Scientific Method Lecture
Name the differences between Marine Biology and Oceanography.
 Oceanography is the study of waves, tides, and currents.
 Marine Biology is the study of marine organisms and their interactions with
each other and the environment.
Name the 5 important processes shaping the Biosphere.
 Capture of Energy
 Cycling of nutrients
 Survival
 Reproduction
 Evolution
2. Distinguish between and give an example of a biotic factor and an abiotic
factor.
- A biotic factor is predation, an abiotic factor is salinity
- Biotic factors are biological processes, and abiotic factors are physical
processes
1) What is the 5 step process of the scientific method?
 Making Observations, Inductive reasoning (hypothesis/question you
want to look at), Experiment, Results, and Conclusion
2) You can’t always design an experiment off your hypothesis. What do you
do then?
 If you can’t create an experiment off your hypothesis, the best thing
to do is the keep observing, and try to broaden it to make it
testable.
Designing an experiment is part of what kind of reasoning? Deductive reasoning.
What is something you must be able to do in a good experiment? Duplicate it.
2) How are estuaries and the open ocean similar?

Estuaries are nurseries; hatchings eventually go into Open Ocean.

What happens in the estuary eventually will affect the open ocean.

What does an Ecologist Study?
o interactions of organisms with each other and their environment
o How these interactions affect survival and reproduction
1.
List and explain one external factor for an abiotic environment and biotic
environment.
a. Abiotic: Temperature is an abiotic or physical environmental
factor. It drives production of ecosystems such as marshes and
tidal pools.
b. Biotic: Predation is a biotic or biological environmental factor. It
drives the food web and keeps each ecosystem in balance.
What are the biospheres and their specific functions?
 Atmosphere, which holds you ozone layer, hydrosphere all of our oceans,
lithosphere our lad rand rock, ecosphere which consists of all the living
organisms
1. What are the main differences between a marine biologist and an
oceanographer?
A marine biologist is interested in how species are interacting, where each
species is in the food chain, and how species are interacting with the
environment. An oceanographer is interested in the physical environment
of the ocean, how many of each species exist, and how the climate of the
earth is affecting the ocean environment.
2. What job or jobs might include knowledge of both a marine biologist as
well as an oceanographer?
A fisherman or any boat captain would need to know about the physical as
well as biological environment of the ocean. Also, this information might
be relevant to a sailor (recreational, or otherwise) or diver.
1. The earth is a stressful place to live. External factors act upon an
organism and affect its daily life. Briefly describe at least two examples of
both biological and physical factors and how they can help or harm that
organism.
 Biological
i. Competition- other organisms outcompete for space and
food
ii. Predation- other organisms prey on individual
 Physical
i. Salinity- salt affects which plants can grow where. Ex.
Juncus and Spartina can grow in marsh whereas pine trees
cannot.
ii. Dissolved oxygen conc.- Aerobic conditions from low DO
concentrations makes harsher environment, no oxygen to
respire
Recent Discoveries in Marine Science Lecture
What test is used on Horseshoe Crab Blood to detect bacteria on biomedical
instrumentation?
 Limulus amebocyte lysate test
From what family do the deep-sea sponges that fight cancer come from?
 Neopeltidae
1. What is the main cause of jubilees?
- Anoxic zones
2. What is medically important about horseshoe crab blood?
- It clots on an unsterile surface, so it can detect bacteria on biomedical
Instrumentation
3) In what months do jubilees happen the most often? Why?
 June, July, August, and Sept. This is due to an increase of organic
material in the bay causing areas to become hypoxic and causing
fishes to the shores/surface looking for oxygenated water.\
4) How do we use algae today?
 It is used in yogurt, orange juice, toothpaste, ice cream, etc.
What causes the “Jubilee” to occur? Oxygen levels in the water deplete, killing
fish and other animals.
What is the critical element that hydrothermal vents use instead of oxygen?
Sulfur.
2) How does chemosynthesis work in hydrothermal vents?

No sun (1 mile + down)

Hydrogen sulfide, methane, other hydrocarbons
1) What is a jubilee? And What are the possible causes of a jubilee
a) A Jubilee is when many benthic organisms such as crabs, flounder,
eels, and other organisms “beach” themselves on the shore of
Mobile bay
b) It can be cause by hypoxia in the water trapping the organisms
against the shore with a giant wall of water with low dissolved
oxygen. This causes the organisms to struggle to the surface and
to shore for oxygen.
2) What foods/products can algae be found in?
a) Carageenan
b) OJ
c) Toothpaste
d) Agar
e) Ice Cream
1) What is parthenogenesis?
-Virgin birth
.
1. Name three different ways deep sea sponges can be beneficial to
humans.
a. Treatment for cancer
b. Treatment for fungal infections
c. Control spoilage of food
What is carrageen and where does it come from?
 It is a polymer that can be use as a thickener and it comes from red sea

1. What are some recent discoveries in marine science?
 Sponges fight cancer, algae in food, virgin birth by sharks, the use
of horseshoe crab blood, chemosynthesis in GOM, hydrothermal
vents, and jubilee.
2a.What behavior is displayed during a Jubilee? What causes this behavior?
How is it beneficial to us?
How does the discovery of hydrothermal vents lead scientist to question where
life began?
Before the discovery of hydrothermal vents scientists had always thought that
beyond the reaches of sunlight there could never be life. Hydrothermal vents
proved otherwise, because whole communities of organisms thrive in a sunless,
dark environment. These organisms attain energy from the microbials that feed
off the nutrients spilled from the earth (out of these vents), thus giving rise to the
question of whether life originated from sun-born energy (through
photosynthesis), from these vents, or possibly both?
1. What was originally thought about the virgin shark births, and how was it
disproved?
It was once thought that sharks store sperm. Scientists once believed that
sharks who had seemingly “virgin” births- had not mated and somehow
became pregnant- had simply stored sperm from a previous mating, and
had become pregnant in this manner. However, with completely captive
animals, and through genetic testing of the offspring, this theory was
disproved. Now scientists are still unsure of how these sharks are
reproducing without mating.
1. Describe the conditions favorable for a Mobile Bay Jubilee.
 High temperature
 High salinity
 Consumed oxygen
 Stratification
 No mixing
2. Algae can be used many ways economically. What were some of the
ways we described in class? Why would they be of importance to us?
 Seaweed- sushi- food
 Ice cream- food
 Face scrub- cosmetics
 Biofuel- “green” energy, renewable, sustainable, available
Benthic Communities Lecture
Are soft or hard bottom communities a good place for Epifauna?
 Soft Bottom Communities
Name the 3 major zones of hard substrate communities.
 Supralittoral Zone
 Midlittoral Zone
 Infralittoral Zone
1. In what community and current conditions would you find a suspension feeder
like a
sponge? Why?
- Hard-bottomed community with a rapid current. They require a hard
substrate
for attachment and a rapid current to provide them with nutrients. Also,
fine sediments in soft-bottomed communities clog their filters.
2. Why are only a few hardy animals found in the supralittoral fringe?
- It receives very little moisture and is exposed to extreme conditions like
large
temperature variations
5) What are the two type of substrate? List a few organisms that live in each?
 Soft bottom has burrowing organisms like clam, worms, filter
feeding fish, crabs. While in hard bottom areas there are kelp
forests, some crab, a variety of fish, sponges and mussels
6) Why wouldn’t you find a filter feeder in a muddy sediment region?

Burrowing to keep from moving will kick up sediment, which can
clog up their feeding organ. They are also not well planted in the
mud and can be dislodged rather easily.
Why would kelp beds not grow in areas with a very soft substrate? They need to
take root in a solid substrate that is not easily disturbed.
How do currents affect sediment texture? Sediments are coarser in areas with
currents because the finer particles are swept away.
1) What is the Supralittoral zone?

Very little water

High salinity

Extreme heat/cold

Hardly any organisms
2) What causes patchiness in soft bottom substrates?

Changes in bottom sediments

Bottom currents

Patterns of larval settlement
1) What are two kinds of bottom substrates found in Benthic Communities
a. Soft Bottom communities
i. Burrowing organisms most commonly found
b. Hard Bottom
i. A variety of bivalves and other organisms are found
2) What are the three major tidal zones?
1. Supralittoral Fringe: covered only by the highest (spring) tides,
dampened by the spray of crashing waves
2. Midlittoral Fringe: regularly exposed during low tides and covered
during high tide
3. Infralittoral Fringe: extends from the lowest of low tides to the upper
limits of reach by large kelps. Covered by water even during low tide
2) How does a hard substrate aid in epifauna development?
Hard substrate provides them with a firm surface for attachment.
1. Name four defensive characteristics of planktonic organisms.
a. Transparent color
b. Detection of pressure waves
c. Protective spines
d. Bioluminescence
2. Draw the Classic Food Web and incorporate the “Microbial Loop”.
Name the three major zones and describe them
 Supralittoral Fringe: covered only by the highest (spring) tides, dampened
by the spray of crashing waves
 2. Midlittoral Fringe: regularly exposed during low tides and covered
during high tide
 3. Infralittoral Fringe: extends from the lowest of low tides to the upper
limits of reach by large kelps. Covered by water even during low tide
What is a tide pool and some of the challenges associated with living their?
 Tide Pools: depression in the rocks retain water. Challenging associated
with living there are it Heats up fast, Loses oxygen, Gets salty with
exposure as the water evaporates and abruptly changes back when the
tide comes in.
3a. - What influences the distribution of communities in soft bottom communities?
Will these communities co-exist? Explain why or why not.
The currents effect which animals will be in each area. Strong currents are
dominated by suspensions feeders while weak currents are dominated by
deposit feeders. No, these communities of animals do not co-exist. There are
many factors influenced by the currents like nutrient that will be present. Also non
swimming animals will be washed away or damaged.
3b. - What are possible causes of patchiness in soft bottom environments?
–Changes in bottom sediments
– Bottom currents
– Patterns of larval settlement
1. What benthic community is ideal for a filter feeder? Why would conditions
ideal for these organisms need to be this way in order for them to flourish?
Filter feeders need strong currents and hard surfaces to attach
themselves to. If they were in weaker currents they would not be able to
filter the nutrients they need in order to survive. If they were in softer or
muddier benthic communities they would be constantly stopped up with
the movement of sediments deposits in the water.
2. Why are soft bottom communities and hard bottom communities always
separated?
They have specific needs that differ greatly. Soft bottom communities
need murkier water with great suspended particles. This gives them the
food source that most of these animals scrounge around for. Hard bottom
communities need stronger currents with sediment that they are able to
attach themselves to. They need this ability in order to filter feed properly.
1. The type of sediments that are deposited influences soft bottom
communities. What affects the deposition of mud versus sand? What
types of feeders are found in each environment? Why aren’t these
communities located near each other?
 Currents- weak currents deposit mud, strong currents deposit sand
 Deposit feeders found in mud, suspension feeders found in sand
communities
 Mud can clog suspension feeders
2. Name the three major tide zones of a hard substrate community and give
examples of the fauna found in each.
 Supralittoral-lichens, periwinkles, anything that can withstand
extreme temperatures and little moisture
 Midlittoral- barnacles, bivalves, anything that can withstand wave
shock
 Infralittoral- rich fauna, anything in seaweed or attached to algae,
fish
Adaptations to planktonic life lecture
Name at least 3 defenses plankton use.
 Transparency
 Protective spines
 Hard exoskeleton





Detection of pressure waves, then elusive maneuvers
Taste bad; be toxic
Escape in space and/or time (diel vertical migration)
Synchronized mass spawning
Bioluminescence to distract or confuse predators
2. What are 3 mechanisms plankton use for locomotion?
- beating cilia or jointed appendages, hydrostatic pressure differences,
muscular
contractions or appendages or bells
7) What are the 3 type of feeding types for plankton? (Describe in few words
what each one is.)
 Raptorial feeding is when they detect and attack their prey. Filter
feeding is when they don’t move much and eating particles the
currents bring by. Suspension feeding concentrate on organic
particles by absorbing them through a mucus membrane using cilia
currents.
8) How do plankton sink slower?
 They in crease their surface area in a few ways like having
antennae, and spikes.
What are three ways plankton defend themselves? Vertical migration,
transparency, toxins.
Why would plankton aggregate where the waters Mississippi River and Gulf
Coast meet? The river carries a large nutrient load the plankton can utilize.
2) What are the Graviceptors in Scyphozoans?
 Statocysts
1) What are three types of feeding?
a. Suspension Feeders
i. Pass DOM over mucus covered cilia and concentrate for
consumption
b. Filter-feeders
i. Extract particles using directed setae on legs to create a
feeding current and collect particles
c. Raptorial feeders
i. Detect and attack prey
2) What senses do phytoplankton use and what are they called?
a. Chemoreceptors
i. “taste”
b. Mechanoreceptors
i. “feel”
c. Graviceptors
i. Jellyfish – statocysts
d. Photoreceptors
i. Light detection
ii. Eyes
1) List some adaptations that plankton have developed.
-Asexual reproduction
-Vertical locomotion through the water column
-Filter feeding
2) List three defensive adaptations by plankton.
-transparent in color
-protective spines
-toxic
1. What is the definition of phytoplankton and how are the organisms
grouped?
Any single-celled organism in an aquatic system that performs
photosynthesis; grouped based on the functions they perform
(grazer, predator, scavenger)
2. Explain the processes of the Biological Pump and the important role the
phytoplankton play.
The biological pump is a way to sequester carbon into the bottom of
the oceans. The phytoplankton take up CO2 during photosynthesis.
The plankton are consumed by other organism, release fecal
pellets, or die. Eventually they will sink through the pycnocline to
the bottom of the ocean where the carbon is then trapped or
diffused into the sediment.
1. What is the process of the classic planktonic food web?
 Small phytoplankton>ciliated protozoa >omnivorous copepod>
carnivorous copepod> larval fish or Large
phytoplankton>omnivorous copepod> carnivorous copepod>larval
fish.
2. What are some of the defense mechanisms of planktons?
 Transparency, Protective spines, Hard exoskeleton, Detection of
pressure waves then elusive maneuvers, Taste bad; be toxic,
Escape in space and/or time (diel vertical migration), Synchronized
mass spawning, Bioluminescence to distract or confuse predators.
1. What are the mechanisms phytoplankton use in lateral gene transfer?
Plankton acquire DNA from other organisms either through transformation,
which is by absorbing free-floating DNA, or through kleptoplastidity, which
is simply absorbing DNA from ingested organisms.
2. What form of algae do scientists believe are the basis of all terrestrial
plants? Green algae is believed to be the basis of all terrestrial plants due
to the specific way is reproduces and photosynthesizes.
1. Planktonic life has required many adaptations such as translucence, small
size, and armor. What makes planktonic life so hard to begin with?
 Ocean is large
 Predators of all animal phyla prey on plankton
 Plankton usually not well developed for movement
 With no say in movement with currents, everything else must adapt
2. List five other adaptations to planktonic life other than the examples listed
in the above question.
 Spines
 Receptors (chemo, photo, mechano, gravi)
 Migrations
 Mass spawning
 Bioluminescence
Phytoplankton lecture
What does the word phytoplankton literally mean?
 Errant or wandering plant
List 3 examples of direct evidence of stealing photosynthesis.
 Chloroplasts from prey items can be retained.
 Predator hijacks photosynthesis.
 Genes can migrate from chloroplast to nucleus.
1. What are stromatolites proof of?
- Presence of ancient cyanobacteria more than 3 billion years ago.
2. What is the method of acquiring genetic material from an organism without
being its
offspring?
- Lateral Gene Transfer
9) Are phytoplankton plants?
 No, they are single-celled organisms in aquatic systems that
perform photosynthesis.
10) Describe the process of the biological pump?
 Phytoplankton absorb light a carbon to make into sugar and
oxygen. They die and start to sink, as they sink things may eat
them making them into fecal pellets or bacteria dissolve them.
Some do make it though, and will sink to the deep ocean currents
where they will sequester carbon for thousands of years.
How did cyanobacteria transform earth’s atmosphere? How did this affect other
life forms? They oxidized it. Other life forms had not adapted to oxygen being
present in great amounts, so many were killed.
Name 2 ways algal blooms can be harmful. Some plankton are toxic, and mass
die-offs of plankton result in a decrease in oxygen.
1) Why was the break of Pangaea ideal for modern Eukaryotes?

Big increase in abundance and diversity

Shallow, well-mixed, nutrient rich sea’s

Good for resting stages, easier to emerge into good conditions
(light,nutrients)
2) Which phytoplankton is the most diverse?

Diatoms

Over 10000

auxospore

small to large
1) When is the earliest known photosynthesis?
a. Fossils date back to 3.4 million years ago
b. Photosynthesis came before oxygenesis
2) What is the difference between new and regenerated production?
a. New production is phytoplankton growth utilizing imported
nutrients
b. Regenerated production is growth utilizing recycled nutrients
1) What is the literal meaning of phytoplankton?
Wandering plant
2) What are three of the reasons that phytoplankton are so important?
Production of oxygen, responsible for large fraction of carbon burial, and
role in carbon cycle gives them a key role in climate change
1) What is the global importance of phytoplankton?
-45% of primary production
-base of the food chain
-production of oxygen
2) When did land plants start to develop?
About 250 MYA
1. Why are saltmarshes beneficial to the ecosystem?
a. They provide a nutritional habitat for reproduction and spawning.
b. They filter water.
c. They protect shorelines from erosion.
2. Do you think marshes are a “Bottom-Up Control” or a “Top-Down
Control”? Please explain your answer and give examples.
What was the event that highly increased the diversity of modern eukaryotes and
why.
 The breakup of pangea, and it gave them shallow, well-mixed, nutrient rich
seas Shallow seas that work well for resting stages, easier to emerge into
good conditions with light and nutrients
Name some characteristics of Dino flagellates
 Some are heavily armored some are naked, Strong swimmers good
vertical migration Most predators, but also do photosynthesis, they also
are bioluminescent and are the cause of harm full red tides
1. What three modern groups dominate the ocean?
 Diatoms, Coccolithophores(a branch of Haptophytes), and
Dinoflagellates.
1. What are the benefits and disabilities associated with asexual
reproduction?
While asexual reproduction does allow an organism to reproduce without
having to find a mate, it limits the species of the organism by diminishing
gene variation. Without gene variation a species is more prone to being
drastically affected by disease.
5a. How are Cyanobacteria important? Name one of the cyanobacteria found in
Shark Bay, Australia.
Cyanobacteria are reasonable for the super saturation of oxygen in the ocean
which then were transferred in to the atmosphere, this brought about the
evolution of aerobic respiration. Stromatolites.
5b List (3) the dangers of Algal Blooms: Toxins, Most common Hypoxia,
decomposition of large blooms consumes oxygen, physically harmful (obstruct
fish gills, large mats or foams), Shade other phototrophs
1. Phytoplankton comes in large numbers and in a large variety. Why do so
many different species of phytoplankton exist?
 Good competitors
 Good at handling stress
 Opportunists- they bloom like crazy when conditions are just right
2. Algal blooms have been documented in history to be harmful. Although
algal blooms are natural phenomena, what anthropogenic factors
contribute to the higher occurrence of these blooms? How are they
harmful?
 Exponential human population growth
 Nitrogen and phosphorus runoff
 Consume oxygen-dead zone
 Produce toxins- hurt organisms like oysters and oyster consumers,
other fish
Saltmarsh Ecosystems lecture
Name at least 3 things Saltmarsh Ecosystems are good for.
 Flood and Erosion Protection
 Water Quality
 Shoreline Erosion Control
 Aquatic Productivity
 Fish and Wildlife Habitat
 Aesthetics
Name the 2 main plants that thrive in Saltmarsh Ecosystems.
 Spartina (cord grass)
 Juncus (needle rush)
1. Why is it hard for plants to survive in the low marsh zone?
- They have to deal with high salinity levels, extreme and sudden variation
in
salinity and temperature, and the anoxic sediment.
2. Is the dieback of saltwater marsh plants due to the abundance of littorina an
example of
a top down control or a bottom up control?
- Top down control
11) What makes the salt marshes such a hard place to live?

The constant changing of temperature, salinity, and tidal
movements. Animals and plants that live there have to be good with
a wide variety of fluxes.
How do tides benefit salt marshes? Stress them? They bring in nutrients to the
marsh, but they also inundate the marsh, causing hypoxia.
Give an example of top down control on marsh production. Periwinkles feed on
epiphytes growing on Spartina, damaging the plant in the process. The Spartina
can become infected and die, leaving open patches in the marsh.
1) Why are the marsh’s “nature’s kidneys”?

Filter out toxins with out going tides

Bring in nutrients with in coming tides
2) Why does Saltwort have waxy surfaces?

Prevent water loss

Can handle both salt and fresh water
1) What are some things saltmarsh plants have to overcome?
a. Extremes in temperature, salinity, and water level environments
2) What has a better control on the saltmarsh ecosystem, Top-Down or
Bottom-Up?
a. Top-down control is removal of predators such as crabs which
has caused increases in meso predators such as periwinkles
which destroy primary producers in the saltmarsh
b. Bottom up control is removal of nutrients or sediments that
cause primary production in a saltmarsh ecosystem
1) Why are salt marshes important?
Flood and erosion protection, water quality, shoreline erosion control,
aquatic productivity, fish and wildlife habitat, aesthetics
2) Where do you find the most diversity in a salt marsh?
In the high marsh
1) What are salt marshes used for?
-Water filtration
-Erosion control
-Fish and Wildlife habitat
-Aquatic productivity
Explain why spartain alternaflora is better at adapting to climate change well than
juncus?
 Because of spartana use c4 pathways that allow them to open and close
there stoma and prevent water lose and cavitation, and the fact that they
have bundle sheaths.
Name some adaptations of slat mash plants
 having leaves with thick cuticle to help retard water Loss and they Have
well developed vascular tissues for water transport.
1. How do cord grass and rushes combat water loss?
 They have leaves with thick cuticle to help retard water loss and
they have well developed vascular tissues for water transport.
2. Why are there no trees in freshwater marshes?
 Because the roots do not have access to oxygen.
1. Name the different ways in which tidal marshes benefit shorelines.
They protect shorelines from erosion, help hold water from temporary
flooding, give home to a number of juvenile species, and act as wonderful
filters for water quality.
2. What might a plant in the salt marsh need to be adapted for?
Plants in the salt marsh need to be able to withstand changes in all sorts
of elements- temperature, salinity, and oxygen in the sediment. The salt
marsh is a very unforgiving environment and that is why so few species of
plants have been able to adapt to it.
6a. Why is it so hard for plant to survive in Tidal Marsh areas? There are extreme
changes in temperature, salinity, and tides.
6b. Why are there no trees in the Tidal Marsh? There are no trees because roots
do not have access to
oxygen, but forests start appearing at the landward edges.
1. The salt marsh is a unique environment, especially to the estuarine area
around the Mobile Bay. However, it can be a challenging place to live.
Why?
 Salinity varies all the time(storms, tides)
 Sediment has anoxic conditions
 Temperature fluctuation
2. For the organisms that have adapted to the salt marsh environment, what
makes it a great place to live?
 High productivity
 Nursery for juvenile fishes
 Monospecific plants occupy different niches
 Tides bring nutrients in, wash wastes out
Marine Fishes lecture
Name the 2 kinds of Chondrichthyans.
 Holocephalans
 Elasmobranchs
Name and describe the two causes of coloration.
 Chromatophores: Irregular-shaped cells which contain pigments that are
stimulated by hormones and nerves.
 Iridiophores: Colorful crystals within cells that use short-wavelength colors
(possibly multilayered).
1. What differences do the rounded caudal fin of a flounder and the heterocercal
caudal fin of a shark imply?
- The rounded fin of a flounder is best for short, quick bursts while the
heterocercal fin of a shark is suited for highly efficient swimming over
long
distances
2. What are the Ampullae of Lorenzini?
- They are the electrosensory system of sharks- a pore opening into a jelly
filled
canal with nerve endings that detects voltage differences.
12) What is a fish? (Provide some examples)
 A limbless aquatic vertebrate with fins and internal gills, like sharks,
swordfish, clownfish, skates, parrotfish, and flounder.
13) List some characteristics that make bony fish and cartilaginous fish
different?
 Bony fish have swim bladder, flexible fins, bones, operculum, and
ctenoid scales. While a Cartilaginous fish has Large oily livers, rigid
fins, cartilage, gill slits and internally fertilize their young.
How are fish defined? Limbless aquatic vertebrates with fins and internal gills.
What 2 ways does coloration happen in fishes? Pigment-sensitive hormones or
crystals within cells reflect certain wavelengths of light.
1) What function does the oily liver do in sharks?

No swim bladder

Liver controls buoyancy
2) Where is the electroreception found in sharks?

Ampulla of Lorenzini

Jelly filled
1) What separates sharks (Cartilaginous) from Bony Fish?
a. Sharks Have:
i. Cartiledge, not true bones
ii. 5-7 gill slits
iii. No Operculum
iv. No Swim bladder, oily liver
v. 7 senses (fish have 6)
vi. Internal fertilization
1) What are some of the main differences between bony and cartilaginous
fish?
Bony: swim bladders, 6 senses, one set of teeth
Cartilaginous: re-growing rows of teeth, large oily livers, 7 senses
2) What are the two different types of Chondrichthyans?
Holocephalans and Elasmobranchs
1) What is the advantage of having a fusiform body shape?
The ability to swim fast through open ocean.
1. Name two fishes that use crypsis and explain what it is.
a. Flounder and skate; coloration of fish can change with time or
conditions of environment.
2. What is the difference between oviparity reproduction and vivparity
reproduction?
a. Oviparity reproduction occurs the egg is fertilized internally and
places in an area externally for hatching and growth.
b. Vivparity reproduction occurs when the pup is grown internally
and mother gives live birth.
What is counter shading and explain why it is useful ?
 Counter shading is having a darker color on the top and a lighter color in
the bottom. And It is useful because when predator moves over them or
under them they have a hard time spotting them because of their cooler
matches they back ground
Explain fish locomotion?
 Fish move by contracting and relaxing muscles called maymoers form
head to tail
1. Name some of the fish body shapes and their type of locomotion.

Fusiform; fast-swimming in open water, Compressiform; quick
speed for short distances, Depressiform; swims like a flying bird,
Filiform; slithers through the water like a snake.
2. How do fish muscle work for locomotion?
 Contract on one side, relax on the other, muscle blocks are
arranged in myomeres, and contractions proceed head to tail.
1. What are the main differences in red and white muscle in fish?
The red muscle is highly vascularized, but not as fast to react. This muscle
also contains many mitochondria and, therefore, is considered aerobic; it
is designed from prolonged activity. The white muscle is poorly
vascularized, and fast to react. It contains few mitochondria, is considered
anaerobic, and is designed for sudden, quick movements.
2. It is a common misconception that fish and sharks have “small” brains.
What is the truth behind this misconception?
Fish and sharks actually have relatively the same size brains for their body
mass as mammals. They are able to learn, and have, in some cases,
extra sensory organs that even humans do not have.
7a. Name the Kingdom, Phylum, and Class for fish.
Animalia, Chordata, and Chondrichthyes
7b. Compare fish with red muscle tissue to fish with white muscle tissue. Explain
your answer.
Fish with red muscle are mostly active fish, particularly those that live in the open
waters of seas and ocean. Red muscle tissue is red because it has a high
number of capillaries present in it and has high haemoglobin content. It is well
supplied with and is used for steady, constant-effort swimming. Fish with white
have short powerful burst of energy, but they are no good for prolonged
swimming. They posse less capillaries, and so its blood flow is reduced, and
therefore reduces oxygen availability.
1. What makes heterothermy in large, pelagic fishes an advantage?
 Highly vascularized tissues provide more oxygen exchange
 More oxygen demand and supply allows higher metabolism
 High metabolism, better swimmers
 Better swimmers, better predators
2. List three ways sharks and rays differ from bony fishes in terms of
osmoregulation.
 Rectal gland
 High level of urea maintained internally
 TMAO-trimethylamine oxide- prevent denaturing proteins