Introduction
Before starting the atmospheric lab – take a deep breath and thank the Earth’s atmosphere for your life. What
is an atmosphere? By definition, an atmosphere is a gaseous layer or blanket of gas surrounding a planet.
However, Earth is not the only planet containing an atmosphere. Venus, Mars, and the outer planets all have
atmospheres; however, atmospheres on each of these planets differ in composition and structure. The study
of Earth’s atmosphere involves principles of meteorology and has been investigated for the last several
hundred years. Atmospheric studies have uncovered various facts regarding the Earth’s atmosphere. Below
are some scientific discoveries known about the Earth’s atmosphere.
1. Atmospheric evidence within our solar system and around the universe suggests that no other planet
contains the exact combination and mixture of gasses as well as heat and water conditions (water
existing as a solid, gas, vapor on the Earth’s surface) necessary to sustain life (as we know it). In fact,
some scientists believe that chances are a million to one that another planet in the universe will have
the conditions necessary to form an atmosphere like Earth’s.
2.
Various systems, specifically photosynthesis and respiration processes, within the earth work
together, maintaining a compositional balance between atmospheric gasses. The balance between
concentrations of nitrogen and oxygen sustains life. This balance and the impact of various systems
are vital to life on earth.
3. The Earth’s atmosphere is layered with specific temperature changes as a function of altitude. Eighty
percent of the earth’s atmosphere lies within the first 11 km (from the surface) and rapidly thins with
higher altitudes.
Objectives:
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Students will learn how the Earth’s atmosphere is structured by observing its layers,
temperature variations, and distribution of atmospheric pressure.
Students will learn how air parcels circulate within the Earth’s atmosphere, creating wind.
Students will understand the nature of insolation entering the Earth’s atmosphere, specifically
the impact of ultraviolet radiation on various types of materials.
Students will gain insight regarding the global warming debate.
Atmospheric Layers
The Earth’s atmosphere possesses multiple layers that are distinguished by changes in temperature.
According to various atmospheric temperature changes, the atmosphere can be divided into 4 main layers.
Figure 1 shows each of the Earth’s atmospheric layers related to the change in temperature. Temperature
changes within the Earth’s atmosphere are primarily due to various chemical and physical characteristics
outlined in each atmospheric layer description presented below.
Figure-1. Layers of the atmosphere with associated layered temperatures as a function of altitude.
Troposphere
Beginning at the Earth’s surface and rising approximately 11 km represents the average thickness of the
troposphere. The troposphere is actually thicker at the equatorial zone and thins near the polar regions of the
Earth. Approximately 80% of the total mass or “weight” of the atmosphere is contained in the troposphere.
Additionally, all storm activity, movement of air parcels, and weather primarily occur in the troposphere layer.
At the surface of the earth or bottom portion of the troposphere, ambient air temperatures typically reach the
maximum warmth. In other words, the surface of the earth represents the warmest regions of the atmosphere.
As one begins to ascend the Earth’s atmosphere from the surface, air temperature uniformly decreases at a
rate of approximately 6.5OC/1000 meters (6.5OC/3,280 feet). This is known as the environmental lapse rate. At
the highest altitudes of the troposphere, ambient air temperatures can reach an average of -56.5OC at the point
where the top of the troposphere is reached, creating a narrow transition zone called the tropopause.
Stratosphere
Moving through the entire troposphere, you reach the stratosphere. The stratosphere occupies an average
altitude from 11 km to 50 km above the Earth’s surface and accounts for approximately 20% of the total
atmospheric mass. Storm activity and weather processes are rare within the stratosphere; however, it has
been observed that upper portions of thunderstorms originating in the troposphere have breached the
troposphere-stratosphere boundary. Any other weather activity within the stratosphere is associated with aloft
winds (polar and subtropical jet streams) within the lower portion of the stratosphere. Within the first 9 km (5.6
miles), stratospheric temperatures remain constant with altitude. However, from 20 to 50 km (12.4 to 31
miles), stratospheric temperatures increase with altitude.
Increasing temperatures result from the
concentration of ozone (O3) gas molecules. Ozone molecules, concentrated in the lower stratosphere, absorb
incoming shortwave ultraviolet sunlight, creating heat energy that causes temperature increases within the
stratosphere. The ozone layer is extremely important to life on earth. The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by
ozone molecules protects life on earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation. If it were not for ozone,
humans would become crispy critters. In fact, think about your worst sunburn. Without ozone, your worst
sunburn would be 100 times more severe! At the top of the stratosphere is the transition zone known as the
stratopause, which separates the stratosphere from the mesosphere.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere occupies a height above the Earth’s surface from approximately 50-80 km (31-49.6 miles)
and reaches the coldest atmospheric temperature of about -90OC at an altitude of 80 km (49.6 miles).
Information about specific characteristics of the mesosphere is limited due to its altitude location. It is situated
below the minimum height of an orbital spacecraft and too high for an aircraft or weather balloon, so data
collection is difficult. However, scientists gain mesosphere data using small sound rockets. However, sound
rockets do not spend enough time within the mesosphere to collect adequate data, so information is sketchy.
The information gathered by the sound rockets and by the efforts of scientists is as follows:
1. The mesosphere contains the lowest temperature within the atmospheric layers. Temperatures
decrease to approximately -100OC at the mesopause. Temperature decrease is directly related
to the lack of sunlight absorption due to a drastically thinning atmospheric layer.
2. Due to the thin concentration of air, the atmospheric pressure within the mesosphere is low.
Concentrations of oxygen are lower in the mesosphere than detected in the upper
thermosphere atmospheric layer.
3. Data from sound rockets indicate that N2, O2, CO2, O3, Ar, O, and small concentrations of metal
ions comprise the typical mesosphere composition.
4. Most meteorites vaporize or melt down in the mesosphere as they enter the Earth’s
atmosphere.
Thermosphere
The thermosphere begins 80 km (49.6 miles) above the Earth’s surface with temperatures rising and reaching
as high as 1200oC. Since the thermosphere is the first atmospheric layer bombarded by intense solar radiation
(insolation), the absorption of insolation by oxygen molecules heats the atmospheric layer. However, since the
air molecules are separated by vast distances, the transfer of heat from one air molecule to another is difficult.
This results in an extraordinary amount of radiation to individual molecules, which become very hot, but if you
lived in the thermosphere, the perceived temperature would be very cold. In other words, there would not be
enough hot oxygen molecules contacting your body to keep you warm.
Atmospheric Pressure, High/Low Pressure Systems, and Wind
Atmospheric Pressure
By definition, atmospheric pressure is described as a force per unit area exerted against a surface by the
weight of air above the surface in the Earth’s atmosphere. In other words, atmospheric pressure is the weight
of the entire atmosphere, held down by gravity, exerted on the Earth’s surface. So, if one were standing on the
beach or at sea level, the atmosphere would be pressing down on your body at about 14.7 pounds per square
inch (psi). In millibars (metric measurement), sea level atmospheric pressure is 1013.25 mb. As you ascend
the atmosphere, the weight of the atmosphere decreases, thus lowering atmospheric pressure. Figure 2 below
illustrates atmospheric pressure by showing air molecules thinning as a function of increased altitude,
ultimately decreasing air pressure with increased altitude.
Figure-2. Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure decreases as a function
of increasing altitude. Note the higher concentration
of air molecules within the lower atmosphere
and air molecules becoming less concentrated
at higher altitudes. The Earth’s atmosphere is
held to the earth by gravity.
High/Low Pressure Systems--Introduction
Although air pressure uniformly decreases with altitude, air pressure is not uniform across the entire earth.
Typically, air pressure within the troposphere ranges from 980 mb to 1050 mb. The difference between air
pressure readings is the result of unequal heating of the Earth’s surface. As the sun heats the Earth, radiation
from the sun warms land and water bodies at different rates that are governed by their specific heat
properties. Additionally, land and water bodies absorb and release radiation at different rates. Absorbing and
releasing heat at different rates causes an imbalance of temperature in the atmosphere. As a result, the
Earth’s atmosphere can be characterized by multiple warm and cool air masses rising and falling and
converging with one another. The characterization is analogous to boiling water. In other words, if one were to
observe boiling water in a see-through glass container and witness boiling water in slow motion, it would
resemble atmospheric air masses moving within the troposphere. The pressure exerted by an air mass is
created by the molecules making up the air mass. The configuration of molecules within an air mass
influences the air mass’ size, motion, and density, which dictate the movement of air within the atmosphere.
The movement of air masses within the atmosphere primarily takes place within the troposphere and often
determines wind and atmospheric pressure systems which directly influence various wind and weather
patterns across the globe.
Low Pressure System
A low pressure system or “low” represents an air mass containing lower air pressure readings than the
surrounding air. Low pressure systems are created from rising warm air masses. Typically, the surface of the
Earth is heated, causing air molecules to expand and become less dense than the surrounding air. The less
dense air mass begins to rise. Because of the rising air mass, low pressure systems are usually associated
with high winds, warm air, and atmospheric lifting. Low pressure systems are known as cyclones, which are
typically responsible for clouds, precipitation, and other inclement weather systems such as tropical storms.
High Pressure System
A high pressure system or “high” represents an air mass containing higher air pressure readings than the
surrounding air. High pressure systems are created from descending or sinking air masses. If an air mass
becomes cooler due to the cooling of the Earth’s surface (land or water bodies), air molecules slow down and
contract and become denser than the surrounding air causing the air to sink. High pressure systems are
known as anticyclones, which are typically responsible for fair to good weather. Figure 3 shows the
difference between low pressure (cyclones) and high pressure (anticyclone) systems.
A
B
Figure-3
Low and High Pressure systems
Diagram A illustrates air rising due
to the heated land surface. Rising air
masses are known as a low pressure
system or cyclones. Low pressure
systems are responsible for clouds and
precipitation.
Diagram B illustrates descending air or a
sinking air mass. Cooler air sinks and
is known as a high pressure system or
anticyclones. High pressure systems are
responsible for good weather.
Wind
What causes wind? Wind is the movement of air molecules directed across the Earth’s surface and is created
by the differences in air pressure between high and low pressure systems. Wind or air always moves from a
high pressure region to a low pressure region. The strength of wind varies from a light breeze to hurricane
forces and is typically measured using the Beaufort Wind Scale. Wind direction is named from where winds
originate. For example, an easterly wind originates from the east and is blowing toward the west. Wind speed
is measured using an anemometer, and compass direction is specified using a wind vane. Several forces
within the atmosphere influence the speed and directions of winds. The primary force responsible for causing
wind is the pressure gradient force. A pressure gradient is produced by unequal pressure systems within the
atmosphere due to the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface. To show various wind speeds and direction, the
pressure gradient is plotted onto weather maps using isobars. Isobars represent lines of equal pressure. The
pressure gradient is graphically represented by constructing an arrow from the high pressure region to the low
pressure area. Additionally, the pressure gradient arrow is drawn perpendicular to each isobar line. Figure 4
shows a series of isobar maps delineating both high and low pressure systems associated with a pressure
gradient.
Figure-4
Diagram A Isobar lines showing both
a high and low pressure region. The pressure
gradient force is perpendicular to
isobar lines.
A
B
Electromagnetic Radiation
C
Diagram B The pressure gradient moves outward
from the central high region. Note the thicker
arrow (pressure gradient) and associated
closeness of isobar lines. The closer the isobar
lines, the greater the pressure gradient. The
opposite is true for widely spaced isobar lines.
Diagram C Arrows indicate the flow of wind due
to the Earth’s rotation. Note that air or “wind” is
moving from the high pressure region to the
low pressure region. The pressure gradient
is graphically illustrated moving away from
the high pressure to low pressure region
Electromagnetic Radiation
There’s more to light than meets the eye. The electromagnetic spectrum (EM scale) represents incoming
solar radiation (insolation) or “light” that radiates from the sun, penetrating the Earth’s atmosphere. Light
travels at 186,000 miles per second, and if the EM scale were stopped, it would resemble a series of waves
that can be separated into long and short wavelengths. A wavelength represents a measurement showing
the distance between wave crests. Figure 5 shows the measurement of various wavelengths.
Figure 5 Wavelengths measured from
crest to crest within various parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
What is electromagnetic radiation?
The EM scale divides light by varying wavelengths which directly relate to how energetically the wave radiates.
For example, longer wavelengths are less energetic and not harmful to humans while shorter wavelengths tend
to be much more energetic and usually harmful to humans and other forms of living organisms. Long wave
radiation is typically characterized by radio, microwave, infrared, and visible light. The visible light spectrum,
a narrow band of wavelengths within the EM scale, allows humans to see various colors represented by light.
The colors within the visible light spectrum are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, otherwise known as
ROYGBV. Short wave radiation is typically characterized by ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray radiation, which
is very harmful to humans and other living organisms. Figure 5 shows the entire EM scale.
R
O
Y
B
V
G
Figure 5 - The Electromagnetic Spectrum (EM)
The EM diagram illustrates the full electromagnetic spectrum. Note the changes of wavelengths from long to
short wavelengths. Also, note the wavelength scaling comparisons with various objects ranging from the size
of a football field to the inner measurement of an atom.
The visible light spectrum is shown as a narrow band of wavelengths detectable by the human eye and allows
humans to see various colors.
As radiation or insolation from the sun reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, the Earth’s atmosphere behaves like
a filtering system by removing short wave radiation such as gamma rays, x-rays, and a large percentage of
ultraviolet rays. The removal of shortwave radiation through absorption and scattering processes is fortunate
for humans and other organisms. Without the removal of shortwave radiation from the Earth’s atmosphere,
humans and other organisms would simply burn and become crispy critters. The three main constituents that
absorb radiation are ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Ozone, composed of 3-oxygen atoms (O3),
absorbs approximately 97% of all incoming UV light (extreme, fair, and moderate UV light). Ozone is primarily
situated within the stratosphere, and without ozone, human skin would burn upon exposure to sunlight. The
remaining 3% of UV light (near UV light) typically will reach the Earth’s surface and cause sunburning if skin is
not properly protected by various types of sunscreen. Carbon dioxide absorbs portions of infrared light and is
directly responsible for atmospheric heating and the greenhouse effect. Water vapor, depending on its location
and concentration, absorbs energy and is a primary component of and major influence on Earth’s climatic
system. The remaining insolation reaching the Earth’s surface is composed of longer, non-harmful
wavelengths and is absorbed and reflected by the earth surface. Figure 6 illustrates the absorption of
insolation as it reaches the Earth’s atmosphere.
Figure 6 – Absorption of insolation
EM radiation enters the Earth’s atmosphere
with short wave energy in the form of gamma
and x-rays absorbed in the upper atmospheric
layers. Near UV light (3% of total UV) is transmitted
along with visible and IR radiation to the Earth’s
surface while extreme, fair, and moderate UV
light (97% of total UV) is absorbed within the
upper layers of the atmosphere including the
ozone layer located in the stratosphere.
The Greenhouse Effect and the Global Warming Debate
The Greenhouse Effect
You park your car in the Big K-Mart parking lot during the month of July, and it’s hot. Hours of shopping later
you arrive back to the car and find that the inside of the car is much hotter than outside temperatures. You
have just experienced the greenhouse effect. This analogy can be applied to the classical glass greenhouse
where various species of plants grow during the colder winter months. So, how does the car interior or
greenhouse experience a rise in inside temperature? The greenhouse effect involves the passing of short
wavelengths of visible light through a transparent (glass) material where visible light is absorbed while the
longer infrared radiation, from heated objects, is trapped inside the car or glass greenhouse, thus raising the
inside temperatures. Figure 7 below illustrates the greenhouse effect using the inside of a car and a classic
glass greenhouse.
Figure 7 - The Greenhouse effect
Visible light enters the glass
median and is absorbed. Infrared
radiation is trapped and can
not escape through the
glass median, thus heating
the inside.
The combination of the Earth’s atmosphere and surface is analogous to the heating of a car’s interior. Within
the Earth’s atmosphere are various absorbing gasses called greenhouse gasses. The greenhouse gasses in
order of high to low concentration within the atmosphere are water vapor, CO2- carbon dioxide, CH4-methane,
tropospheric ozone, and N2O-nitrous oxide. The greenhouse gasses allow direct sunlight in the form of visible
and ultraviolet light to reach the Earth’s surface. As the Earth’s surface heats, longer wavelengths are reradiated back into the atmosphere and absorbed by the greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere. The
greenhouse gasses re-radiate the absorbed longer wavelengths back to the Earth’s surface causing the
Earth’s atmosphere to rise in temperature. In other words, the greenhouse gasses act as a “trap,” holding the
longer wavelength radiation and sending it back (re-radiating) to the Earth’s surface. Figure 8 shows the
greenhouse effect related to the Earth’s atmosphere.
Figure 8 – Earth’s Greenhouse Effect
Short wave insolation passes through
the Earth’s atmosphere and is absorbed
at the surface. Long wave infrared radiation
rises from the surface and is absorbed
or “trapped” by atmospheric greenhouse
gasses. Trapped radiation is re-radiated
back to the Earth’s surface, thus heating
the atmosphere through greenhouse effect
processes.
The Global Warming Debate
Do we need the greenhouse effect? The answer is yes. Temperatures within the Earth’s
atmosphere would be significantly lower, about -15 0 C on average, without the natural process of
the greenhouse effect. Therefore, increases in global temperatures are not directly due to
greenhouse effect but rather how the scientific community views the impact of greenhouse
gasses. Much of the scientific community focuses on the impact of increasing carbon dioxide
greenhouse gasses as the probable cause of rising global temperatures. Typically, questions
are asked regarding what is the cause of increasing carbon dioxide within the Earth’s
atmosphere. Is the carbon dioxide increase natural or is it man made (human activity)?
Global Warming Due to Human Activity
Data from many scientific studies over the past several years indicate that the burning of fossil
fuels and other contributors has drastically increased the level of carbon dioxide within the
Earth’s atmosphere since the industrial revolu tion. By increasing the levels of carbon dioxide,
more infrared radiation is trapped and re -radiated back to the surface, ultimately increasing the
average global temperatures. Increased global temperatures could have disastrous
ramifications. For example, current north and south polar ice caps may melt at higher rates,
raising the overall sea level and causing extensive coastal flooding all over the globe. Because
global warming ramifications (melting ice caps, sea level increase, changing weather patter ns)
affect the entire globe and the way humans live on earth, global warming has become a major
societal concern. Therefore, various governments have proposed measures, sometimes drastic,
to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide put into the atmosphere. Th ese measures may also
have dire consequences to the economies of the world. Therefore, the potential impact of man
made global warming combined with the ambiguities of science have given rise to many
passionate extremes. Caution must be taken by various go vernments investigating the cause of
rising atmospheric temperatures before drastic reduction measures are enforced.
Global Warming Not Due to Human Activity
Currently, most climatic scientists attribute rising atmospheric temperatures to increasing CO 2
levels induced by human activity. However, debates over the last several years have refuted
man’s role in increasing CO 2 levels. Scientists debating against carbon dioxide emissions from
humans suggest that climate modeling is complex and cont ains many climatic variables that
cannot be predicted over a long period of time. Additionally, many studies supporting human
induced CO 2 are supported by special interest groups rallying for their economic agenda. In
fact, many skeptics believe that global warming created by human activity is a situation tailor made for political and societal controversy. The following objections are raised by skeptics of
CO 2 driven (by humans) global warming.
1. Water vapor makes up the most abundant greenhouse gas. Water vapor is strongly
related to atmospheric warming and climate patterns creating numerous climatic
feedback loops. Yet, the influence of water vapor, as a greenhouse gas absorber, is still
fairly poorly measured and understood. Additionally, scientists have obtained clear
atmospheric measurements of other greenhouse gasses (CO2, and CH4- methane), but
they have poor data concerning global water vapor concentrations. Studies need to be
implemented concerning the exact impact of the dominant water vapor greenhouse gas.
2. CO2 concentrations are not sufficient to drive the currently observed warming.
3. Much of this century’s temperature rise was in early years when industrial emissions
were low, and there was a temperature decrease during the postwar economic boom,
which contradicts rising CO2 graphs.
4. Ice core records show CO2 increases lagging behind temperature rises rather than
driving them.
5. Surface warming is more than atmospheric warming, in contrast to CO2-driven models.
6. The global temperature pattern of the last century correlates more strongly with solar
activity than CO2 emissions into the atmosphere.
Lab Exercises
Part A – Atmosphere Definitions
Below are essential vocabulary words. Write and learn the definition of each vocabulary word listed below.
atmosphere:
meteorology:
photosynthesis:
respiration:
troposphere:
tropopause:
stratosphere:
stratopause:
mesosphere:
mesopause:
thermosphere:
atmospheric pressure:
specific heat property:
cyclone:
anticyclone:
pressure gradient force:
isobar:
electromagnetic spectrum:
wavelength:
visible light spectrum:
insolation:
greenhouse effect:
greenhouse gasses:
Part B- Identifying Earth’s Atmospheric Layers and Characteristics
Wind and Atmospheric Pressure Regions
In the diagram below:
1. Draw a line representing the tropopause, stratopause, and mesopause, labeling each area. Make
sure each line represents the proper elevation.
2. Lightly shade in each atmospheric layer (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere),
labeling each atmospheric layer. Make sure each atmospheric layer is at the correct elevation.
3. Shade in and label the area representing the ozone layer and the area where most storm activity
takes place within the atmosphere.
4. Convert kilometers to miles, and neatly construct a line showing the temperature gradient starting at
the surface of the Earth up to 70 miles altitude. With an arrow, indicate the relationship between
temperature and altitude in each atmospheric layer.
5. Indicate where the Earth’s atmosphere is the thickest and where the atmosphere begins to
drastically thin.
Kilometers
Miles
120 km
105 km
90 km
75 km
60 km
45 km
30 km
15 km
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
O
Temperature C
0
20
Wind and Atmospheric Pressure System
In the U.S. diagram below:
1. USE PENCIL AND DO NOT CONNECT THE DOTS.
2. Draw isobar lines every 3 millibars, beginning at 990 millibars.
3. Using your completed isobar map, sketch the high and low pressure zones, and label the cyclone
and anticyclone regions.
4. Indicate wind direction and movement, using arrows.
5. Construct a line, using a different color, illustrating the location of the pressure gradient.
6. What is the pressure (mb) and wind direction at Bakersfield, California?
7. What is the pressure (mb) and wind direction at Kingston, Ontario (Canada)?
Part C – Ultraviolet Light (UV) Detection
What materials absorb or block ultraviolet light radiation from the sun?
1. Locate 3-5 types of material that interest you regarding the absorption or blocking of UV radiation.
You may try any type of material; however, here is a list of materials you might want to consider.
various sunblock lotions (including expired ones)
types of makeup
samples of clothing
sunglass lenses
clear glass or tinted glass
plastics
hat material
paper
2. Using your 6-egg holder carton, put 5 ultraviolet detection beads in each compartment.
3. Cover the egg compartment with your selected fabrics (sunglass lenses, plastics, and types of
fabrics). If you are using liquids, cover the UV detection beads with your chosen liquids (sunblock,
makeup, etc.).
4. Put 5 UV detection beads without any covering in one empty egg compartment. Use this
compartment to compare your UV absorption/blocking results with your selected materials.
5. Take your egg carton outside, expose your materials to the sunlight for at least 3-5 minutes, and
record your observations.
6. Write down below the material you used and whether the material absorbed or blocked UV light
radiation.
Material:
Observation:
Questions
1. How important is the ozone layer? Why?
2. Given the various materials you tested for UV absorption, what surprised or did not surprise you
regarding the detection of UV radiation?
3. What percentage of incoming UV radiation is absorbed by the upper atmosphere, and what percentage
of UV light reaches the Earth’s surface or your UV detection beads?
4. Why does a person not get sunburned while sitting inside a car?
5. Can the human eye see UV light? Why or why not?
Part D- Global Warming
1. What is global warming?
2. Discuss the differences in viewpoint between scientists who believe that humans are causing global
warming versus scientists who maintain that humans are not the cause for the warming atmosphere.
3. What is the impact of increasing CO2 levels within the Earth’s atmosphere, and how does the
concentration of Earth’s CO2 atmospheric levels and global temperatures compare to the planet Venus
and its overall temperature?
4. Discuss the impact of the Earth’s atmospheric water vapor regarding global warming. How can water
vapor in the Earth’s atmosphere impact global warming as compared to CO2 levels?
5. How does the concentration of water vapor compare to the CO2 concentration levels in the Earth’s
atmosphere, and what greenhouse gas do you think may have the greater greenhouse effect impact on
the atmosphere?
6. How can the absorption characteristics of atmospheric water vapor create a positive-negative feedback
situation that causes the atmosphere to rise in temperature but reach an equilibrium at which
temperatures balance between re-radiation of heat and continued evaporation?