Support Sentences
Body paragraphs consist of one topic sentence (usually the first sentence) and several support
sentences. We imagine a reader reading our topic sentence, then saying “Prove it.” This is
exactly what the rest of our paragraph (our support sentences) does: our support sentences
“prove,” support, or reinforce the claim made in our topic sentence. The relationship between a
topic sentence and the support sentences is the same as the relationship between making a
claim and proving the truth of that claim with evidence.
To support our topic sentences we may use examples or illustrations, quoted material, expert
opinions or analysis, facts, statistics, graphs, anecdotes, logical reasoning, and sensory details
(imagery).
Making general statements and backing up those general statements with supporting details is
at the heart of academic writing. Regardless of the essay prompt, the form of the essay, or the
mode of writing, we cannot get away from making general claims and supporting those claims.
Length of paragraphs: There is no required length of body paragraphs; however, longer
paragraphs tend to be better than shorter ones, for this simple reason: A topic sentence
supported by eight sentences of support material is better supported than a topic sentence
supported by three sentences of support material. Longer paragraphs are better not because
they’re longer, but because they offer more support than do shorter paragraphs.
Choices: Given any general statement (topic sentence) a variety of support methods present
themselves. For example, the statement that medical research on animals is cruel can be
supported by expert opinion, examples of specific experiments, or an anecdote describing a
specific experiment, as in the following:

Ingrid Newkirk, the founder of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, reports that
one of the most notorious of the “tests” deployed by the multibillion-dollar cosmetics
industry is the Draize, which has been used since the 1940s to measure the potential
irritative effects of products. Rabbits—used because their eyes do not produce tears
and therefore cannot cleanse themselves—are placed into stocks and their eyes are
filled with foreign substances. When a rabbit’s eyes ulcerate—again, no pain killers are
used—the cosmetic testers (who are usually not trained laboratory researchers) report
a result. [In this example, “Ingrid Newkirk” provides the expert opinion, the “Draize” test
provides an example of an experiment, and the description of actually administering this
test to a rabbit provides anecdote or narrative.]
Warrants in Body Paragraphs
In some cases, our support sentences provide sufficient evidence; but in other cases, our
support sentences will be insufficient without the addition of one or more warrants.

simple example, needs no warrant: The room is messy. Some empty chip bags sit in the
center of the floor, a pile of unwashed clothes lies on the bed, and the wastebasket has
been kicked over.
The evidence in this simple example is sufficient to support the topic sentence. In other words,
the connection between the messiness described in the supporting sentences and the claim of
the topic sentence (that the room is messy) is quite clear.

less simple example, needs a warrant: Harry is a British subject. He was born in Bermuda.
At this point we must realize that something is missing. What is missing is a third element that
connects the evidence (“born in Bermuda”) to the claim (“is a British subject”). This third
element is knows as a “warrant.” The warrant is like a bridge connecting evidence to the claims
of our topic sentences. In this case, the warrant “People who are born in Bermuda are naturalborn British subjects” must be added in order for our evidence (“born in Bermuda”) to count as
evidence.
A writer’s skill at using warrants is closely connected to one of the most important mental
habits of all writing: trying to see your writing from the point of view of an imaginary reader.
What will our readers be wondering? What will they need to have explained? What will they
object to? And so on. By adopting the point of view of a reader who will see any of the gaps in
our argument, we will be more likely to rescue our evidence with necessary warrants.
To further see the importance of warrants, here is a longer string of statements:

claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

evidence 1: Driving a private car is a typical citizen’s most air polluting activity. [needs a
bridge to connect to the claim]

warrant 1: Because cars are the largest source of private air pollution, switching to
hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

evidence 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15
years. [needs a bridge to connect to the claim]

warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a
hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

evidence 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric
motor. [needs a bridge to connect to the claim]

warrant 3: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced.
According to ineedtoknow.org “the hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota,
produces 90 percent fewer harmful emissions than a comparable gasoline engine.”
To understand the function of warrants within body paragraphs, study the bulleted sentences
above. All three pieces of evidence are meant to support the general claim that “Hybrid cars are
an effective strategy to fight pollution.” However, each of the three pieces of evidence is
lacking some material. Each needs a bridge in order to connect to the claim and to count as
evidence. In each case, a warrant is provided to create that bridge.
But knowing what warrants are will do us little good without the intuitive sense of knowing
when warrants are required. As we write, we must analyze the connections between our
evidence and our claims, looking for areas of weakness. When we find those weak
(unconnected) areas, we create warrant material to lend more weight and substance to our
arguments.
other additions to body paragraphs: We began by saying that body paragraphs consist of one
topic sentence and several supporting sentences. Quite often, that simple definition will serve
our purposes. But for writing at a more advanced level, a more complex definition of body
paragraphs might prove helpful. A body paragraph, then, consists of claims supported by data
and evidence. Often, warrants are needed to connect the data and evidence to our claims.
Counterclaims and rebuttals (two elements not covered here) may also appear in body
paragraphs. Counterclaims are produced by anticipating objections that readers might have.
Rather than ignoring those objections, honesty requires writing them into our texts. When we
counter those counterclaims with rebuttals of our own, we are able to maintain the strength of
our argument.
General Rule: The More Specific the Support, the Better
lacking specific support: In America, safety has always been an issue with its citizens. Citizens
who are arrogant and do not follow the law become hazardous to other people. Teenagers and
adolescents end up under peer pressure and do illegal things. For instance, underage drinking,
driving under the influence, and doing drugs can be appealing to teenagers when going to an
unsupervised party.
improved, with specifics: [As you read, imagine replacing the original, highlighted words with
the newer, more specific words.] In America, safety has always been an issue with its citizens.
Citizens who are arrogant and do not follow the law who shoot off guns in the street and light
Roman candles in their garages become hazardous to other people. Teenagers and adolescents
end up under peer pressure acting because some thug says to them “Hey, do this and people
will think you’re cool” and do illegal things drive on the sidewalk and fill their water glasses
with Cherry Coke. For instance, underage drinking drinking Coors at age twelve, driving under
the influence driving a Dodge Neon after downing a bottle of Thunderbird, and doing drugs
drinking Nyquil can be appealing to teenagers when going to an unsupervised party a party at
the home of someone whose parents are in Madrid.
lacking specific support: Attending parties could lead to bad decisions under pressure,
especially for young students who wish to fit in with the popular crowd. The students feel the
need to participate in party activities after older students have pressured them into it. The
younger students end up under the influence, which could possibly lead to a bad choice the
student will regret. Students shouldn’t feel pressured at parties to have fun. If so, then many
students shouldn’t attend them.
improved, with specifics: Attending parties could lead to bad decisions under pressure,
especially for young students who wish to fit in with the popular crowd middle school students
who think they are Hannah Montana. The students feel the need to participate in party
activities full contact limbo after older students students with facial hair have pressured them
into it. The younger students end up under the influence with a blood alcohol content of 0.2,
which could possibly lead to a bad choice the student will regret wearing Groucho glasses
while flashing a fake I.D. to the Wal-Mart liquor department clerk. Students shouldn’t feel
pressured at parties to have fun. If so, then many students shouldn’t attend them.
Examples:
[Note: These examples are meant to demonstrate how some of the various types of data or
evidence can be used to support topic sentences. These examples are not intended as fully
developed paragraphs. In more fully developed paragraphs, it is likely that warrant material
would need to be added to assist our data and evidence in connecting to our topic sentences.]
topic sentence: New discoveries in physics have caused us to view the material world as a
shifting array of objects that we cannot hold in our gaze.

support (fact): J. J. Thompson’s discovery of the electron in 1897 showed that the atom
was not indivisible, as its Greek name had implied, but could be broken down into its
constituent parts.
topic sentence: Eighteenth-century parents doted on their children, expressing their feelings in
a highly sentimental manner.



support (fact): James Nelson, in his popular Essay on the Government of Children,
published in the 1750s, wrote that parents were more likely to be excessively permissive
than overly strict.
support (quotation): Lady Kildare said of her children, “are not my pretty babes a
blessing? When I look round at them all, does not my heart rejoice at the sight, and
overflow with tenderness?”
support (anecdote): Henry Fox, Secretary of War under King George II, was also a
devoted father who spoiled and indulged his children. When his eldest son insisted on
taking apart a watch fob, Fox merely murmured, “Well, if you must, you must.”
topic sentence: Michel de Montaigne, a French essayist, used observations of Native American
peoples to show the inequalities of wealth in European society.


support (example): In his essay, “On Cannibals,” Montaigne compared the equality of
wealth enjoyed by Native Americans with the inequalities experienced by Europeans.
even-more-specific-support (quotation): He wrote that Native Americans appeared
shocked by the fact that “there were among us men full and gorged with all sorts of
good things to their heart’s content, while their halves, haggard with hunger and
poverty, stood begging at the doors.”
topic sentence: Los Angeles freeways are designed to allow residents to commute across the
greater metropolitan area with relative ease.


support (example): An hour’s drive from any point in the region makes hundreds of
possible employers accessible.
even-more-specific-support (example): Workers can live in the San Fernando Valley and
work in the old industrial sector in Los Angeles, or they can commute from suburban
Glendale to the beach city of Santa Monica.
topic sentence: It is clear that Oakdale School is overcrowded.

support (example): For example, we do not have enough books to go around; in some
rooms, children have to share desks; and with so many students in each class, it is
impossible for teachers to give each student the individual attention she or he needs.
topic sentence: My grandmother gives me more comfort than any other person.

support (using imagery/sensory details): She puts her arms around me and holds me
close. I feel her velvety, wrinkled cheek next to mine and smell the sweet scent of her
lavender perfume.
topic sentence: A flat tax would be good for the government and for citizens.
support (expert opinion):

Dr. Alan Auerbach, professor of economics at the University of California of Berkeley
and former chief economist at the Joint Committee on Taxation, estimates that the
average family of four will have $3,000 more in income per year with a flat tax.

The Tax Foundation, a nonprofit tax think tank, estimates that America spends $140
billion complying with the current tax code—a cost that would be reduced 94
percent by instituting a flat tax.
supporting facts:

The IRS publishes 480 different tax forms.

The IRS publishes 280 different forms to explain those 480 tax forms.

The body of the tax law has 7.05 million words-ten times the number of words in the
Bible.

The cost of income tax compliance is over $1.3 billion per year (some sources
estimate the cost is as high as $2 billion).
topic sentence: In his poem “Ad,” Kenneth Fearing uses irony and structure to criticize the way
governments recruit soldiers for war.

support (textual quotation): “If you thrill at the thought of throwing poison into wells, /
have heavenly visions of people, by the thousands, dying in flames— / You are the very
man we want.”