Title: Coastal vertebrate exposure to predicted habitat changes due to sea level rise
Journal: Environmental Management
Appendix 1: Niche Definitions
Unless otherwise specified for bird species, references are from The Birds of North America
(Poole 2005) species and habitat description accounts.
Habitat types and definitions
SLAMM # Description
2
Undeveloped dry land
3
Swamp
4
Cypress swamp
5
Inland fresh marsh
6
Tidal fresh marsh
7
Transition salt marsh
8
Salt marsh
10
Estuarine beach
11
Tidal flat
12
15
16
Ocean beach
Inland open water
Riverine tidal open
water
Estuarine open water
Open ocean
Brackish marsh
Tidal swamp
17
19
20
23
Full description
Uplands with little to no human structures present
Palustrine forested broad-leaved deciduous
Palustrine forested needle-leaved deciduous
Lacustrine, palustrine, and riverine emergent
Riverine tidal emergent
Estuarine intertidal scrub-shrub broad-leaved deciduous
Estuarine intertidal emergent
Estuarine intertidal unconsolidated shore (sand or beachbar)
Estuarine intertidal unconsolidated shore (mud or
organic)
Marine intertidal unconsolidated shore (sand)
Riverine, lacustrine, and palustrine open water
Riverine tidal open water
Estuarine subtidal
Marine subtidal
Irregularly flooded estuarine intertidal emergent
Tidally influenced swamp
Shorebirds
Nesting. Two shorebird species nest on the Georgia coast: Wilson’s Plover (WIPL) and
American Oystercatcher (AMOY). Both species nest on open beach sand that is above the high
tide level (Bergstrom 1988, Peters and Otis 2006), which in the SLAMM classification may be
classified as open beach (12).
Nesting habitats: AMOY, WIPL: 12
Foraging. All shorebird species forage in ocean (12) and estuarine (10) beaches, and tidal (11)
and ocean (13) flats. Whimbrel (WHIM) will also forage in saltmarshes (8). All species
generally forage on invertebrates, but different landscape features may suit one species over
another (Burger et al. 1977).
Foraging habitats:
WIPL, PIPL, REKN, AMOY, RUTU, SAND: 10, 11, 12
WHIM: 8, 10, 11, 12
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Rails
Nesting. The Black Rail (BLRA), King Rail (KIRA), and Clapper Rail (CLRA) all nest on the
Georgia coast. All rails nest in dense emergent vegetation, and they usually build a platform of
folded or broken vegetation to keep the nest above the high water line (Bergstrom 1988, Zedler
1993, Legare and Eddleman 2001, Gaines et al. 2003, Peters and Otis 2006). CLRA will use
only saltwater habitats, nesting in saltmarsh (8) or brackish marsh (20) (Burger et al. 1977,
Gaines et al. 2003). BLRA and KIRA will use these habitats as well (just brackish, not
saltmarsh), along with freshwater marshes (5) and tidal freshwater marshes (6) (Legare and
Eddleman 2001, Valente et al. 2011).
Nesting habitats:
BLRA, KIRA: 5, 6, 20
CLRA: 8, 20
Foraging. BLRA, KIRA, and CLRA forage on invertebrates in mud or very shallow water
within dense emergent vegetation, and habitats that are dry for all or most of the year will not be
used. BLRA and KIRA will forage in both freshwater (5, 6) and brackish (20) marshes. CLRA
will forage within saltmarshes and brackish marshes (8, 20). The overwintering Yellow Rail
(YERA) prefers the drier parts of coastal marshes, which may include irregularly flooded
brackish marshes (20) and high elevation areas of saltmarshes (8).
Foraging habitats:
BLRA, KIRA: 5, 6, 20
CLRA: 8, 20
YERA: 20, 8
Terns
Nesting. Gull-billed terns (GBTE), Least Terns (LETE) and Black Skimmers (BLSK) will nest
in similar areas as the nesting shorebirds (open beach (12)), in addition to estuarine beaches (10).
Nesting habitats:
GBTE, LETE, BLSK: 10, 12
Foraging: GBTE have a broad diet and will use a variety of foraging habitats: freshwater marsh
(5), tidal freshwater marsh (6), transition shrub-scrub marsh (7), saltmarsh (8), estuarine beaches
(10), tidal flats (11), ocean beach (12), and ocean flats (13). LETE primarily dive in shallow
water in open freshwater (15), riverine tidal open water (16), estuarine open water (17), tidal
creeks (18) and open ocean (19) that is near shore. BLSK skim the surface of calm waters,
usually during flowing tides over tidal flats (11), ocean flats (13), tidal creeks (18) and open
ocean (19) that is nearshore (Black and Harris 1981).
Foraging habitats:
GBTE: 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13
LETE: 15, 16, 17, 19 (near shore)
BLSK: 11, 13, 17, 19 (near shore)
Marsh/wading birds
2
Nesting. All the wading birds tend to nest in large colonies in woody plants (trees or shrubs)
surrounded by freshwater (alligators are drawn to these colonies to catch fallen fledglings, but
they also protect the colonies from raccoons). The colonies may use swamps (3), cypress
swamps (4), transition scrub-shrub (9) (often adjacent to freshwater), and undeveloped dry land
that is adjacent to water (Hafner 1997). Least bitterns (LEBI) nest in tall emergent vegetation in
freshwater wetlands (5), and tidal fresh marsh (6).
Nesting habitats:
WOST, LBHE, TRHE, SNEG: 3, 4, 23 (2 adjacent to water)
LEBI: 5, 6
Foraging. Wood Storks (WOST) forage in a wide variety of habitats including near nesting sites
in swamps (3) and cypress swamps (4) as well as far distances from nests in freshwater marshes
(5), tidal fresh marshes (6), salt and brackish marshes (8, 20), open fresh water (15) and tidal
creeks (18) (Gaines et al. 1998, Bryan et al. 2002). Little Blue Herons (LBHE) also forage in 3,
4, 5, and 15, but avoid salt water. Tricolored herons (TRHE) and Snowy Egrets (SNEG) forage
in marshes (5, 6, 8), inland open water (15), and brackish marshes (20). LEBI forage in the same
areas that they nest (5, 6) as well as open fresh water that is adjacent to marsh (15) (Rehm and
Baldassarre 2007, Jobin et al. 2011).
Foraging habitats:
WOST: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 15, 17, 20, 23
LBHE: 3, 4, 5, 15, 20, 23
TRHE, SNEG: 5, 6, 8, 15, 20, 23
LEBI: 5, 6, 15, 20
Passerines
Nesting. Seaside Sparrows (SESP) and Painted Buntings (PABU) both nest on the South
Atlantic coast. SESP nests only in saltmarshes (8) (Rush et al. 2009). PABU prefer drier and
upland habitats, nesting in transition shrub-scrub saltmarsh (7) and undeveloped dry land (2)
(Springborn and Meyers 2005).
Nesting habitats:
SESP: 8
PABU: 2, 7
Foraging. SESP and the overwintering Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow (SALS) forage widely
in saltwater wetland habitats, with SESP often foraging long distances from the nesting sites
(Post 1974). SESP and SALS forage in saltmarsh (8), and brackish marsh (20). PABU forages
in undeveloped dry land (2), and transition shrub-scrub saltmarsh (7).
Foraging habitats:
SESP, SALS: 8, 20
PABU: 2, 7
Raptor
3
Nesting. The Swallow-tailed Kite (STKI) nests in tall trees in swamps (3) and cypress swamps
(4). If nests are in dry forested areas, STKI will often nest on “islands” surrounded by wetland
habitat as frogs and insects are the primary diet items for fledglings (Meyer et al. 2004).
Nesting habitats. STKI: 3, 4
Foraging. STKI forages on a wide variety of small vertebrates and insects in undeveloped dry
land (2), swamps (3), cypress swamps (4), freshwater marshes (5), tidal freshwater marshes (6),
and brackish marshes (20).
Foraging habitats. STKI: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 20
Reptiles
Nesting. The Diamondback Rattlesnake nests on undeveloped dry land (2), often in burrows of
tortoises or rodents on underneath bunchgrasses (Martin and Means 2000). Diamondback
terrapins nest on dry land that has sandy soil for burrowing (10, 12, 2 [adjacent to foraging
habitat]) (Roosenburg 1994). Nesting sites are located above the high tide level and are adjacent
to wetland habitats where terrapins spend most of their time (Roosenburg 1994).
Nesting habitats.
Diamondback Rattlesnake: 2
Diamondback Terrapin: 10, 12, and 2 (only adjacent to foraging habitat)
Foraging. Rattlesnakes forage primarily in undeveloped dry land (2) areas (e.g. palmetto shrubscrub, pine forests, maritime forests, late successional dunes). Terrapins forage primarily in
saltmarsh (8) and will use riverine (16) and estuarine (17) open water to access interior
saltmarshes during high tides (Harden et al. 2007).
Foraging habitats.
Diamondback Rattlesnake: 2
Diamondback Terrapin: 8, 16, 17
Amphibians
Nesting. Gopher frogs lay their eggs in swamps (3), cypress swamps (4) and freshwater pools
(15) (Greenberg 2001). Although the landcover classification of “inland open water” (15) could
include larger lakes and reserviors that would not be suitable breeding habitat, in our study area,
the vast majority of this landcover type is smaller ponds that could be suitable habitat. Dwarf
sirens live and breed in freshwater habitats that are typically forested (3, 4), but they may also
lay eggs in open freshwater pools (15).
Nesting habitats.
Gopher Frog,: 3, 4, 15
Dwarf Siren: 3, 4, 15
Foraging. The Gopher frog, as its name implies, spends a majority of its time in and around
gopher tortoise burrows where it forages on invertebrates and other anurans, but it does not stray
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far from nesting sites (Greenberg 2001). Dwarf sirens forage in forested freshwater systems (3,
4) and open freshwater pools (15).
Foraging habitats.
Gopher Frog: 2 (near nesting sites)
Dwarf Siren: 3, 4, 15
Mammals
Nesting. Marsh rabbits make nests of rushes and grasses in freshwater wetland areas (5, 6, 7)
that are surrounded by water for protection from predators (Chapman and Willner 1981).
Nesting habitats: Marsh Rabbit: 5, 6, 7
Foraging. Marsh rabbits will inhabit saltmarshes, but prefer freshwater habitats and must be
near a source of fresh water, however the rabbits will not occupy marsh that is highly fragmented
by open water (Forys and Humphrey 1996). Marsh rabbits will also forage in dry upland
habitats if water is available nearby and forested wetlands.
Foraging habitats: Marsh Rabbit: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (only near freshwater)
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