Running head: INCLUDING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM
Successfully Including Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in General Education
Classroom Settings
Amy Skatula
Seattle Pacific University
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Running head: INCLUDING CHILDREN WITH AUTISM
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Successfully Including Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in General Education
Classroom Settings
The United States Department of Education seeks to provide equal access to public
education for all children. This includes students with disabilities. With the enactment of
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), students with disabilities are to have
access to a free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment (LRE) in a
general education classroom. Though IDEA does not mandate that students with
disabilities be included in general education classrooms, it is so often practiced that it has
become a “de facto” law, especially regarding children with autism spectrum disorder
(ASD). Crosland and Dunlap (2012) report, “schools have reported an average increase of
more than 800% since 1992 in the number of children with ASD being served in the
educational system (Individuals With Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], 1997)” (p. 252).
Students with ASD struggle with social awareness, communication and are easily
distracted because of hypersensitivity or hyposensitivity (Lee, Walter and Cleary, 2012),
and therefore have a difficult time building and maintaining friendships. Lee, et al. (2012)
say that children with autism are characterized by “Impaired social interaction, skills
(Flynn & Healy, 2012), relationships and empathy, as well as poor self-awareness,
egocentric social judgment, and short attention span (Dawson et al., 2004)” (p. 41).
Additionally children with autism tend to be inflexible, struggle with language and
communication, and have “greater and more complex health needs than many others in the
general population (Delmolio & Harris, 2012; Krauss, Gulley, Sciegaj, & Wells, 2003)” (Lee
et al., 2012, p. 41). These characteristics often make it difficult for children with autism to
be included in the general education setting. Because it is increasingly common for children
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with ASD to be placed in the general education setting, it is important to take a close look at
the specific academic and behavioral needs of these children in order to allow them to
learn with the fewest barriers.
One of the most common characteristics of children with ASD is a difficulty in
picking up on social cues. Some of these behaviors include, “lack of eye contact, limited
affect, or nonexistent verbal communication (Volkmar & Tidmarsh, 2003)” (Olgivie, 2012,
p. 20). Additionally, certain social behaviors are appropriate for different settings, making
it all the more difficult for children with ASD to adapt. These challenges make it difficult for
children with ASD to form friendships. As a result, they can become socially outcast in the
highly social environment of public school. These repercussions often carry into adulthood.
Calder, Hill and Pellicano (2012) say, “long-term studies show that the majority of adults
with autism have few, if any, friends (e.g. Howlin et al., 2000, 2004; though see Farley et al.,
2009)” (p. 297).
Though children with ASD struggle with forming relationships, it could be because
they may have a different concept of friendship. A typical child identifies characteristics of
companionship, intimacy, and closeness (Calder, et al., 2012) when describing their
relationships with friends. Children with autism have a less complete view of friendship,
usually describing only characteristics of companionship, and rarely describe deeper levels
of connection. Although relationships are difficult for children with ASD to form, certain
interventions can help.
Crosland and Dunlap (2012) suggest peer modeling to help students with ASD to
learn appropriate social behavior. Using the natural interactions between students, “peermediated interventions have been found effective in providing social learning
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opportunities through peer interaction, peer modeling, and peer reinforcing” (p. 256).
Additionally, teachers may pair a student with ASD with a regularly functioning child who
can help to keep the student with ASD to stay on task and facilitate appropriate social
interactions (Crossland & Dunlap, 2012, p. 256).
Another way to teach appropriate social behavior to children with ASD is to
combine peer mentoring with video modeling. Video modeling “involves demonstrating
desired behaviors and role-playing through video images. The student with ASD watches a
video that demonstrates the desired behavior and then is asked to imitate the behavior”
(Ogilvie, 2011, p. 20). Utilizing the unique characteristics of children with ASD, video
modeling is an effective tool for teaching social skills. Children with autism tend to get
preoccupied with activities, particularly reciting lines from movies and TV shows (Ogilvie,
2011, p. 21). Ogilvie (2011) says, “Video modeling also capitalizes on the power of
observational learning (Delano, 2007) and incorporates the student with ASD’s ability to
imitate behaviors (Ayres & Langone, 2005; Charlop-Christy & Daneshvar, 2003)” (p. 21).
This makes video modeling an ideal tool to use to teach social skills to children with ASD.
In addition to social deficits, some children with autism have performance deficits.
These deficits are barriers to actually performing the appropriate social skills in inclusive
settings (L. Koegel, Vernon, R. Koegel, B. Koegel, & Paullin, 2012). Since children with
autism exhibit limited interests, some interventions focus on using their hobbies as the
theme in everyday activities (L. Koegel et al., 2012). These activities “can improve the social
engagement of the child with autism with his or her typically developing peers (Baker,
Koegel, & Koegel, 1998)” (L. Koegel et al., 2012, p. 221). Rather than focusing on
appropriate behavior for specific social settings to improve connections with other
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students, research has shown that using the autistic child’s interests (e.g. specific TV shows,
cooking, sports…) as the focus of an activity, the child naturally is able to connect with
peers who are also drawn to the same interests (L. Koegel et al., 2012).
A further intervention strategy designed to address disruptive behavior displayed
by children with ASD is the Prevent-Teach-Reinforce (PTR) model. Strain, Wilson and
Dunlap (2011) say, “PTR was designed as a standardized model based on the principles and
literature of applied behavior analysis and on the practical process of positive behavior
support” (p. 161). The effectiveness of PTA lies in its use of research-based assessment and
intervention strategies. Additionally, increased levels of success are due to “antecedent
manipulations (Prevent), instructional strategies (Teach), and arrangement of
reinforcement contingencies (Reinforce)” (Strain et al., 2011, p. 161).
The first step in this program is to form a school-based team that is responsible for
implementing the plan for the student. Second, goals for the student are set based on the
major challenges the child has. The goals are typically related to academics, social skills and
behavior modification (Strain et al., 2011). Additionally, a strategy for the measurement of
success is established. The third step requires participants in the child’s team to answer
questions in a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA). The objective in the FBA is to,
arrive at a team consensus regarding: (1) the antecedent events that are associated
with a high probability of the target behavior occurring, as well as a low probability;
(2) the purpose or function of the target behavior, and (3) the events that have
typically followed the occurrence of the target behaviors, and preferred stimuli or
events that might be used as positive reinforcers during intervention (Strain et al,
2011, p. 163).
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The results of the questionnaire are used to create an intervention plan, which is the fourth
step in the PTR model. Interventions are rooted in each component of PTR: Prevent, Teach
and Reinforce (Strain et al., 2011). The last step in the PTR model is ongoing evaluation of
the intervention plan. Using the measurement of success established in step two, the PTR
team will evaluate whether or not goals are being met. Readjusting the intervention based
on these goals should be a continual process.
Teachers play a significant role in the successful inclusion of children with ASD in
the classroom. As with any child with a disability, various classroom modifications can be
in place to help children with autism succeed socially and academically. One such
modification is posting classroom rules in a clear and visible place. Deris and Di Carlo
(2013) emphasize that referring back to visible rules provides “multiple opportunities to
understand the rules facilitate children’s comprehension of expectations” (p. 52). Labeling
classroom centers is also particularly helpful for children with ASD. This helps children
understand the purpose of a space, which can help them know the appropriate behavior
and actions for it (Deris & Di Carlo, 2013, p. 53).
Since transitions and unplanned changes are often a struggle for children with
autism, it is helpful to create a schedule that is predictable. This will help reduce the level of
anxiety children with ASD can experience. Deris and Di Carlo (2013) say, “The schedule
needs to include a balance of both teacher-directed and student-initiated activities, yet be
flexible enough to meet each child’s needs” (p. 53). The daily schedule needs to be posted in
an area that is visible for the child, and make sure they refer to it to make sure they are
aware of what comes next in the day (Deris & Di Carlo, 2013). If any changes to the
schedule are to occur, the child should be alerted ahead of time so they can process the
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information and mentally prepare themselves for the transition (Deris & Di Carlo, 2013).
Additionally, providing a quiet or “safe” place in the classroom is often needed for
children with ASD. Overstimulation resulting in overwhelming the child, and can be a
common occurrence in highly social environments. It is therefore important to provide a
place where the child knows they can “escape” for a time and calm down (Deris & Di Carlo,
2013, p. 53). It is also essential to maintain a gentle, calm and encouraging manner around
children with autism (Lee, Walter & Cleary, 2012). Focusing on the child’s strengths, and
reinforcing them rather than continually correcting weaknesses or misbehaviors will result
in improvements.
Children with ASD tend to get over-stimulated quickly. Lee et al. (2012) say, “the
inability to filter foreground and background sensory stimuli may contribute to sensory
overload” (p. 43). For a normally functioning child, a highly stimulating classroom is
beneficial. However, for a child with autism, it can be a barrier to learning. Seating the child
in a location in the room that is the least distracting can be helpful. Teachers should learn
from observation and extra information from parents, what particularly distracting stimuli
may be for the child (Lee et al, 2012). Deris & Di Carlo (2013) say, “Some distractions are
not controllable (e.g., temperature changes from outside to inside) but others are (e.g.,
noise level in the reading center)” (p. 53). Those distractions that can be easily changed
should be adjusted accordingly.
When providing support for children with autism in the classroom, it is important to
make sure their needs are put first, and that their academic and social goals are worked
toward. The purpose of classroom modifications and behavioral interventions is to help
remove barriers to learning for these students. It is not to make learning easier. Byrnes
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(2000) says, “Does wearing glasses make driving easier? Not really—for a person with
limited vision, wearing glasses makes driving accessible. With or without glasses, you need
to be able to drive to pass the test” (p. 320). Every accommodation made for a student with
ASD should be helping them make progress toward their academic and behavioral goals.
Kauffman, McGee and Brigham (2004) say, “Every modification and every accommodation
should be held to the same standard: whether it will help the student attain these goals—
not whether it will make life easier for the student” (p. 331).
Further, educators need to be careful not to assist children with ASD so much so that
they become dependent on the adult to succeed. Causton-Theoharis (2009) says the actions
of adults providing support “are frequently too intensive and invasive” (p. 37). The
provision of support can become a barrier to learning itself when it is too heavy. Further, if
support and classroom modifications become so supportive that the child is not ever
performing on their own, the benefits of inclusion are often in question. Causton-Theoharis
(2009) goes on to say, “When support becomes invasive, it undermines the purpose of
inclusion” (p. 37). Educators need to be aware of the how their actions affect the students
they are assisting, because it can take away some of the benefits of an inclusive classroom.
Additionally, support from adults needs to be faded over time. Some of the
consequences of unnecessarily heavy support from adults are dependence upon adult
support, loss of natural peer interactions, and hindered creativity. Fading support means
that over time, as students become more confident in performing assignments and
activities independently, the assistance from adults is gradually removed (CaustonTheoharis, 2009).
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Causton-Theoharis (2009) suggests four steps to fading adult support: “Plan to
include, ask and listen, step back, plan to fade your support” (p. 39). An educator needs to
first plan to allow the student with ASD to participate in regular classroom activities, with
the modifications that have already been put in place. Next, rather that automatically
assisting, teachers need to ask the student what would be most helpful to them during the
assignment in a way that is respectful. As students become more independent in
performing tasks, the teacher or paraprofessional should step back and allow the student
to work on their own. Cues and support should only be given when the student is
struggling to succeed. Lastly, educators need to always be working toward students’
academic and behavioral goals, and looking for ways that the student can be independent
in the classroom (Causton-Theoharis, 2009, p. 39-41).
Children with ASD have many barriers to learning, and it can be difficult for them to
be included in regular education classrooms. However, research has shown that careful
classroom modifications, behavior intervention plans, and healthy adult support can allow
these students to participate and learn in a general education setting. While it is certainly
possible for students with autism to be fully included, it is important to always keep their
needs in mind. Lewis and Doorlag (2011) say, “Although we believe that all students should
be participants in the general education process, we also believe that the nature and extent
of their participation should be determined on an individual basis. No one program,
placement, or service arrangement meets the needs of all students” (p. 4). Constant
reevaluation of the students’ progress should be implemented so that the child is always
making steps toward achieving their goals.
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References
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learning. In D. Evans (Ed), Taking sides: Clashing views in teaching and educational
practice (3rd ed.) (pp. 317-323). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Calder, L., Hill, V., & Pellicano, E. (2012). ‘Sometimes I want to play by myself’:
Understanding what friendship means to children with autism in mainstream
primary schools. Autism, 17(3), 296-316.
Causton-Theoharis, J. N., (2009). The golden rule of providing support in inclusive
classrooms: Support others as you would wish to be supported. Teaching
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Deris, A. R., & Di Carlo, C. (2013). Back to basics: Working with young children with autism
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