Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Participation in Interscholastic Sports: Do the Academic Performances of Athletes and
Non-Athletes Differ?
Angela Lumpkin, Professor
Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS 66045-7567
E-mail: alumpkin@ku.edu
Telephone: 785-864-0778
Fax: 785-864-3343
Rebecca M. Achen, Ph.D. Candidate and Graduate Teaching Assistant
Department of Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS 66045-7567
E-mail: becky.achen@ku.edu
Phone: 785-864-0745
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Participation in Interscholastic Sports: Do the Academic Performances of Athletes and
Non-Athletes Differ?
ABSTRACT
The academic performances of Kansas students in grades 9-12 during 2011-2012 on
percentage of days attended, graduation rates, dropout rates, ACT scores, and Kansas state
assessments was examined to identify differences between athletes and non-athletes. As a
replication of Lumpkin and Favor’s (2012) study, comparisons also were conducted to examine
the impact of sex and ethnicity on these academic performance measures. Athletes in Kansas
attended a significantly higher percentage of days of school than non-athletes. In all athlete
versus non-athlete comparisons (i.e., overall and for males, females, Whites, and minorities)
athletes graduated at a significantly higher rate and were significantly less likely to drop out of
school. This trend was true for males, females, Whites, and minorities across grades 9, 10, 11,
and 12. Regarding ACT subscores, non-athletes scored significantly higher than athletes in
English and reading. Male non-athletes scored significantly higher on English, science, and
reading than male athletes; female athletes scored significantly higher in mathematics and
science than female non-athletes. Differences were found between the sexes with female athletes
scoring significantly higher on English and reading, while male athletes scored significantly
higher on mathematics and science. In confirmation of findings from Lumpkin and Favor (2012)
and others, this study provided additional evidence that participation in interscholastic sports
does not detract from but appears to be positively associated with academic performance of high
school athletes.
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Participation in Interscholastic Sports: Do the Academic Performances of Athletes and
Non-Athletes Differ?
The National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) has long lauded the
educational benefits accruing to students who chose to develop their athletic abilities and
enhance their personal qualities such as good citizenship and leadership (National Federation of
State High School Associations, 2008). Assuming these are true, the beneficiaries were the 7.7
million adolescents who participated in interscholastic athletics during 2011-2012 (National
Federation of State High School Associations, 2012). Most parents, teachers, and school
administrators, as well as the general public, for decades have agreed with the use of public
funds for this popular extracurricular activity based on perceptions that it contributed to the
growth and development of students academically, physically, socially, and psychologically.
The same public schools blamed for students’ poor test scores sponsor interscholastic
sports. Significant reductions in funding, increased diversity among students, violence and
bullying, and problematic family and socio-economic issues coupled with the clamor for
academic advancement have led some people to question whether schools should sponsor
interscholastic sports. Counter arguments emphasized that since students had to earn the right to
participate based on their academic performances, sponsorship of interscholastic sports was
deemed appropriate and perceived positively. For students to participate in interscholastic sports,
most states mandated academic eligibility requirements, such as enrolling in a minimum number
of courses, passing all courses, and maintaining a minimum grade point average (GPA)
(Bukowski, 2010; Burnett, 2000; Callari, 2002), leading to athletes earning higher grades,
missing fewer days of school, and dropping out less (Camp, 1990; Fox, Barr-Anderson,
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Neumark-Sztainer, & Wall, 2010; Jansen, 1992; Lumpkin & Favor, 2012; National Federation of
State High School Associations, 2008).
The Kansas State High School Activities Association (KSHSAA), as most other states’
governance organizations, asserted participation in interscholastic sports promoted student
academic achievement, even though limited empirical evidence supported this claim. To seek to
provide greater evidence, Lumpkin and Favor (2012) compared the academic performance of
athletes and non-athletes in grades 9-12 during 2008-2009 in Kansas. They found interscholastic
athletes in comparison with non-athletes earned higher grades, graduated at a higher rate,
dropped out of school less frequently, and scored higher on Kansas state assessments. As an
expansion and replication of that study using additional data not available previously, the
purpose of this work was to examine the academic performances of Kansas interscholastic
athletes in comparison with non-athletes in grades 9-12 during 2011-2012 on several academic
measures. Specifically, the authors analyzed percentage of days attended, graduation rates,
dropout rates, ACT scores, and state assessment scores to identify differences between athletes
and non-athletes. Similar to Lumpkin and Favor’s study, comparisons also were conducted to
examine the impact of sex and ethnicity on academic performance.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This review begins with a brief examination of the potential association between
participation in extracurricular activities sponsored by schools and the academic performance of
students. The general public has consistently supported (63% in 1997 and 63% in 2013)
extracurricular activities including interscholastic sports as important to a young person’s
education (Bushaw & Lopez, 2013). According to O’Brien and Rollefson (1995), students
believed participating in extracurricular activities, including playing on sport teams, positively
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impacted their engagement and academic achievement in school. Based on data from the
National Education Longitudinal Study of 1992 Second Follow-up, these two authors reported
50.4% of participants in extracurricular activities had no unexcused absences compared with
36.2% of non-participants; similarly, more participants (50.7%) never skipped a class compared
with 42.3% of non-participants; 30.6% of participants had a GPA of 3.0 or above while 10.8% of
non-participants achieved this academic mark; and 29.8% of participants achieved in the highest
quartile on a composite math and reading assessment compared with 14.2% of non-participants.
Neish (1993) also claimed students’ participation in activities outside of class were of great value
academically.
Darling (2005) examined how participation in extracurricular activities in high school
impacted students’ adjustment, attitudes, and academics based on cross-sectional and
longitudinal data. She reported boys were more likely to participate on sport teams than girls and
freshmen were more likely than seniors. Overall, Darling reported more time spent engaged in
extracurricular activities was associated with higher grades and academic aspirations. Based on
longitudinal data for students in grades 8-12, Zaff, Moore, Papillo, and Williams (2003) reported
students’ participation in extracurricular activities was linked with higher levels of academic
achievement. Analyzing several studies connecting participation in extracurricular activities to
positive academic performance indicators, Feldman and Matjasko (2005) concluded schoolbased activity participation was linked to many positive academic, behavioral, and psychological
outcomes.
Several studies (Crosnoe, 2002; Hauser & Lueptow, 1978; Jefferson, 1999; Lueptow &
Kayser, 1973; Stencel, 2005) failed to demonstrate associations between athletes and nonathletes and their academic performances. Other studies (Broh, 2002; Feldman & Matjasko,
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2005; JacAngelo, 2003; Kaufmann, 2002; Lumpkin & Favor, 2012; Overton, 2001; Stegman &
Stephens, 2000; Whitley, 1995) found positive connections between participation in
interscholastic sports and a variety of academic measures. Fejgin (1994) and Broh (2002) used
data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 in their analyses. Fejgin reported
athletes had statistically significant higher grades and fewer discipline problems than nonathletes, while Broh suggested playing interscholastic sports was more likely to influence
academic achievement than other extracurricular activities. Overton (2001) and Whitley (1995),
in their statewide studies in North Carolina, found higher GPAs and test scores for athletes than
for non-athletes along with higher graduation rates for athletes.
Participation in interscholastic sports also has been associated with persistence in school
(i.e., reducing the risk of dropping out of school) according to Davalos, Chavez, and Guardiola
(1999), Jansen (1992), National Federation of State High School Associations (2008), and Zaff et
al. (2003). Overton (2001) and Whitley (1995) found lower dropout rates for athletes than for
non-athletes in North Carolina. Mahoney (2000), Mahoney and Cairns (1997), and McNeal
(1995) also claimed extracurricular activities including playing on sport teams reduced school
dropouts possibly because of an increased sense of belonging and development of social
networks.
Overall, these studies suggested positive outcomes associated with participation in
interscholastic sports and athletes’ academic performances. However, more data were needed to
provide evidence of the extent and specificity of these differences. This study compared all high
school athletes and non-athletes in one state through an analysis of percentage of days attended,
graduation rates, dropout rates, ACT scores, and state assessment scores. The impact of sex and
ethnicity on academic performance was examined as well.
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METHODS
The study, a replication of Lumpkin and Favor (2012), was designed to describe the high
school student population in Kansas and evaluate differences between students who chose to
participate in school-sponsored sport and those who did not. The Kansas State Department of
Education (KSDE) provided data on all high school students in the state of Kansas for the 20112012 academic year. While data covered the entire population of high school students in Kansas,
administrators at separate school districts entered the data, and thus there was likely human error
affecting the records received. This data file of academic information was submitted to KSDE by
individual school districts and then merged by a KSDE staff member with a master roster from
KSHSAA of students involved in athletics during the 2011-2012 academic year. The authors did
not make assumptions about missing data; they also deleted records of individuals in any grade
below nine.
The database was stripped of identifying information and the original list of variables was
trimmed to include only the variables of interest: sex, ethnicity, grade, athlete status, Kansas state
assessment scores, ACT composite and subscores, dropout information, graduation information,
and days attended. Even though no data were individually identifiable, Human Subjects
Committee approval was obtained for this study. The authors created binary variables for student
dropout status, graduation status, and minority status. (Minority status was operationally defined
for this study as White compared with a collapsing of other ethnicities into a category labeled as
minorities.) Additionally, a calculated variable, percentage of days attended, was created to help
the authors compare attendance rates across the population.
The authors used the SPSS Statistics Version 20 to run descriptives and frequencies for
all research questions. Chi-square tests were run to determine if there were differences between
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athletes versus non-athletes by sex and ethnicity for all nominal, binary dependent variables. In
addition, graduation data were separated by grade as some records suggested individuals in
grades 9, 10, and 11 had graduated. Without the ability to ask those who recorded the data why
this might be, researchers chose to analyze graduation only by individuals coded in grade 12.
Because of the large dataset, in all analyses, the p = .01 level was used. A factorial multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was used to evaluate differences on ACT subscores.
Follow-up analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted, using the Bonferroni approach
to control for Type I errors with each ANOVA tested at the p = .0025 significance level (.01/4).
Several one-way ANOVA tests were used to evaluate the Kansas state assessments.
The data provided by KSDE and KSHSAA contained 143,944 records of students
enrolled in grades 9-12 in Kansas high schools during the 2011-2012 school year. Of these
students, 67,868 (47%) were athletes, 70,007 (49%) were females, and 101,941 (71%) were
White. The numbers and percentages of athletes and non-athletes are reported by sex, ethnicity,
and grade in Table 1.
RESULTS
A three-way ANOVA indicated there were significant differences in the percentage of
days attended between non-athletes and athletes, F(7, 142,998) = 729.62, p < .001, η2 =.034. The
means for percentage of days attended for athletes and non-athletes by sex and minority status
are listed in Table 2. The results of the ANOVA indicated a significant main effect for athlete
status, F(1, 142,998) = 3,730.29, p < .001, partial η2 = .025, sex, F(1, 142,998) = 13.49, p < .001,
partial η2 < .001., and minority status, F(1, 142,998) = 208.82, p < .001, partial η2 = .001. The
interaction between athlete status and sex was not significant, F(1, 142,998) = 2.84, p = .09, but
the interaction between athlete status and minority status was significant, F(1, 142,998) = 31.63,
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p < .001, partial η2 < .001, as well as the interaction between sex and minority status, F(1,
142,998) = 33.32, p < .001, partial η2 < .001, although this was not the focus of this study. The
interaction between all three independent variables also was not significant, F(1, 142,998) =
4.08, p = .04, partial η2 < .001. A significant interaction between athlete status and minority
status prompted follow-up tests for the simple main effects of athlete status between Whites and
minorities separately. Differences in percentage of days attended between athletes and nonathletes for minorities, F(1, 143,002) = 1,550.72, p < .001, partial η2 < .011 and differences
between athletes and non-athletes for Whites, F(1, 143,002) = 2,846.04, p < .001, partial η2 <
.020 were significant.
The percentage of students in grade 12 who graduated is reported in Table 3 by sex and
minority status. Chi-square tests, the results of which can be found in Table 3, indicated
differences in graduation rates between athletes and non-athletes were significant in the overall
population, indicating athletes were more likely to graduate than non-athletes. In addition, this
pattern was the same for males, females, Whites, and minorities.
The percentage of students who dropped out is reported in Table 4, by sex, minority
status, and grade. Table 4 also includes the results of the chi-square tests. The differences in
dropout rates between athletes and non-athletes were significant in the overall population.
Athletes were significantly less likely to drop out than non-athletes, a trend that was true for
males, females, Whites, and minorities as well as across grades 9, 10, 11, and 12.
An initial factorial MANOVA, including all ACT subscores as dependent variables and
athlete status, sex, and minority status as independent variables, was conducted. Significant
differences were found between athletes and non-athletes, Wilks’ Λ = .995, F(4, 20,221) =
25.64, p < .001, multivariate η2 = .005, males and females, Wilks’ Λ = .95, F(4, 20,221) =
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265.82, p < .001, multivariate η2 = .050, and Whites and minorities, Wilks’ Λ = .93, F(4,
20,221) = 382.01, p < .001, multivariate η2 = .070. Interactions between athlete status and sex,
Wilks’ Λ = .998, F(4, 20,221) = 8.30, p < .001, multivariate η2 =.002, and athlete status and
minority status, Wilks’ Λ = .999, F(4, 20,221) = 7.42, p < .001, multivariate η2 = .001, were also
found. Additional significant interactions were not of interest in this study and thus were not
reported.
These findings prompted authors to look at each of these effects using follow-up
ANOVA tests for each subscore. Table 5 shows the mean scores and standard deviations for
athletes and non-athletes on the four dependent variables. Follow-up ANOVA tests indicated a
significant main effect for athlete status on some ACT subscores, with non-athletes scoring
higher than athletes in English, F(1, 20,224) = 9.84 , p = .002, partial η2 < .001, and reading, F(1,
20,224) = 191,216.73 , p < .001, partial η2 = .002.
Simple main effects were examined for athlete status for males and females separately on
each follow-up ANOVA. Mean scores and standard deviations for male athletes and male nonathletes are reported in Table 6. The interaction was significant for English, reading, and science.
Male non-athletes scored significantly higher than male athletes on English, F(1, 20,224) =
21.90, p < .001, partial η2 = .002, reading, F(1, 20,224) = 50.30, p < .001, partial η2 = .002, and
science, F(1, 20,224) = 19.59, p < .001, partial η2 = .001.
Examining simple main effects for female athletes and female non-athletes on ACT
subscores revealed female athletes scored significantly higher than female non-athletes on
science, F(1, 20,224) = 10.88, p < .001, partial η2 = .001, and mathematics, F(1, 20,224) = 20.66,
p = .001, partial η2 = .001. Means and standard deviations for female athletes and female nonathletes are reported in Table 7.
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Additionally, the simple main effects for sex were examined, that is the differences
between males and females for athletes and non-athletes separately. Mean scores and standard
deviations for male athletes and female athletes are reported in Table 8. Examinations of simple
main effects during follow-up ANOVA tests indicated female athletes scored higher than male
athletes in English, F(1, 20,224) = 52.83, p < .001, partial η2 = .003, and reading, F(1, 20,224) =
8.39 , p = .004, partial η2 < .001. Male athletes scored higher than female athletes on
mathematics, F(1, 20224) = 28.08 , p < .001, partial η2 = .001, and science, F(1, 20224) = 43.70,
p < .001, partial η2 = .002.
After using the Bonferroni method to control for Type I error on follow-up pairwise
comparisons, the interaction effect of minority and athlete status was not significant (p = .01/4 =
.025), and simple main effects for each subscore were not examined. Results of follow-up
ANOVA tests were; English, F(1, 20,224) = 1.45 , p = .23, reading, F(1, 20,224) = 0.05 , p = .83,
math, F(1, 20,224) = 6.98 , p = .01, and science, F(1, 20,224) = 0.58 , p = .45. Mean scores and
standard deviations for White and minority athletes and non-athletes are reported in Table 9 and
Table 10 respectively.
A series of one-way ANOVA tests were conducted to review differences between
athletes and non-athletes on Kansas state assessments. Table 11 lists the means, standard
deviations, degrees of freedom, F values, and eta effect sizes for each test. On all Kansas state
assessments, athletes significantly outperformed non-athletes across all grades. Because there
were no longitudinal data provided, no additional tests were conducted.
DISCUSSION
Overall, the number of athletes exceeded the number of non-athletes in high schools in
Kansas, and there were more male than female athletes. Given the demographics of Kansas
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residents, not surprisingly over two-thirds of high school students were White; yet, over threequarters of the athletes were White. This could suggest participation in interscholastic sports was
more highly valued by White students, or possibly they enjoyed greater opportunities to develop
their athletic skills outside of school and then used their expertise to play on school teams. In
contrast, athletes were a smaller percentage of all students for every other ethnicity with the
largest gap for Hispanics. These differences may have reflected cultural values and fewer
opportunities to develop sport skills requiring parents’ financial investments.
Significant differences were found between athletes and non-athletes on the percentage of
days attended. Athletes may have had higher attendance because school policies required their
attendance in class as an eligibility prerequisite to compete that day. Also, athletes may have
chosen to attend school more often so they could participate in practices and interact with their
teammates. White athletes in comparison with White non-athletes as were minority athletes
versus minority non-athletes were significantly more likely to attend school. This finding was
possibly due to different levels of importance placed on attendance by certain parents that
supported sport participation for their children. Another mitigating factor could have been an
expectation that a higher percentage of minority high school students, especially those not
dedicating hours to sport participation, cared for younger siblings who were sick when one or
both parents were working. Participating in extracurricular activities including sports increased
school attendance not only in this study but also in the results reported by O’Brien and Rollefson
(1995).
Overall, athletes were significantly more likely than non-athletes to graduate across all
comparisons, males, females, Whites, and minorities. These findings, which indicated
interscholastic sports was correlated with greater persistence to graduation, corroborated results
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from Lumpkin and Favor (2012) who reported higher graduation rates for male athletes versus
male non-athletes, female athletes versus female non-athletes, White athletes versus White nonathletes, and minority athletes versus minority non-athletes. Overton (2001) and Whitley (1995)
also found higher graduation rates for athletes in comparison with non-athletes.
Athletes were significantly less likely to drop out of school than non-athletes overall and
for each of 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grades, as also was true for comparisons by sex and ethnicity.
Similar differences were reported by Lumpkin and Favor (2012). Team affiliation, social
interactions and friendships, and connection with a popularity extracurricular activity may have
contributed to athletes choosing to continue to attend school. Staying in school may have been
especially beneficial for males and for minorities as the gaps suggested participation in
interscholastic sports dramatically increased the likelihood male athletes and minority athletes
would persist to graduate and decreased the likelihood they would drop out. Davalos et al.
(1999), Jansen (1992), Mahoney (2000), Mahoney and Cairns (1997), McNeal (1995), National
Federation of State High School Associations (2008), Overton (2001), Whitley (1995), and Zaff
et al. (2003) concurred that participating in interscholastic sports reduced the risk of dropping
out.
Regarding ACT subscores, significant differences were found between athletes and nonathletes with non-athletes scoring significantly higher in English and reading. Lumpkin and
Favor (2012) also found non-athletes scored significantly higher on English and reading, but
differed in reporting that athletes significantly outperformed non-athletes in mathematics and
science, a finding not supported by the current study. Male non-athletes scored significantly
higher on English, science, and reading. Lumpkin and Favor (2012) reported male non-athletes
scored significantly higher in English and reading than male athletes, but not in science. Female
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athletes scored significantly higher in mathematics and science than did female non-athletes.
While Lumpkin and Favor (2012) reported these results, they also found female athletes scored
significantly higher on English than did female non-athletes. Differences were found between the
sexes with females scoring significantly higher on English and reading, while males scored
significantly higher on mathematics and science. Lumpkin and Favor also reported these same
significant differences.
Athletes significantly outperformed non-athletes on all Kansas state assessments across
all grades. This finding supported the conclusion reported by Lumpkin and Favor. It should be
emphasized, however, that data in both studies did not prove causality. That is, athletes may have
entered high school with academic advantages simply reflecting in their performance on Kansas
state assessments rather than participation in interscholastic sports resulting in higher test scores.
Overall, several reasons may help explain why participation in interscholastic sports may
be positively associated with higher academic performances, also as reported by Broh (2002),
Feldman and Matjasko (20050, JacAngelo (2003), Kaufmann (2002), Stegman and Stephens
(2000), and Zaff et al. (2003). First, in Kansas, athletes were required to pass five units of credit
each semester to earn the right to participate, which may have motivated some students to take
their schoolwork more seriously. Second, coaches may have encouraged athletes and solicited
assistance from teachers and parents to help athletes maintain their athletic eligibility. Third,
being an athlete, with its physical and mental demands, may have helped adolescents manage
their time better, gain greater self-discipline, and develop a stronger work ethic, all of which may
have helped them take greater responsibility for their academic work. Fourth, many athletes may
have relished the heighten prestige they enjoyed in school, such as expanded social interactions
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and praise lavished upon them, resulting in their continued enjoyment of these benefits through
achievements athletically only occurring when they were academically eligible.
In summary, the current study largely affirmed and extended the findings of Lumpkin and
Favor (2012). Interscholastic athletes in Kansas in comparison with non-athletes attended a
significantly higher percentage of days of school, graduated at a significantly higher rate, and
were significantly less likely to drop out of school. These findings provided additional evidence
that participation in interscholastic sports did not detract from but appeared to enhance academic
performance.
CONCLUSION
Involvement in interscholastic sports has a positive impact on high school students as
suggested by previous research and corroborated by this study. As such, participation should be
encouraged, especially for high-risk populations, and specifically for minority students. Likely,
students who struggle with school are more likely to be motivated to do well when their
eligibility to participate in sport required attendance and at least minimal academic performance.
The increased time spent in classes and persistence in high school possibly positively impacts
academics. In today’s tough economic times, along with accountability measured by testing, high
school sports are often easy targets for budget cuts. The potential for sport participation to
improve graduation rates, keep students in school longer, and increase daily attendance should
lead administrators to adamantly support interscholastic sport.
However, to foster a positive environment for high school athletes, athletic directors,
coaches, and parents should prioritize teaching values, developing self-confidence, promoting
physical and psychological growth and development, and build teamwork. The positive effects
on academics that have been shown to accrue to high school athletes need not be counteracted by
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unethical actions and poor sportsmanship. Additionally, academic achievement is a complex
construct, and while sport participation may not directly cause improvements, the connection
should not be overlooked.
It is acknowledged the findings of this study may not generalize across all states in the
nation. However, it is reasonable to conclude improvements in attendance and persistence in
school among Kansas high school athletes are mirrored in other states. To better inform
researchers about the connection between academic performance and participation in
interscholastic sport, more state organizations are encouraged to work with state departments of
education to track high school athletes. Potentially, data supporting the positive effects of sport
participation on academic success could reassure schools, districts, and policy makers that
money spent on interscholastic sport is justified. Future studies should endeavor to further this
notion on a diverse and larger scale.
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McNeal, R. B., Jr. (1995). Extracurricular activities and high school dropouts. Sociology of
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Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
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18
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 1
Non-Athletes and Athletes in Grades 9-12 in Kansas High Schools in 2011-2012 by Sex,
Ethnicity, and Grade
Non-Athletes
%
Athletes
%
Total
%
Male
36,501
49.4%
37,436
50.6%
73,937
51.4%
Female
39,575
56.5%
30,432
43.5%
70,007
48.6%
White
49,596
65.2%
52,345
77.1%
101,941
70.8%
Hispanic
13,394
17.6%
7,161
10.6%
7,174
14.3%
African American
6,195
8.1%
4,151
6.1%
10,346
7.2%
Multi-racial
3,072
4.0%
2,341
3.4%
5,413
3.8%
Asian
2,678
3.5%
1,078
1.6%
3,756
2.6%
American Indian
1,019
1.3%
713
1.1%
1,732
1.2%
Native Hawaiian
122
0.2%
79
0.1%
201
0.1%
9th grade
18,053
23.7%
19,705
29.0%
37,758
26.2%
10th grade
18,482
24.3%
18,181
26.8%
36,663
25.5%
11th grade
19,227
25.3%
16,182
23.8%
35,409
24.6%
12th grade
20,314
26.7%
13,800
20.3%
34,114
23.7%
Sex
Ethnicity
Grade in 2011-12
Note. Multi-racial includes all students who marked more than one ethnicity.
19
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 2
Percentage of Days Attended for Non-Athletes and Athletes in Grades 9-12 in Kansas High
Schools in 2011-2012
Non-Athletes
Athletes
Overall
92.2%
95.1%*
Males
92.5%
95.3%
Females
92.1%
95.1%
White
92.6%
95.3%*
Minority
91.7%
94.9%*
*p < .01
20
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 3
Number and Percentage of 12th Grade Non-Athletes and Athletes Who Graduated in 2011-2012
Non-
Athletes
χ2
df
n
p
Athletes
Cramer’s
V
Overall
89.5%
97.6%*
790.00
1
33,826
< .001
.15
Male
87.2%
97.4%*
606.83
1
17,323
< .001
.19
Female
91.5%
97.7%*
243.53
1
16,503
< .001
.12
White
90.7%
97.9%*
552.69
1
24,679
< .001
.15
Minority
86.9%
96.2%*
192.14
1
9,147
< .001
.15
*p < .01
21
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 4
Number and Percentage Out of the Total Number of Students in Grades 9-12 of Non-Athletes
and Athletes Who Dropped Out in 2011-2012
Non-
Athletes
χ2
df
n
p
Athletes
Cramer’s
V
Overall
2.79%
0.20%*
1,008.83
1
102,334
< .001
.10
Male
3.33%
0.32%*
641.17
1
52,474
< .001
.11
Female
2.29%
0.12%*
402.21
1
49,860
< .001
.09
White
2.58%
0.16%*
747.12
1
71,030
< .001
.10
Minority
3.18%
0.48%*
237.89
1
31,304
< .001
.09
9th grade
1.30%
0.05%*
157.01
1
27,049
< .001
.08
10th grade
2.70%
0.20%*
261.83
1
25,485
< .001
.10
11th grade
4.80%
0.60%*
223.57
1
15,974
< .001
.12
12th grade
2.90%
0.30%*
302.74
1
33,826
< .001
.10
Grade in 2011-12
*p < .01
22
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 5
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Non-Athletes and Athletes on the ACT
Non-Athletes
Athletes
ACT Scores
M
SD
M
SD
English
21.17*
6.16
21.04
5.73
Mathematics
21.41
4.85
22.08
4.82
Reading
22.34*
6.06
22.02
5.66
Science
21.53
4.83
21.91
4.55
Note. N = 9,949 non-athletes; N = 10,283 athletes. *p <.01.
23
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 6
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Male Non-Athletes and Male Athletes on the ACT
Male Non-Athletes
Male Athletes
ACT Scores
M
SD
M
SD
English
21.17*
6.13
20.49
5.74
Mathematics
22.35
5.05
22.40
5.00
Reading
22.61*
6.12
21.81
5.78
Science
22.56*
5.04
22.28
4.78
Note. N = 3,885 male non-athletes; N = 5,569 male athletes. *p < .01.
24
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 7
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Female Non-Athletes and Female Athletes on the ACT
Female Non-Athletes Female Athletes
ACT Scores
M
SD
M
SD
English
21.17
6.18
21.69
5.65
Mathematics
20.81
4.63
21.71*
4.55
Reading
22.16
6.01
22.02
5.66
Science
20.86
4.56
21.91*
4.55
Note. N = 6,064 female non-athletes; N = 4,714 female athletes. *p < .01.
25
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 8
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Male Athletes and Female Athletes on the ACT
Male Athletes
Female Athletes
ACT Scores
M
SD
M
SD
English
20.49
5.74
21.69*
5.65
Mathematics
22.40*
5.00
21.71
4.55
Reading
21.81
5.78
22.67*
5.50
Science
22.28*
4.78
21.47
4.23
Note. N = 5,569 male athletes; N = 4,714 female athletes. *p < .01.
26
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 9
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for White Non-Athletes and White Athletes on the ACT
White Non-Athletes
White Athletes
ACT Scores
M
SD
M
SD
English
22.22
5.88
21.74
5.51
Mathematics
22.05
4.77
22.61
4.72
Reading
23.26
5.87
22.66
5.53
Science
22.24
4.68
22.42
4.39
Note. N = 7,243 white non-athletes; N = 8,303 white athletes.
27
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 10
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Minority Non-Athletes and Minority Athletes on the
ACT
Minority Non-Athletes Minority Athletes
ACT Scores
M
SD
M
SD
English
18.37
6.01
18.13
5.75
Mathematics
19.71
4.67
19.88
4.57
Reading
19.87
5.85
19.34
5.41
Science
19.63
4.70
19.74
54.59
Note. N = 2,706 minority non-athletes; N = 1,980 minority athletes.
28
Running Head: PARTICIPATION IN INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS
Table 11
Analysis of Variance Comparisons between Non-Athletes and Athletes on Kansas State
Assessment Tests in 2010-2012
Kansas Assessment
Non-Athletes
M
Athletes
ANOVA
Results
SD
M
SD
df
F
η2
7th Grade Mathematics 2010
67.43
17.70
74.38*
15.34
1, 31,774
1,399.94
.042
7th Grade Reading 2010
77.94
13.94
82.54*
10.94
1, 31,793
1,088.73
.033
7th Grade Science 2010
61.07
17.40
67.21*
15.40
1, 31,969
1,111.42
.034
8th Grade Mathematics 2010
67.69
18.51
75.55*
15.84
1, 32,075
1,677.01
.050
8th Grade Reading 2010
77.51
15.69
82.97*
12.23
1, 32,157
1,220.34
.037
8th Grade Mathematics 2011
70.13
18.36
77.39*
15.51
1, 32,655
1,499.31
.044
8th Grade Reading 2011
77.74
15.72
82.87*
12.72
1, 32,753
1,063.48
.031
11th Grade Mathematics 2011
63.08
17.47
68.94*
16.25
1, 30,401
889.37
.028
11th Grade Reading 2011
79.33
12.58
82.11*
10.31
1, 30,465
423.89
.014
11th Grade Science 2011
57.21
16.05
61.18*
15.16
1, 29,255
461.63
.016
11th Grade Mathematics 2012
63.64
17.77
70.09*
15.96
1, 31,123
1,130.64
.035
11th Grade Reading 2012
78.93
12.97
82.17*
10.20
1, 31,379
599.38
.019
11th Grade Science 2012
57.85
16.71
62.05*
15.22
1, 29,704
512.58
.017
Note. *p < .01.
29