Neuroscience Exam 1:
Gross Anatomy
a. major structures of the nervous system
1. Precentral sulcus
2. Precentral gyrus
3. Central sulcus = sulcus of Rolando
4. Post central gyrus
5. Post central sulcus
6. Heschl’s gyrus = transverse temporal gyri
7. Sagittal fissure = longitudinal fissure
8. Lateral fissure = Sylvian fissure
b. primary function of the gross structures
1. Cerebral cortex
i.
Frontal lobe – motor, social, judgment, reasoning
ii.
Parietal lobe - sensory
iii. Temporal lobe- memory, auditory
iv.
Occipital lobe – visual
2. Ventricles – buoyancy for brain, circulate neurotransmitters
3. Cerebellum – coord. of mvmt and postural control, motor planning, and rapid
shifting of attention
4. Brainstem – origin of most upper motor neurons (excluding corticospinals),
axons transmitting somatosensory info, nuclei for CN III – X and XII, and the
reticular formation
5. Spinal cord – transmission, processing, and modification of info originating
from brain, peripheral nerves, or other spinal cord segments
Structure and Function of a Neuron
a. major parts of a typical neuron
1. Dendrites – receive information from other cells
2. Axon – carries output information to presynaptic terminal (length varies)
3. Presynaptic terminals – transmit information to other cells (release
neurotransmitters)
4. Soma – cell body (where neurotransmitters are produced)
b. how the resting membrane potential of a neuron is maintained
1. No net flow of ions across the membrane
2. Must be capable of producing change in ion flow (be excitable) so membrane
maintains an unequal distribution of ions across the membrane
3. Typically -70mV
4. Maintained by
i. Na+/K+ pump – pumps out 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions pumped in
ii. Negatively charged ions stay inside – too large to diffuse out
iii. Passive diffusion of ions through leak channels in the cell membrane
c. how an action potential is generated and propagated
1. Generation
i. A 15-mV depolarization (change from -70mV to -55mV) produces
action potential
A. Voltage-gated Na+ channels open and Na+ flows rapidly into
cell (due to Na+ concentration gradient as well as attraction to
negative charge inside cell)
B. Voltage-gated Na+ channels close
C. Voltage-gated K+ channels open and K+ leaves the cell
D. K+ repelled by positive charge in cell and by K+ concentration
gradient
E. Hyperpolarizes neuron temporarily
1. Absolute refractory period – no amount of stimulus will
provoke another action potential
2. Relative refractory period – a stronger-than-usual
stimulus will produce another action potential
F. Promotes forward propagation of action potential
ii. (Resting membrane potential is restored by leak channels and action of
Na+/K+ pump.)
2. Propagation
i. An action potential causes depolarization to adjacent area that is in a
resting state
ii. Due to hyperpolarization and the refractory period it creates,
propagation proceeds in one direction – that is down the inactive
regions of a membrane
iii. Faster propagation
A. Larger diameter axon
1. Larger “pipe” allows greater current flow
B. Myelination
1. Like insulation for “pipe” – prevents current leak
2. Nodes of Ranvier – breaks in myelin, with high amt. of
Na+ and K+ channels, act as stores of charge
3. Saltatory conduction – depolarization from node to
node along a myelinated axon
d. how synaptic transmission occurs
1. Action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal
2. Voltage-gated Ca+ channels open and Ca+ enters the presynaptic terminal
3. Elevated levels of Ca+ promote the movement of vesicles toward release sites
on the cell membrane
4. The synaptic vesicles bind with the membrane, then release neurotransmitter
into the synaptic cleft
5. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
6. The membrane receptor changes shape of an ion channel, allowing positively
charged ions to enter the postsynaptic cell, or indirectly opens an ion channel
through a G-protein, or activates a cascade of intracellular events through a
second messenger.
e. the major neurotransmitters
1. Acetycholine – prevalent in PNS
i. Fast-acting on muscle membranes
ii. Slow-acting with heart rate and other autonomic functions
2. Amino acids
i. Glutamate – excitatory, fast-acting in CNS, involved w/learning and
development
ii. Glycine and Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) – maj. inhibitory in
CNS, esp w/interneurons in SC
3. Amines
i. Dopamine – motor activity, cognition, behavior; assoc. w/feelings of
pleasure and reward
ii. Serotonin – affect mood and perception of pain
4. Peptides
i. Substance P – stimulates nerve endings at site of injury and w/in SC to
intensify pain signals
ii. Endorphins – inhibit neurons in CNS involved in pain perception
5. Nitric Oxide – involved w/persistent changes in postsynaptic response to
repeated stimuli and in cell death of neurons
Neural Development
a. the formation of the brain and nervous system that occurs in utero
1. Preembryonic (conception – 2 wks)
2. Embryonic (2 – 8 wks)
i. Neural plate  neural groove neural tube
1. Neural tube forms (days 18-26)
A. Mantle layer (inner, gray)
B. Marginal layer (outer, white)
2. Brain formation begins (day 28+)
ii. Neural crest PNS
Forebrain
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Midbrain
Mesencephalon
Hindbrain
Metencephalon
Thalamus,
hypothalamus, 3rd
ventricle, cerebral
hemisphere (including
BG)
Midbrain, Cerebral
Aqueduct
Cerebellum, pons, 4th
ventricle, medulla
Myelencephalon
3. Fetal (8 wks – birth)
i. Cellular development
1. Cell proliferation, migration, growth (2nd trimester)
2. Synaptic formation (3rd trimester)
3. Myelination (late 3rd trimester – young adulthood)
b. typical neural development that occurs in infants and toddlers
1. Infancy
i. Proliferation
ii. Regression
1. Neuronal death (makes brain more efficient)
2. Axon retraction
iii. Experience-expectant maturation (nature, brain “expect” certain
experiences – e.g., walking)
iv. Experience-dependent maturation (nurture, experience refine brain
growth and structure – e.g., a musician’s fine-motor control of the
hands)
1. Sensory stimulation builds neuronal connections
A. Vision – fetus eyes don’t open until 26th wk; vision
undeveloped at birth, can only focus 8-12 in. away; see
b&w; can track object across room by 1-2 mos.; big
improvement in depth perception by 3-6 mos.
B. Hearing – fetus can hear by 24th wk, can recognize
parents’ voices; well-developed at birth
C. Taste – some flavors thought to be transmitted through
amniotic fluid and breast milk; better variety in early
diet might make baby more tolerant of variety as infant
and toddler
D. Smell – babies are drawn to smell of breast milk, even
as newborns
E. Touch – skin-to-skin contact improves physiological
function and development; infant massage positively
impacts growth
2. Social-emotional development: if baby’s needs are met, it has
better social-emotional development
A. Attachment – if baby receives a lot of attention, it has
greater attachment, and less anxiety
B. Security– not possible to spoil baby its 1st 3-4 mos.; if
needs are met, baby can focus on learning
C. Stress – if baby is stressed, higher levels of cortisol, and
decreased growth
D. Sleep deprivation – newborns need sleep, 16-20 hrs/day
3. Development of movement
A. Eye-head control – 1st 3 mos.
B. Manual skills – reach and grasp 3-6 mos; feed
themselves 9-12 mos.
C. Locomotion – crawl by 9 mos.; walk by 1 yr.
c. developmental disorders that occur due to malformation of the nervous system
1. Cerebral palsy (Box 5-3, pp. 101 of txt) – movement and postural disorder
caused by permanent, nonprogressive damage of a developing brain; damage
usually occurs postnatally; classified according to motor dysfunction – spastic,
athetoid (involuntary slow, writhing, purposeless mvmt), ataxic, mixed – or
according to area of body affected – hemiplegia, quadriplegia, diplegia
(paralysis affecting symmetrical parts of the body – face, arms, legs).
2. Myelodysplasia/Spina bifida (Box 5-2, pp. 98) – neural tube defect resulting
in developing vertebrae not closing around an incomplete neural tube,
resulting in bony defect at distal end of tube; symptoms vary, based on
severity of neural tissue protrusion, from asymptomatic to paralysis of lower
limbs
3. Developmental coordination disorder (pp. 100) – children with normal
intellect, without TBI, CP, or other neurologic problems, who lack
coordination to perform age-appropriate motor tasks; slow movement is
single, reliable characteristic
The Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nervous System
a. structures of the gray and white matter in cross sections of the spinal cord,
 Dorsal horn: sensory; contains
 Dorsal column: sensory tracts
endings of sensory neurons,
interneurons, and cell bodies of
tract cells
 Lateral horn: only at T1-L2 spinal
segments; cell bodies of
preganglionic sympathetic neurons
 Lateral column: sensory and motor
 Ventral horn: motor; cell bodies of
lower motor neurons (LMN)
tracts
 Anterior column: motor tracts
Dorsal column
Lundy-Ekman Fig 12-6
Anterolateral Pathway
White matter of spinal cord: Blue – sensory tracts; Red – motor; Purple – propriospinal fibers.
Gray Matter Arranged in Layers
 Rexed’s Laminae: 10
histologic regions of spinal
gray matter
 Substantia gelatinosa (lamina
II): processes pain info
 Nucleus proprius (laminae III
& IV): processes conscious
proprioception and
discriminative touch
 Nucleus dorsalis (AKA
Clarke’s column; in lamina
VII): relays unconscious
proprioceptive info to
cerebellum
Fig 12-7. Gray matter of lower thoracic spinal cord
b. major surface markings of the spinal cord
Nolte, Fig 10-7A
c. the structures of the spinal nerves, from the rootlets (both dorsal and ventral) to the
periphery
• Dorsal rootlets enter cord
at posterolateral sulcus and
form dorsal root
• Ventral rootlets leaves
anterolateral sulcus and
form ventral root
• Ventral root and dorsal
root join to form spinal
nerve
Lundy-Ekman Fig 1-7
d. the functional difference between damage to a CNS vs PNS neuron
1. Lesion of sensory or motor fiber in spinal region results in myotomal and/or
dermatomal distribution
2. Lesion of sensory or motor fiber in periphery results in peripheral nerve
distribution. Signs include: paresis or paralysis, sensory loss, abnormal
sensations, muscle atrophy, reduced or absent DTR
e. A behavioral example demonstrating the gate control theory of pain
Hitting your finger with a hammer and then applying pressure to stimulate the
pressure receptors to inhibit the pain transmission. The limbic system releases
corticosteriods and the periaqueductal gray releases endorphins. Synaptic remodeling
can occur at the spinal cord or cortical level if pain stimulus continues for long
enough. And the local chemical releases at the skin can make the skin hypersensitive
and more likely to be stimulated by less than typical levels of painful stimulus or by a
stimulus that would not normally elicit a painful reponse. TENS uses the gate control
theory of pain to inhibit pain perception.
f. major characteristics of the pathways/tracts of the spinal cord and brain
Tract
Origin
Termination
Function
Dorsal column/medial
lemniscus
Peripheral receptors; 1storder neuron synapses in
medulla
Dorsal horn of spinal
cord
Primary sensory
area cerebral
cortex
Primary sensory
area cerebral
cortex
Midbrain
Reticular
formation
Amygdyla, basal
ganglia, many
areas of cortex
cerebellum
Convey info about
discriminative touch and
conscious proprioception
Convey discriminative
info about pain and temp
Spinothalamic
Spinomesencephalic
Spinoreticular
Dorsal horn of spinal
cord
Spinolimbic
Spinocerebellar
Lateral corticospinal
Medial corticospinal
Tectospinal
High-fidelity paths orig.
in peripheral receptors;
1st-order neurons synapse
in nucleus dorsalis or
medulla
Internal feedback tracts
originate in dorsal horn
Supplementary motor,
premotor, and primary
motor cerebral cortex
Supplementary motor,
premotor, and primary
motor cerebral cortex
Superior colliculus of
midbrain
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(contralateral)
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(ipsilateral)
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(contralateral)
Nonlocalized perception
of pain; arousal,
reflexive, motivational,
and analgesic responses
to nociception
Conveys unconscious
proprioceptive info
Conveys info about
activity in descending
activating pathways and
spinal interneurons
Fractionation of
movement, particularly
of hand movements
Control of neck,
shoulder, and trunk
muscles
Reflexive movement of
head toward sounds or
visual moving objects
Rubrospinal
Red nucleus of midbrain
Medial reticulospinal
Pontine reticular
formation
Lateral reticulospinal
Medullary reticular
formation
Medial vestibulospinal
Vestibular nuclei in
medulla and pons
Lateral vestibulospinal
Vestibular nuclei in
medulla and pons
Ceruleospinal
Locus ceruleus in
brainstem
Raphespinal
Raphe nucleus in
brainstem
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(contralateral)
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(ipsilateral)
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(ipsilateral)
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(contralateral)
Ventral horn of
spinal cord
(ipsilateral)
Spinal
interneurons and
motor neurons
Spinal
interneurons and
motor neurons
Facilitates contralateral
upper limb flexors
Facilitates postural
muscles and limb
extensors
Facilitates flexor muscle
motor neurons, inhibits
extensor motor neurons
Adjusts activity in neck
and upper back muscles
Ispsilaterally facilitates
lower motor neurons to
extensors; inhibits lower
motor neurons to flexors
Enhances the activity of
interneurons and motor
neurons in spinal cord
Same as ceruleospinal
g. upper motor neuron lesions and lower motor neuron lesions
Upper vs. Lower Motor Neuron Lesions
UMN
Clinical Signs
Paresis
Spasticity
Hypertonia
Hyperreflexia
Diseases
Stroke
SCI
Parkinson’s
TBI
MS
LMN
Clinical Signs
Loss of reflexes
Atrophy
Flaccid Paralysis
Fibrillations/fasciculations
Diseases
Polio
Peripheral Nerve Injury
Guillian Barre Syndrome
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s Disease) = Both UMN and LMN
The Brain Stem and Cranial Nerves
a. major subunits of the brain stem
1. Horizontal divisions (superior to inferior)
i. Midbrain
A. CN nuclei III, IV
ii. Pons
A. Corticopontine tracts synapse
B. Some corticobulbar tracts synapse
a. CN V – in upper pons
b. CN VII – in mid pons
C. CN nuclei V, VI, VII
D. Middle cerebellar peduncle
iii. Medulla
A. External anatomy
a. Anterior surface
i. Pyramids (inferior) – corticospinal tracts cross
R<>L
ii. Olives – relay info to cerebellum
iii. Cranial nerves IX, X, XI, and XII – all exiting
b. Posterior surface
i. Inferior cerebellar peduncle – connection bet.
medulla & cerebellum
ii. Central canal widens to be 4th ventricle
B. Internal anatomy
a. Upper Medulla
i. Nuclei for CN VII, VIII, IX, X, XII
ii. Corticobulbar tracts to
1. IX, X (bilat.)
2. XII (sometimes contralateral)
b. Inferior medulla
i. Corticospinal tracts cross (pyramidal
decussation)
ii. Dorsal column/medial lemniscus cross
iii. CN V synapse
C. Functions:
a. Contributes to control of eye and head movements
b. Coordinates swallowing
c. *Important*: Helps regulate cardiovascular, respiratory
and visceral activity
2. Longitudinal sections
i. Basilar section - anterior
A. Descending axons from cerebral cortex
B. Motor nuclei
ii. Tegmentum – posterior
A. Reticular formation: adjust general activity level of nervous
system
B. Sensory nuclei and ascending sensory tracts
C. Cranial nerve nuclei
D. Medial longitudinal fasciculus: tract that coord. eye & head
mvmt
iii. Tectum – additional posterior section of Midbrain
A. Pretectal area
B. Superior and inferior colliculi
C. Reflexive control of eye & head mvmt
b. the placement of the major nuclei of the brain stem
Cranial Nerve Nuclei:
Midbrain
Pons
 Mid/Upper Pons
Pons
 Inferior Pons
Medulla
 Upper Medulla
Lemniscus
Medulla
 Inferior medulla
Central canal
Lemniscus
c. type of information processed by each tract and by each nucleus of the brain stem
Vertical Tracts
Location
Modifications in brainstem
Information processed
Trigeminal lemniscus
Fasciculus gracilis
Midbrain
Inferior medulla
Crosses to medial lemniscus
Fasciculus cuneatus
Inferior medulla
Crosses to medial lemniscus
Spinal tract of trigeminal nerve
Posterior spinocerebellar
Medulla, pons
Synapses w/nucleus ipsislaterally
Inferior medulla
Touch, pain, temp from face
Lower limb – discriminative
touch and conscious
proprioception
Upper limb sensory discriminative touch and
conscious proprioception
Touch, pain, temp from face
Anterior spinocerebellar
Inferior medulla, mid/upper pons
Conveys unconscious
proprioceptive info
Tectospinal
Inferior medulla, upper midbrain
Medial lemniscus
Passes thru brainstem
Spinothalamic
Not modified; passes through
brainstem without alteration
Axons synapse in nucleus gracilis or
cuneatus;2nd-order neurons cross
midline to form medial lemniscus
Reflexive mvmt of head toward
stimuli
Discriminative touch and
conscious proprioception
Convey discriminative info
about pain and temp
Convey info about
discriminative touch and
conscious proprioception
Sensory (Ascending) Tracts
Dorsal column
Conveys unconscious tactile and
proprioceptive info from lower
½ of body
Motor (Descending) Tracts
Corticopontine
Corticospinal
Pons, midbrain
Not modified; passes through
brainstem without alteration
Corticobulbar
Axons synapse with cranial nerve
nuclei in brainstem
Axons synapse within reticular
formation
Orig. in red nucleus (midbrain),
crosses, then descends to synapse
w/LMN
Passes thru brainstem
Corticoreticular
Rubrospinal
Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
Nuclei
Superior colliculis
Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal
nerve
Location in brainstem
Upper midbrain
Upper midbrain
Motor output to V, VII, XII
(Lateral) Fractionation of
movement, particularly of hand
movements
(Medial) Control of neck,
shoulder, and trunk muscles
Motor signals from cerebral
cortex to cranial nerve nuclei
Upper limb flexors
tract that coord eye & head
mvmt
Information processed
Unconscious visual input
Proprioception of the face
Oculomotor nerve parasympathetic
nucleus
Upper midbrain
Oculomotor nucleus
Upper midbrain
Red nucleus
Upper midbrain
Substantia nigra
Upper midbrain
Inferior colliculus
Lower midbrain
Mesencephalic nucleus
Locus ceruleus
Lower midbrain
Lower midbrain
Nucleus of trochlear nerve
Pedunculopontine
Lower midbrain
Lower midbrain
Vestibular nuclei
Main sensory nucleus of trigeminal
Motor nucleus of trigeminal
Abducens nucleus
Cochlear nucleus
Vestibular nucleus
Facial nucleus
Pontine nuclei
Solitary nucleus
Vestibular nuclei
Accessory cuneate nucleus (visceral
motor)
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Mid/upper pons
Mid/upper pons
Mid/upper pons
Inferior pons
Inferior pons
Inferior pons
Inferior pons
Inferior pons
Upper medulla
Upper medulla
Upper medulla
Nucleus ambiguus
Hypoglossal nucleus
Inferior olivary nucleus
Upper medulla
Upper medulla
Upper medulla
Raphe nuclei
Upper medulla
Nucleus gracilis
Inferior medulla
Nucleus cuneatus
Inferior medulla
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Inferior medulla
Upper medulla
Parasympathetic control of
pupillary sphincter and ciliary
muscle
Efferent somatic fibers to
extraocular muscles
Info from cerebellum, spinal
cord, and reticular formation
Output to motor thalamus and
pedunculopontine nuclei
Auditory input
Proprioception of the face
Physiological responses to stress
and panic; releases
norepinephrine; regulates
attention
Motor efferent
Reticular and vestibular; source
of acetylcholine
Vestibular afferent
Sensory afferent
Somatic efferent
Somatic efferent
Auditory efferent
Vestibular afferent
Somatic efferent
Somatic efferent
Visceral afferent
Vestibular afferent
Proprioceptive afferent
Touch, pain, temp afferent from
ipsilateral face
Motor efferent of CN X and IX
Motor efferent CN XII
Motor efferent and
proprioceptive afferent
Modulate activity throughout
CNS; major source of serotonin;
inhibition of pain transmission
Discriminative touch and
conscious proprioception
Discriminative touch and
conscious proprioception
Touch, pain, temp afferent from
ipsilateral face
d. the neurological principle and behavioral signs of alternating hemiplegia
1. Lesion to one side of brainstem
i. At CN III, VI, or XII (not all three)
ii. Produces flaccid paralysis on same side of face as lesion
2. Damage to nearby corticospinal tract
i. UMN – spastic paralysis of arm/leg on opposite side of body
3. Seldom seen as pure syndrome in clinic
Alternating Hemiplegia
cn III
- LMN = reduced tone
- ptosis of left eyelid
- left eye lateral at rest
-Unable move eye up, down, medially
Rubrospinal pathway
Corticospinal pathway
- UMN = increased tone
- spasticity of right extremities
Alternating Hemiplegia
cnVI
- LMN = reduced tone
- left eye to midline at rest
-Unable to abduct eye
Corticospinal pathway
- UMN = increased tone
- spasticity of right extremities
Alternating Hemiplegia
cn XII
- LMN = reduced tone
- difficulty swallowing
- slurred speech
- tongue deviates to left
Corticospinal pathway
- UMN = increased tone
- spasticity of right extremities
Number
Name
S, M Function
or B
Connection How test
to Brain
I
Olfactory
S
Smell
Inferior frontal
lobe
Have patient identify substances
II
Optic
S
Vision
Diencephalon
Check vision
Pupillary reflex (sensory portion)
III
Oculomotor
M
Moves eye up, down, medially;
raises upper eyelid; constricts
pupil; adjusts lens shape
Midbrain
Have track finger
Check eyelids open equally
Pupillary reflex (motor portion)
IV
Troclear
M
Moves eye medially and down
Midbrain
Have track finger
V
Trigeminal
B
Facial sensation, chewing,
sensation from TMJ
Pons
Sensation of face
Corneal reflex (sensory portion)
Masseter reflex
VI
Abducens
M
Abducts eye
Between pons
and medulla
Have track finger
VII
Facial
B
Facial expression, closes eye,
tears, salivation, taste
Between pons
and medulla
Facial movements
Corneal reflex (motor portion)
VIII
Vestibulocochlear
S
Sensation of head position
relative to gravity and head
movement; hearing
Between pons
and medulla
Vesibular function
Auditory function
IX
Glossopharyngeal
B
Swallowing, salivation, taste
Medulla
Gag reflex (sensory portion)
X
Vagus
B
Regulates viscera, swallowing,
speech, taste
Medulla
Have patient say “ah” (soft palate should rise)
Gag reflex (motor portion)
XI
Accessory
M
Elevates shoulders, turns head
Spinal cord and
medulla
MMT sternocleidomastoid and upper trap
XII
Hypoglossal
M
Moves tongue
Medulla
Have patient stick out tongue
Lundy-Ekman Tables 13.1, 13. 2 and 13.4
Autonomic Nervous System, Hypothalamus and Limbic System
a. the functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
1. Sympathetic – “flight or fight”
i.
Cell bodies of preganglionic neurons located in lateral horn T1-L2;
thoracolumbar outflow
ii. Primary function: maintain optimal blood supply to organs
iii. Regulate body temp and metabolic rate; regulate activity of viscera
2. Parasympathetic - “rest and digest”
i.
Preganglionic cell bodies in brainstem (CN III, VII, IX, X) and sacral
spinal cord (S2 – S4); craniosacral outflow
ii. Primary function: energy conservation and storage
iii. Decreases cardiac activity, facilitates digestion, and regulates activity of
viscera
b. ANS receptors –
1. Mechanoreceptors – pressure and stretch
2. Chemoreceptors – chemical concentrations
3. Nociceptors – stretch and ischemia
4. Thermoreceptors – small changes in temp
c. ANS Afferent pathways
1. Dorsal roots into spinal cord
2. CN VII, IX, and X into brainstem
d. Hypothalamus
1. Overseer of homeostasis and ANS
2. All ANS afferents relayed to hypothalamus; receives direct sensory afferent from
retina and olfactory
3. Information shared with limbic system
4. Output to medulla and pons to regulate ANS
e. Limbic System - primary functions and major structures
1. Emotion
a. Amygdala
b. Areas in hypothalamus
c. Septal area
d. Anterior nuclei of thalamus
e. Anterior limbic cortex
f. Limbic association area
2. Memory
a. Hippocampus
b. Medial thalamic nuclei
c. Posterior limbic cortex
d. Basal forebrain
3. Influences motor and autonomic output via emotion
4. Major source of input is from hypothalamus, if there is emotional context of
some sort.
5. Influences ANS behavior via hypothalamus if there is an emotional context of
output.
6. Behavioral signs associated with limbic system dysfunction - inappropriate
display of emotion, inability to control and regulate mood, inability to create
and store memories with emotional context.