Annotated Bibliography
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and John Steele Henderson. Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth
Century AD. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1993.
This article explains the collapse of the Maya civilization by discussing the paloenvironmental
characteristics of Maya region in eight century. The demise of low lands is described as a result
of considerable transformation of the landscape due increase in population and societal collapse
which contributed to the destruction of natural habitats, excessive loss of floral and faunal
resources, and the removal of lacustrine and riverine ecosystems. The Mayas had to cope with
the changing environment and the unexpected timings and magnitude of these changes. “The
1976 earthquake has been implicated in the subsequent rise of lake levels, shift in basin
sediments and tilting of southern shores.” The problem that researchers have faced is that they
have very less data over environmental analysis of that time. Climatic changes, the timing and
magnitude of sea levels, changing water tables, and fluctuations in atmospheric conditions
stressed the ecosystems. There were multiple agricultural technologies that changed the
topography and soil characteristics, enhancing the process of degradation but any proper
recorded data is missing. The writer’s intent was to conduct the paleolimnological research in the
Peten lakes. They did study lacustrine sediments in Maya lake but they failed to find and
compare it with another lake of same time that was not affected by Maya. Only through the
comparison was it possible to note the difference in natural changes in environment and the one
affected by human activity. There have also been population records of few areas, but no final
analysis can be done until data from all lowland habitats is present. “The study requires a
magnitude of fieldwork that is difficult to envision in the near future. The challenge is to build
into manageable small scale research the kinds of data collection strategies that will ultimately
contribute to testing of large-scale models.” Says the author.
Haug, Gerald H., et al. "Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization." Science299.5613 (2003):
1731-1735.
This article indicates that a series of multi-year droughts helped to doom an ancient culture;
Maya civilization. “Unusual shifts in atmospheric patterns took place near the end of the Classic
Maya period, lending credence to the notion that climate, and specifically drought, indeed played
a hand in the decline of this ancient civilization.” The Mayas have to cope with long dry season
each year due to seasonal fluctuations. Large scale water collection system could not be
implemented due to the lack of surface water for 4 to 5 months of the year. “Marine sediments
from the Cariaco Basin hold considerable information about the shifts in climate that Maya
experienced.” Cariaco basin trapped sediment naturally resulting in lack of oxygen in water. This
disrupted fauna life. Through a radio carbon technique, researchers evaluated that four droughts
struck the Maya regime. The drought might have played a significant role, but unavailability of
natural water resources must also be considered, which contributed to the suffering of the
population during extended period of drought. The water reserves were also controlled by ruling
Maya elites who failed to provide sufficient water to people during rough period. Migrating to
other lands was not an option any more as drought struck the entire area. Researchers have
pointed out many reasons for the collapse, but climatic disturbance remains the central reason for
the destabilization of the Maya society. Regarding the research the author highlights, “It is
significant to discover that the history of Maya was so closely tied to the environmental
constraints. If Maya civilization could collapse under the weight of natural climate events, it is of
more than academic interest to ponder how modern society will fare in the face of an uncertain
climate in the years ahead.” A research over how ancient civilizations tackled with the changes
in climate may help the present people with important lessons during the catastrophe.
Rathje, William L. "The origin and development of lowland Classic Maya civilization."
American Antiquity (1971): 275-285.
In this paper, the writer explains that the fragmentation of classical Maya kingdoms and its
disintegration into chaos resulted in the fading of empire. “There were also some structural
problems inherent in classical Maya competitive divine kingship and status rivalry that had
brought down the south eastern countries.” The initial Maya system was highly organized and
structured. The post classic states were more economically and politically stable. There were
linage leaders council that governed through multiple systems. A new capital, Mayapan, was
established after the destruction of Chichen Itza. It established a new system of governance with
urban population. Small temples and palaces were the principle public buildings. “Maya
kingdoms after 9th century disintegration may also have helped create the unstable, but dynamic,
political environment of the highlands in postclassic.” Some large high land hegemonies
emerged from the alliances and wars of early post classic. It was a great flexible system that
made the internal shift of power possible, putting an end to traumas. But later, highland Maya
divided due to warfare and invasion by foreign groups. The elite lacked power and there was no
reconstruction of the buildings and institutions after the revolts. The magnificent monuments, art
and architecture of the Maya state swept away with its decline. The political system also
disintegrated due to the loss of these classic hallmarks which were the instruments of elite power.
There were intergroup rivalries. “In Yucatan, the centuries of warfare between the highland
states had created long-standing enmity between groups by the 16th century. The Conquistadors
were able to exploit these divisions in their subjugation of highland Maya.” Due to these
exploitations and grouping, the Maya civilization entered its phase of decline.
Dunning, Nicholas P., et al. "Arising from the bajos: The evolution of a neo-tropical landscape
and the rise of Maya civilization." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92.2
(2002): 267-283.
This paper reflects the study of large depression known as bajos in the Maya lowlands which
transformed from perennial wetlands and shallow lakes to swamps around 400 BC. “The
transformation of bajos represents one of the most significant and long lasting anthropogenic
environmental changes” that lead to its decline. The writer focuses on the analysis of landscape
transformation for the study of social and environmental factors that represent long lasting
anthropogenic environmental changes, contributing to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations. In
order to fully understand the impact of transformed bajos, multiple researches were conducted
along ancient Maya cities of La Milpa, Belize and Yaxha, Guatemala and paleoenvironmental
and archaeological data was gathered. These were hydrologic ally stable ecosystems and were
more suitable for settling. But later these were induced by environmental changes causing the
transformation of bajos. “Gradual but irregular climatic drying ensued, with maximal dryness
occurring possibly played a significant role in the transformation of bajos from perennial to
seasonal wetlands and in the transition from the Pre-classic to Classic periods in Maya
civilization.” Sedimentation occurred in them causing trouble in uplands.
This is why some Maya urban centers were abandoned in these areas and water storage system
was introduced. This also disrupted the early political system of Classic Maya period.
“One of the most notable changes occurring at that time was the abandonment of El Mirador,
Nakbe, and nearby urban centers (Hansen 1992).” These large pre-classic urban centers were
exposed to environment disturbance like prolonged drought, triggering their abandonment.