2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section outlines key findings of a literature review
of Australian and international evidence relating to the
development of education aspirations, key barriers
affecting participation in education for regional
students, and potential policy interventions to address
these barriers.
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Defining ‘education aspiration’
There is some difficulty in developing a universally agreed
definition of ‘aspirations’, however it is frequently acknowledged
that they ‘connote the achievement of something high or great
(and) addresses both present and future perspectives’.1
Education aspirations typically refers to how far a student hopes to progress in school, and the
degree of education they seek to achieve. As illustrated below, drivers of student aspirations are
highly interrelated.
There is no single factor determining a student’s education aspirations. Instead, they are
developed in a complex social context where individuals draw their aspirations from the lives of
others around them and their circumstances. The analysis has identified eight key factors which
influence the development of student aspirations, along with a range of related ancillary factors
which are regarded as considerations that in turn impact upon the key factors identified.
1.
Leslie Morrison Gutman and Rodie Akeman, ‘Determinants of aspirations’ (Research Report No 27, Centre for Research on
the Wider Benefits of Learning, University of London, 2008) 3.
Individuals have an aspirations window through which they view
the possibilities that exist within their social sphere.
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This is based on their perception of the opportunities available in their community using their peers
as a means of comparison, making it highly subjective and context-dependent.
The formation and development of education aspirations commences at an early age, while the
expression of this occurs in adolescence.
Gottfredson’s theory of Circumscription and Compromise identifies four necessary developmental
processes in aspiration development, however the rate at which children progress through these
stages depends on cognitive ability. This is outlined in the table below.
Source: Adapted from Leslie Morrison Gutman and Rodie Akeman, ‘Determinants of aspirations’ (Research Report No 27, Centre for
Research on the Wider Benefits of Learning, University of London, 2008) 4-6.
Barriers to aspiration to,
and participation in, education
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Given the benefits associated with school completion and
attainment of post-compulsory qualifications, and the serious
health, economic and social consequences associated the failure
to do so, there is a heightened need to identify the key barriers
which prevent the development of education aspiration and inhibit
students’ participation in education and the learning process.
International evidence relating to the experiences of regional students and causes of lower
educational attainment levels is somewhat limited – largely due to the fact that few countries
experience the significant geographic distribution (and isolation) observed in Australia, and the fact
that this area has only enjoyed recent attention and consideration by policymakers and academics.
However, available evidence suggests that the relative educational disadvantage experienced by
regional students is similar to that of students of low socio-economic status (SES), and is driven by
five key factors which may be classified as:





Retention in and completion of secondary education.
Awareness of and exposure to post-compulsory education opportunities.
Personal characteristics and motivations.
Provision of and access to post-compulsory education opportunities.
A lack of transition support and assistance.
Each of these factors are outlined below:
1.
Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Summary Statistics – Victorian Schools (Victorian Government,
2012) Table 22; Productivity Commission, Report on Government Services 2013 (Australian Government, 2013) Table 4A.110.
2.
Nola Alloway et. al., Factors impacting on student aspirations and expectations in regional Australia (James Cook University, 2004) 39.
3.
Nola Alloway et. al., Factors impacting on student aspirations and expectations in regional Australia (James Cook University,
2004) 31; Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee, Parliament of Australia, Rural and Regional
Access to Secondary and Tertiary Education Opportunities (2009) [2.7]; Peter Cole, ‘Learning in Alternative Settings: What makes a
sustainable program?’ (Paper presented at the Learning for Choices Expo, Sydney, 24 June 2004) 8.
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4.
T Frigo et. al., Australian Young People, their families and post-school plans: a research review (Australian Council for Educational
Research, 2007) 6.
5.
Nola Alloway et. al., Factors impacting on student aspirations and expectations in regional Australia (James Cook University,
2004) 46.
6.
Nola Alloway et. al., Factors impacting on student aspirations and expectations in regional Australia (James Cook University,
2004) 32; T Frigo et. al., Australian Young People, their families and post-school plans: a research review (Australian Council for
Educational Research, 2007) 6.
7.
Jacqueline Homel et. al., ‘School completion: what we learn from different measures of family background’ (Research Report 59,
Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth, 2012) 30; Jennifer Baxter, ‘How much does parental education explain educational
attainment of males and females in Australia’ (Discussion Paper No DP-015, Australian National University, October 2002) 23.
8.
Education and Training Committee, Parliament of Victoria, Inquiry into Geographical Differences in the Rate in which Victorian
Students Participate in Higher Education (2009) 75.
9.
Regional Development Victoria, Submission to Education and Training Committee, Parliament of Victoria, Inquiry into
Geographical Differences in the Rate in which Victorian Students Participate in Higher Education, 2009, 43.
Education and Training Committee, Parliament of Victoria, Inquiry into Geographical Differences in the Rate in which Victorian
Students Participate in Higher Education (2009) 207.
10.
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11.
Sarah Richardson and Tim Friedman, Research Report – Australian Regional Higher Education: Student characteristics and
experiences (Australian Council for Educational Research, 2010) 16; Education and Training Committee, Parliament of Victoria,
Inquiry into Geographical Differences in the Rate in which Victorian Students Participate in Higher Education (2009) 135.
12.
Senate Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee, Parliament of Australia, Rural and Regional Access to
Secondary and Tertiary Education Opportunities (2009) [3.17]; John Polesel, Malgorzata Klatt and Clare O’Hanlon, Deferring a
University Offer in Regional Victoria (Youth Affairs Council of Victoria, 2012) 20.
13.
Trevor Gale et. al., Interventions early in school as a means to improve higher education outcomes for disadvantaged
(particularly low SES) students – Component A: A review of the Australian and international literature (Australian Government, 2010)
9; Education and Training Committee, Parliament of Victoria, Inquiry into Geographical Differences in the Rate in which Victorian
Students Participate in Higher Education (2009) 204-205.
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Interventions to improve
education aspiration
Many of the interventions seeking to improve education aspirations
are, in effect, the provision of assistance and support to overcome
the barriers to participation identified earlier. Most groups underrepresented in the upper secondary school years and post-school
environment face multiple barriers to participation.
This necessitates a multi-faceted approach encompassing a range of interventions and supports to
enable under-represented groups to have a genuine opportunity to participate in further education
opportunities.
It is pertinent to note that two intervention categories are required: firstly, those which address the
precursors to accessing post-secondary education opportunities (e.g. student, parent and
community engagement strategies, improved career education), and secondly, ancillary supports
following a student’s entry into the post-secondary education environment (e.g. financial and
transition support).
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Bringing aspiration development,
barriers and interventions
together
Findings from the literature reviewed highlight four key messages
for considering appropriate policy interventions which seek to raise
education aspirations:
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