televangelists are often criticized, especially by other Christian ministers:
- They corrupt the message of the Bible because they do not focus enough on
theology.
- They are too rich and too materialistic. They have recourse to advertisement so as
to encourage fundraising. They worry about their appearance. This is far from the
teachings of Jesus Christ.
- They are criticized for their commitment with the Republicans, like Jerry Falwell
and Pat Robertson.
b – History: the birth of televangelism
In the Bible, Christian ideas were conveyed by the Apostles, whose story is related in
the Acts of the Apostles, New Testament. The action of missionaries, spreading the
Good News of Jesus resurrection, was later strengthened by printed stuff (books,
leaflets, etc.). In the 1920s, the apparition of the radio made a true revolution: Christian
radio programs were broadcast, aiming at both converting new people and deepening the
theological knowledge of believers. Television spread from the 1950s. The preacher
Fulton J. Sheen is considered the first televangelist: he successfully switched to
television in 1951 after two decades of popular radio broadcasts. Televangelism really
flourished in the late 1960s and 1970s, with people like Billy Graham, Jerry Falwell
(Moral majority) or Pat Robertson (Christian Coalition).
3 – Sects and cults in the USA
a – Definition
Sect (careful: false friend!!)
Cult (pejorative word)
A small group that separated from A small, quasi-religious group with very bizarre
a larger group, a branch of a wider beliefs, rituals and practices, whose members
religion, which is accepted and usually live in isolation (away from their families)
recognized by other religious and are totally dependent on their leader. Because
groups and most governments.
of the First Amendment to the Constitution (Free
Exercise Clause), cults cannot be forbidden.
c – Two examples: Billy Graham and Joel Osteen

Billy Graham (born in 1918)
This Southern Baptist minister is an evangelist who became famous with his sermons
broadcast on the radio and television as soon as the 1950s. He is a charismatic person
and was the spiritual adviser of D. Eisenhower and R. Nixon. He took part into the Civil
Rights movement by inviting Blacks and Whites to attend his meetings and pray together
despite segregation, and by preaching with Rev. Martin Luther King in a 1957 NYC
meeting.
His message generally emphasized the importance of conversion and the fact that
Jesus forgives us for our sins. He remains an influential personality and an admired man
today.
b - Two famous examples of American cults

The Church of Scientology
The Church of Scientology was founded by L. Ron Hubbard in 1954, based on his book
Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health (1950). Mankind is immortal and divine.
But humans are disrupted by Engrams, i.e. mental images that have negative effects on
our present and future lives: they prevent us from realizing our divine nature and
experiencing a happy and fulfilled life. They can only be removed from our mind
through dianetic counseling, the psychological theory invented by Hubbard. The
sessions may cost as much as $1,000 per hour!! Hence, the Church of Scientology is
often accused of racket and greed, and is considered dangerous by many.

Joel Osteen (born in 1963)
Joel Osteen is at the head of the biggest megachurch in the USA. His conveys his
sermons/ideas through several means:
- His sermons are broadcast on TV every week (watched by 7 million people). Joel’s
father was already a televangelist, so when he died in 1999, Joel knew everything
about televangelism.
- Besides, Joel Osteen writes very successful books on how to improve your life.

The Branch Davidians, also known as “the Branch”
The Branch Davidians appeared in 1955. They believe that the final divine judgment is
about to come. They are vegetarian, do not drink and do not smoke. But “the Branch” had
a leader, David Koresh, who added some rules in 1986 following some “revelations”: he
said he was the only one who could interpret the Scripture and that all females in the
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Branch belonged to him, including all married women. But some of his “wives” were no
more than 12 years old: he was accused of child abuse.
This is what motivated the 1993 siege of the Branch’s Center near Waco, Texas: after
51 days of siege, the FBI launched an assault to arrest Koresh. But this was a failure and
resulted in the deaths of 82 of the church’s members, including David Koresh: it was
the bloodiest action of the Government against its own citizens since the Civil War. Most
of them died because their building was on fire: the official version stipulates that the
Davidians themselves set fire, but many Americans don’t believe this and blame the FBI.
Conclusion
Despite its secularism, the USA is a multi-denominational country, where pluralism is
protected by the First Amendment. Some religions were born on US soil such as the
Mormons. But the USA has also the specificity to preserve some religions which
disappeared from their country of origin, like the Amish.
Besides, the American civil religion is an important aspect of the American identity,
and it contributes to the soft power of the USA.
The USA remains the most religious of all developed countries. 20 million copies of
the Bible are sold every year in the USA, and an American household has 4 copies in
average. However, surveys reveal that the knowledge of the Americans regarding the
content of the Bible is not always accurate: less than 50% of them know that the Book
of Genesis is the first book of the Bible, and 60% do not know half of the Ten
Commandments (and 20% of the people questioned during the survey thought that Noah
was Joan of Arc’s husband!!!).
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