Social Structure:
Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum reflected more than a century of Romanisation. The basic unit
of society was the household (familiar), which included family members and slaves, headed by the
paterfamilias. There were three broad social classes: Freeborn, Freed and Slaves. There were
distinctions within these classes, for example all freeborn had the right to vote but not all freeborn had
the right to stand for office. Clothing also distinguished social class. Privileged citizens wore the toga,
others wore a loosely belted tunic similar to that worn by slaves. There was some mobility between
the classes. Slaves could be freed and become freedmen but not citizens. The sons of freedmen could
become citizens.
Freeborn men:
Within the broad social class of freeborn were the senatorial elite, members of the Roman Patrician
class who had estates or villas in Campania: The local elite, wealthy landowners and businessmen
who dominated local government, and ordinary citizens such as small scale farmers, shopkeepers and
artisans. Over time, Roman patricians had been attracted to Campania where they accumulated large
agricultural estates, villas and houses. The Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum was owned by the
father in law of Julius Caesar. The Villa of Oplontis was owned by Poppea Sabina. The Proconsul
Marcus Nonius Balbus built the Suburban baths in Herculaneum.
Many local identities gained prestige from their wealth as opposed to their patrician background. They
gained status by fulfilling political roles and by maintaining a network of socio-political ties with
friends (amici), clients (clientelae), and dependents.
Marcus Holconius Rufus and Lucius Caecilius Jucundus were both wealthy prominent men who were
well known throughout Pompeii.
Freedmen:
Freedmen or liberti were slaves who had been freed either through purchase or reward from their
owner. Many freedmen kept close connection with their former owner and even took their name.
Freemen formed a significant part of the population and by AD79 many of them ran workshops and
small businesses, often with slaves they had purchased. The children of freemen could become
citizens.
Some freedmen remained in lowly occupations but others gained considerable wealth as owners of
estates and businesses. The Vetti brothers were freedmen in Pompeii who were successful wine
producers. Their house was particularly luxurious and well decorated.
Slaves:
Slaves were a feature of Roman Society who could be bought and sold or left as inheritance. There is
evidence of their widespread presence in Pompeii and Herculaneum where it has been estimated they
were at least ¼ of the population by AD79. Most slaves were considered part of the familiar, and they
worked in the family home, where they also slept. Slaves often worked as cooks, cleaners, nurses, and
servers, agricultural workers while educated slaves worked as tutors, secretaries or agents for their
owners business.
Some slaves were owned by the town council and employed in public enterprises. Inscritptions from
Pompeii mention slaves who handled matters relating to public taxation. Some slaves were performers
who provided music and dancing banquets while others were gladiators.
Freeborn Women:
Women of Pompeii and Herculaneum were represented across all three classes. While freeborn
women could not vote or stand for political office, they played an active role in political life,
especially in support for candidates. Some freeborn women owned property. Julia Felix owned a large
property in Pompeii and rented some of its rooms. Other prominent women include: Eumachia &
Mamia.
Women could own slaves and conduct business transactions. A waxed tablet records a transactions
between two women in AD61 involving a loan which used two slaves as security. Freeborn women
of wealthier families would have carried out traditional duties within a Roman household, the
supervision of one or two slaves and spinning and weaving. Poorer freeborn women worked in a
range of occupations outside the household.
Freedwomen:
Like their male counterparts, female slaves could be granted their freedom and become liberti. Some
freedwomen married well and established their own households. The tomb erected by Naevoleia
Tyche for her husband, shows that some freedwomen became quite wealthy. Some freedwomen
worked outside the household in the same occupations as poor freeborn women while others worked
beside their husbands in various enterprises.