Environmental & Social Management Plan
E2517 V2
GOVERNMENT OF LIBERIA
E
NVIRONMENTAL
& S
OCIAL
M
ANAGEMENT
F
RAMEWORK
E
NERGY
& E
LECTRICITY
D
ISTRIBUTION IN
L
IBERIA
Draft Final Report
September 2010
Environmental & Social Management Framework
Table of Contents
Submitted To
Document Type
Version
UPI Number
PO Number
Prepared By
World Bank
Wassim Hamdan
+231-4-700060 whamdan@earthtimegroup.com
P.O. Box 1584
1000 Monrovia 10, Liberia
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Environmental & Social Management Framework (ESMF)
Final Report
00369412
0007752686 ii
Environmental & Social Management Framework
Table of Contents
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
TABLE OF CONTENTS
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL AND S OCIAL M ANAGEMENT F RAMEWORK R EPORT
...................................... 19
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2010
......................................................................................... 90
7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MITIGATION MEASURES ............................................ 101
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O PERATION OF A F OSSIL -F UEL AND B IOMASS F IRED P OWER P LANT
................................................ 126
P OWER T RANSMISSION AND D ISTRIBUTION
....................................................................................... 139
O PERATION OF F UEL O IL S TORAGE T ERMINALS
................................................................................ 148
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2010
I NSTALLATION AND O PERATION OF O FF -G RID -S OLAR P OWER G ENERATION S YSTEMS
I NSTITUTIONAL S TRENGTHENING & C APACITY B UILDING
................................................................ 194
ANNEX C: SUMMARY OF THE WORLD BANK’S SAFEGUARD POLICIES ................................ 209
ANNEX D: EXAMPLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRACT CLAUSES ........................................ 211
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LIST OF FIGURES
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
F IGURE 2-5: P ROTECTED AREAS , NATURE RESERVES , AND PROTECTED AREAS OF L IBERIA ( MODIFIED FROM
F IGURE 2-6: D AMAGED LEC FACILITIES ; FUEL STORAGE PROBLEMS IN F REE P ORT OF M ONROVIA : LEAKING
F IGURE 6-1: T YPICAL RUN OF RIVER MICRO HYDROPOWER PROJECT ( DAMAGED AND ABANDONED )
MANAGED BY THE COMMUNITY IN Y ANDOHUN , L IBERIA (C OURTESY OF W ORLD B ANK M ISSION , 2009).
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LIST OF TABLES
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
VERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL DATA FOR VARIOUS STATIONS
T ABLE 2-2: M AJOR R IVERS IN L IBERIA .
(L IBERIA H YDROLOGICAL S ERVICES , 1988) ......................................... 33
T ABLE 3-2: I NTERNATIONAL E NVIRONMENTAL C ONVENTIONS S IGNED /R ATIFIED BY THE G OVERNMENT OF
T ABLE 4-1: S UMMARY OF B ANK S AFEGUARD P OLICIES T RIGGERED B Y P ROJECTS A CTIVITIES AND T HEIR
T ABLE 6-2: C ARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS AND PRODUCTION COSTS FOR SELECTED THERMAL POWER
T ABLE 6-3: S UMMARY OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ALTERNATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR POWER
T ABLE 7-2: S UMMARY OF PROPOSED MITIGATION MEASURES FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION AND / OR
T ABLE 7-3: S UMMARY OF PROPOSED MITIGATION MEASURES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF A
UMMARY OF PROPOSED MITIGATION MEASURES FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION AND
T ABLE 7-5: S UMMARY OF PROPOSED MITIGATION MEASURES FOR THE OPERATION OF FUEL OIL STORAGE
UMMARY OF MONITORING ACTIVITIES DURING GENERAL CONSTRUCTION AND
T ABLE 8-2: S UMMARY OF MONITORING ACTIVITIES DURING OPERATION OF A MICRO HYDROPOWER STATION
T ABLE 8-3: S UMMARY OF MONITORING ACTIVITIES DURING OPERATION OF A FOSSIL FUEL AND BIOMASS -
T ABLE 8-4: S UMMARY OF MONITORING ACTIVITIES FOR POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION ACTIVITIES
T ABLE 8-5: S UMMARY OF MONITORING ACTIVITIES FOR THE OPERATION OF FUEL OIL STORAGE TERMINALS 188
T ABLE 8-6: S UMMARY OF MONITORING ACTIVITIES FOR THE OPERATION OF FUEL OIL STORAGE TERMINALS 189
......................................................................................... 192
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2010
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
EPML
ESIA
ESMF
EU
°F
FDA
GOL
HC
Ha
Km
KVA
LEC
LESEP
BOD
°C
CO
CO
2
COD dB
DO
E. Coli
EA
EIA
EPA
EMP
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Degrees centigrade
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Decibel
Dissolved Oxygen
Escherichia coli
Environmental Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environment Protection Agency
Environmental Management Plan
Environmental Protection and Management Law
Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
Environmental & Social Management Framework
European Union
Degrees Fahrenheit
Forestry Development Authority
Government of Liberia
Hydrocarbon
Hectares
Kilometer
Kilovolt Ampere
Liberia Electricity Corporation
Liberia Electricity Sector Enhancement Project
LISGIS m
Liberia Institute of Statistics and Geo-Information Services
Meter mm Millimeter
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NEP National Energy Policy
NH
4
-N Ammonia Nitrogen
NO x
Nitrogen Oxides
OPIC
OSHA
P
PCBs
PM
PPE
POP
PRS
Overseas Private Investment Corporation
Occupation Safety and Health Administration
Phosphorous
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Particulate Matter
Personal Protective Equipment
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Poverty Reduction Strategy ix
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Executive Summary
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2010
RPF
RREA
SO
2
SS
STW
SW
Resettlement Policy Framework
Rural and Renewable Energy Agency
Sulphur Dioxide
Suspended Solids
Specialized Training Workshops
Solid Waste
TDS
TSP
TN
TSS
Total Dissolve Solids
Total Suspended Particles
Total Nitrogen
Total Suspended Solids
UNDP
UNEP
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Environmental Programme
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
WB
WHO
World Bank
World Health Organization x
Environmental & Social Management Framework
Executive Summary
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) seeks to institute a consistent and effective environmental and social screening process for application in the energy and electricity distribution in Liberia funded projects at local and national levels. This ESMF is prepared to address potential environment and social impacts and provide mitigation measures for activities within the context of
“Catalyzing New and Renewable Energy in Rural Liberia” and “Liberia Electricity
Sector Enhancement Project (LESEP)” and any other energy sector programs or projects prepared by the World Bank. These activities include:
Expansion of off-grid solar power;
Expansion of or rehabilitation of transmission lines;
Rehabilitation of new substations;
PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyl) issues rising from old facilities to be rehabilitated;
Rehabilitation of the HFO off-loading facility and HFO pipeline;
Construction or rehabilitation of fuel tanks;
Construction and rehabilitation of the distribution networks;
Rehabilitation of micro-hydropower stations;
Construction of micro-hydropower stations; ; and
Any other energy sector projects in urban or rural Liberia to be financed by the World Bank.
This document also presents a detailed and comprehensive environmental and social baseline data which will provide the environmental and social management process with key baseline information when identifying adverse impacts. The information contains data on Liberia's bio-physical environmental features such as its ecosystems, geology, hydrology in terms of ground and surface water resources, xi
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Executive Summary
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010 major and sensitive wetlands, flora and fauna. On social baselines the report discusses the main features of Liberia's demographics, public health features and poverty.
A number of legislations, policies and instruments available to support environmental management and the environmental impact assessment process in
Liberia are reviewed in Section 3. The Environmental Protection and Management
Law and other sectoral sections in other legislations are the key instruments that cover environmental management in all the sectors of development. The
Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines prescribe the process, procedures and practices for conducting an EIA and preparing the EIA reports. In addition to these instruments, there are sector specific policies and legislations that prescribe the conduct for managing the environment.
The EPA is the principle authority in Liberia for the management of the environment and coordinates, monitors, supervises and consult with relevant stakeholders on all activities in the protection of the environment and sustainable use of natural resources. In addition to being responsible for the provision of guidelines for the preparation of Environment Assessments and Audits, and the evaluation of environmental permits, the EPA is mandated to set environmental quality and ensure compliance for pollution control.
The main functions of the EPA are:
1.
Co-ordinate, integrate, harmonize and monitor the implementation of environmental policy and decisions of the Policy Council by the Line
Ministries,
2.
Propose environmental policies and strategies to the Policy Council and ensure the integration of environmental concerns in overall national planning; xii
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2010
3.
Collect, analyze and prepare basic scientific data and other information pertaining to pollution, degradation and on environmental quality, resource use and other environmental protection and conservation matters and undertake research and prepare and disseminate every two years a report on the state of the environment in Liberia;
4.
Encourage the use of appropriate environmentally sound technologies and renewable sources of energy and natural resources;
5.
Establish environmental criteria, guidelines, specifications and standards for production processes and the sustainable use of natural resources for the health and welfare of the present generation, and in order to prevent environmental degradation for the welfare of the future generations.
Section 4 presents a thorough review of the World Banks Safeguards Policies. The triggered policies are:
1.
OP 4.01 Environmental Assessment
2.
OP 4.04 Natural Habitats
3.
OP 4.11 Physical Cultural Resources
4.
OP 4.12 Involuntary Resettlement
5.
OP 4.37 Safety of Dams
6.
OP 7.50 Projects on International Waters
Table 4-1 and Annex C present summaries of the requirements to comply with these
polices.
It should be noted that each individual sub-project to be conducted under the energy and electricity sector in Liberia must be registered and subjected to environmental screening and environmental assessment conducted professionally by experts and reviewed by mandated institution. xiii
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Impact Assessment
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
This chapter identifies the potential environmental and social impacts that may arise from several alternative activities applicable in the Liberian context for the purpose of electricity generation. The activities fall under two main categories, namely those intended to catalyze new renewable off-grid energy in the rural areas, and those providing practical and continuously reliable solutions for supplying grid power to the capital Monrovia.
The reform of the electricity sector in Liberia will start with a phase of rehabilitation and construction intended to repair the massive damage inflicted by the civil war to the existing power supply structures, and to expand the existing facilities and auxiliary infrastructure based on the most viable alternative in the rural and urban contexts, respectively. Renewable energy sources applicable in the rural context include solar power and micro-hydropower generation with two valid subalternatives for each, namely solar thermal generation and photovoltaic cells for the former and small reservoirs and run-of-river schemes for the latter. Possible alternatives for thermal power supply in the capital Monrovia include variable choices of fuel type, namely fuel oil (heavy fuel oil and diesel), natural gas, coal and biomass (wood chips). Impacts of auxiliary facilities including electric power transmission and distribution lines, sub-stations, and fuel supply storage terminals are also examined. The significance of impacts on each parameter is the result of the
different assessed factor and is summarized in Table 6-3.
Environmental & Social Management Plan
The potential environmental impacts that may be associated with the implementation of several power supply alternatives for the purpose of electricity generation can be minimized by careful site/ right of way selection, planning and staging of construction activities, adopting proper management practices during xiv
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2010 operation and relying on effective environmental monitoring and training to support management decisions. This chapter plan proposes several potential impactmitigation or control measures that should earn the proposed projects more acceptability, by reducing or eliminating to the extent possible many of the impacts that have been discussed in Section 6. Mitigation measures are intended to reduce the effect of potentially significant impacts on the environment. Thus, they are highly dependent on the significance of the predicted impact, the nature of the impact (permanent vs. temporary), or the phase of the project (construction vs.
operation). Table 7-2, Table 7-3, Table 7-4, and Table 7-5 present summaries of
proposed mitigation measures for general construction and/or rehabilitation activities, the construction and operation of a micro-hydropower station, power transmission and distribution activities, and the operation of fuel oil storage terminals, respectively.
Monitoring
Impact and compliance monitoring should be practiced during the construction and
operation phases of the proposed project. Table 8-1 - Table 8-6 present typical
parameters that should be monitored along with monitoring means, frequency, and phase. The EPA, or an independent consultant hired by the EPA, will be responsible for the implementation of the monitoring. It should be stressed that the developed monitoring plan should be updated to reflect the specificities of each project (scale, location, etc.) and should also incorporate an estimate of the total monitoring costs involved.
Institutional Arrangement & Framework
In order for the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) to be effectively implemented, the presence of proper environmental management at the national level is helpful. Although environmental regulations have been evolving in xv
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2010 the country, the main problem remains that of monitoring and enforcement, which is in turn related to the country’s institutional and technical capacity for environmental management. There are many organizations involved in energy-related and activities at the national level. However, the main institutions with key responsibilities for environmental and social management are the EPA, the MLME, the RREA, and the LEC. The role of the MLME is the general coordination among development partners and oversight of the various proposed energy projects, ensuring they comply with the components of the recently developed National
Energy Policy (NEP) and supportive legislation, which calls for universal and sustainable access to affordable and reliable energy supplies in order to foster the economic, political, and social development of Liberia.
The RREA, which has a massive role to play, bringing up the decentralized power systems and off-grid electric systems while meeting the demands of energy using sources like biomass, solar photovoltaic cells (PV) and wind power, in addition to the hydro power, will have an environmental and social management unit. This unit will be responsible for screening of the project to identify the nature and magnitude of its environmental and social impacts and determine accordingly the category to which it belongs (A, B, or C).
The LEC also has a significant role to play, as it is responsible for extending the
Monrovia network to serve Monrovia and environs, as well as building up the capacity of the utility to operate and maintain the grid effectively. The LEC will also, as an implementing agency of Bank energy projects, be responsible for upholding environmental and social safeguards.
Institutional Strengthening & Capacity Building
The objective of the training program is to ensure appropriate environmental awareness, knowledge and skills for the implementation of environmental management plans as well as environmental and process monitoring. In an effort to xvi
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2010 strengthen institutional capacity and environmental awareness, training sessions will be opened for individuals from the EPA, MLME, RREA, LEC, and other concerned ministries and governmental authorities. Appraisal will be conducted following a training session for feedback towards improving the training program. xvii
Environmental & Social Management Framework
Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Liberia has recently been making significant effort, through the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and other relevant stakeholders, towards sustainable development, and has placed more attention to environmental matters and the need to reduce the burden on the environment. The relatively young Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has been able in the last few years to considerably improve its capabilities in protecting the environment from the various sources of pollution.
Even though at the time of writing this report, it is still considered poorly financed and barely equipped with the appropriate human and technical resources, the EPA is seriously working on setting new environmental standards, building its staff capacity and informational database, and providing the framework to prevent future pollution to widespread in Liberia.
In particular, the EPA has developed guidelines for Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) administrative procedures which are supposed to reflect the objectives of the Environmental Protection and Management Law (EPML). This law has been approved by the Government since November 26, 2002. The Law states that any planned project that could cause significant environmental impacts should be subject to the preparation of an EIA that would anticipate these impacts and allow provision of mitigation measures to minimize the significance of these impacts, or even eliminate their likelihood.
On the other hand, the Government of Liberia has recognized energy as a vital input to national development. Energy is considered as an essential sector in Liberia because it cuts across all the other sectors and serves as a catalyst for social, economic and political growth and development. There is also a direct relationship between the country’s overall development and its level of energy production, delivery and consumption. Moreover, the rehabilitation of the energy infrastructure
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
Introduction
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010 is an integral component of the Government’s macroeconomic development program—the PRS, which covers the period 2008 to 2011. As a result, the
Government of Liberia has intensified its commitment to the provision of rural energy services through the National Energy Policy (NEP) and supportive legislation, which calls for universal and sustainable access to affordable and reliable energy supplies in order to foster the economic, political, and social development of
Liberia. Consistent with the four main pillars of the PRS, the NEP has as its principal objectives: (a) universal energy access, which includes development of an energy master plan; (b) least-cost production and utilization of energy resources by maximizing economic, financial, social, and environmental benefits and utilizing smart subsidies; (c) conforming to international best practices, by adopting standards for energy safety, reliability, security, and service; and (d) accelerating public/private sector partnerships.
This ESMF, which is a generic Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) for the power sector, is a screening tool to identify the potential environmental and social impacts and mitigation actions to be taken for project activities, in the energy and electricity sector. Activities to be considered are: off-grid solar power; expansion of and rehabilitation of distribution networks, expansion of or rehabilitation of transmission lines, rehabilitation of or new substations, PCB issues arising from old facilities to be rehabilitated, and rehabilitation of or new construction of micro-hydropower stations.
1.1
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL AND S OCIAL M ANAGEMENT F RAMEWORK R EPORT
The objectives of this ESMF are:
To establish clear procedures and methodologies for the environmental review, approval and implementation of projects in the energy and electricity sector;
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
Introduction
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
To specify appropriate roles and responsibilities, and outline the necessary reporting procedures, for managing and monitoring environmental concerns related to projects;
To determine the training, capacity building and technical assistance needed to successfully implement the provisions of the ESMF;
To establish the project funding required to implement the ESMF requirements; and
To provide practical resources for implementing the ESMF.
The implementation of ESMF will help to ensure that activities under the proposed project will:
Protect human health;
Enhance positive environmental outcomes; and
Prevent negative environmental impacts.
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
Description of Environment
2 DESCRIPTION OF ENVIRONMENT
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
2.1
G ENERAL D ESCRIPTION AND L OCATION
The quadrangle of Liberia is located on the western side of the African Continent and southwest corner of the West Coast of Africa. It is positioned on the Atlantic coastline of Africa, and has a surface area of 111,370 km 2 , and the dry land extent is
96,160 km 2 . It lies between the longitudes of 7°30’ and 11°30’ west and latitudes
4°18’ and 8°30’ north. It is bordered by Guinea from the north, Sierra Leone from
the west and Côte d’Ivoire from the east (Figure 2-1). The border with Guinea is
approximately 563km, with Sierra Leone approximately 306km, and with Cote d’Ivoire approximately 716 km. Liberia has a studded coastline approximately 560 km long. It is characterized by unbroken sand strips, and is dominated by lagoons and marshes. Generally, Liberia has low relief topography. However, the hinterland is made up of ill-defined and dissected plateaus and low relief mountains few rising abruptly above the surface to an elevation of 400m asl. The highest mountain (Mount
Wutivi) is located in the northeast (Yekepa) and rises to an elevation of approximately 1,380m asl.
Liberia has virgin rain forests that are primarily located inland and in mountainous areas. The rest of the land is occupied by small farms. Liberia has four types of vegetation cover. Those are distributed according to the following: brush, grassland, cultivated and tree crops dominate the central and coastline areas; swamps are present as patches along the coastline mainly near river mouths; broadleaf evergreen forests are present in the southeastern part of the country; and broadleaf deciduous and evergreen forests dominate the northern parts and are present in the central parts.
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2010
Liberia has six major rivers that divide the country into several quadrants. The rivers are Cavalla, Cestos, St. Paul, St. John, Lofa, and Mano. The longest and largest is the
Cavalla River.
Figure 2-1: Liberia bordered by Ivory Coast, Guinea and Sierra Leone.
2.2
M ETEOROLOGICAL S ETTING
The climate of Liberia is determined by the equatorial position and the distribution of low and high-pressure belts along the African continent and Atlantic Ocean. A fairly warm temperature throughout the year with very high humidity is common
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
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2010 because of the moderating influence of the ocean and the equatorial position (UNDP,
2006).
2.2.1
Precipitation
Liberia has two seasons: raining and dry seasons. The dry season lasts from
November to April and the rainy season is from May to October. Average annual rainfall along the coastal belt is over 4000mm and declines to 1300 mm at the forestsavannah boundary in the north (Bongers et. al. 1999). The months of heavy rainfall vary from one part of the country to another, but are normally June, July and
September. The driest part of the country is along a strip of the eastward flowing
Cavalla River, but even there, the land receives over 1778mm of rain a year.
Monrovia receives almost 4572mm, about twice the estimate of rain annually.
Observations concerning the diurnal distribution of rainfall prove that two-thirds of the rain along the coast, particularly in Monrovia and its environs, fall during the night between 18:00 and 07:00 hours. Most of the rest of the rain usually falls during the morning while only a minimum of rain is recorded between mid-day and early afternoon.
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2010
Table 2-1: Average monthly rainfall data for various stations (Liberia Hydrological Service, 1981).
Location Period Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
National Iron Ore Company 1959-1980 14.2 40.4 64.8 177.0 269.6 356.5 422.8 528.2 548.5 379.1 195.1 48.7
Voinjama 1952-1973 12.7 38.4 108.4 163.2 212.0 296.4 349.2 426.6 353.8 261.6 168.1 53.0
Goodrich 1956-1980 22.6 41.0 76.6 146.7 225.0 385.2 561.3 660.2 634.5 369.9 137.2 38.2
Bomi Hills 1952-1977 18.4 53.3 117.0 172.0 272.9 391.3 434.8 551.4 589.1 337.9 161.1 61.8
Bong Mines 1961-1980 14.7 53.0 90.6 180.2 260.3 307.7 304.8 414.0 494.7 285.9 149.1 33.0
Monrovia 1951-1973 36.8 57.3 121.5 154.6 386.1 889.3 887.8 583.7 702.5 625.3 229.8 121.8
Firestone Harbel 1936-1980 34.0 55.3 119.6 160.5 258.1 391.5 431.6 584.6 575.6 363.7 165.6 68.6
Robersfield 1949-1980 30.9 53.8 93.8 137.0 291.9 570.0 654.6 586.9 679.1 409.0 172.5 60.9
Salala Rubber Corporation 1961-1980 15.8 52.7 112.3 189.8 242.7 306.6 272.0 392.4 418.1 293.2 137.9 40.9
Cocopa 1950-1979 21.0 56.7 116.7 164.9 180.6 276.8 218.0 261.5 385.8 246.1 89.2 35.2
LAMCO Buchanan 1959-1980 27.0 60.8 100.3 174.4 333.2 596.2 592.5 478.0 771.0 535.4 288.7 101.3
Ganta 1934-1973 20.2 56.4 129.9 150.3 219.4 280.6 250.8 300.5 397.5 250.8 135.0 34.8
LAC 1961-1979 27.5 57.4 118.4 200.2 273.9 359.3 281.8 376.7 489.5 374.0 182.5 54.1
Tapeta 1952-1973 18.1 58.4 107.3 155.7 231.9 278.9 207.1 172.2 324.8 237.2 99.3 22.9
Firestone Cavalla 1928-1981 80.4 112.8 163.1 180.6 340.8 403.3 137.5 119.1 294.9 308.1 229.5 199.9
Zwedru 1952-1973 21.2 62.7 118.2 183.3 203.5 271.2 186.2 160.2 349.0 281.8 125.5 60.3
Pyne Town 1952-1973 59.6 118.3 216.9 240.0 284.6 342.6 192.0 194.3 396.4 359.2 183.6 99.8
Greenville 1952-1973 93.9 115.1 153.1 212.5 433.8 758.0 365.5 271.5 626.8 622.1 559.0 231.0
Robertsports 1952-1973 23.8 33.7 76.5 143.8 352.9 796.1 990.8 687.2 761.3 458.3 175.9 80.3
Ziah Town 1952-1961 40.8 86.1 154.3 209.7 280.4 277.9 126.1 111.1 321.1 288.0 140.4 100.1
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Description of Environment
2.2.2
Temperature and Sunshine
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The Atlantic Ocean has an additional ameliorating effect on the temperature along the coast with maximum annual and daily variations (UNDP, 2006). Generally, temperature remains warm throughout the county and there is little change between seasons. The temperature over the country ranges from 27-32 °C during the day and from 21-24 °C at night. The average annual temperature along the coast ranges from
24-30 °C. In the interior it is between 27-32 °C. The highest temperature occurs between January and March and the lowest is between August and September.
The sun is overhead at noon throughout the year, giving rise to intense insolation in all parts of the country, thus resulting in high temperatures with little monthly variations (UNDP, 2006). Temperature would have been much higher had it not been for the effect of the degree of the cloud cover, air, humidity and rainfall, which are influenced by the vegetation cover of the country. The days with longest hours of sunshine (average of six hours a day) fall between December and March. Daily sunshine hours are at a minimum during July, August and September.
2.2.3
Wind
The seasons in Liberia are mainly the results of the movement of two air masses.
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) from the northern hemisphere. At the same time cool air masses over the South Atlantic Ocean in the southern hemisphere overhead south. Due to this pressure shifts the air masses, dry continental air mass and moist south-equatorial maritime air mass replace each other every six months
(UNDP, 2006).
However, the dominant wind directions are the NE and SW Monsoons as well as the
Harmattan, which is a dust laden wind from the Sahara Desert. The south-westerly winds rain baring winds hits the coastline of Liberia at a right angle. As the air reaches the coast it rises and cools resulting in heavy rainfall. On the other hand in
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Description of Environment
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2010 the immediate vicinity of the coast another air circulation takes place. It is a daily change in land and sea breezes (UNDP, 2006).
The total wind speed is lowest in the dry season and greatest in the rainy season.
The greatest wind speed is between July and September and the lowest is in
December and July. The coastal area has much more wind than the interior of the country. High vegetation cover in the interior serves as windbreak in the interior
(UNDP, 2006). According to UNDP, 2006 average wind speeds of 6.8 mph have been recorded at Harbel (Firestone). The highest wind speed is 45 miles/hour was recorded in Buchanan in April and May 1988. The average annual wind speed was
19.5 mph (UNDP, 2006).
2.2.4
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is generally high throughout the year. Along the coast belt it does not drop below 80% and on the average is above 90% (UNEP 2004). There is a wider variation in the interior and may fall below 20% during the harmattan period. A relative humidity of 90% to 100% is common during the rainy season. During the dry
Season it decreases to as low as 65%.
In Monrovia, the relative humidity shows a relationship with the existing air temperature and its variation depends on the prevailing season and the hour of the day. During the dry season it decreases to 80-85%. In March and February the driest period of the year, relative air humidity may be as low as 65%. Regardless of the season, the relative humidity at night and in the early morning is usually in the range of 90-100 percent. Data from other weather stations such as Bomi Hills,
Harbel and Greenville show similar results. Only the zone, north of the Inter-
Tropical Front, where the continental air masses prevail from mid-December to end of January show arid conditions. At times due to the extreme dryness of the
Harmattan, the humidity may drop to below 50% (Schulze, W. 1975).
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Description of Environment
2.3
G EOLOGICAL S ETTING
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Liberia is underlain by the Guinean Shield of West Africa and is composed mainly of
Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. Other rocks occur locally and are chiefly Paleozoic sandstone, Jurassic diabase dikes Cretaceous sandstones and
Quaternary unconsolidated deposits. Rock outcrops are sparse in Liberia owing to tropical weathering that has produced a thick laterite and saprolite cover, which supports a dense rain forest. The rocks forming this crystalline shield consist of an older series of granulitic and migmatitic gneisses and ampbhibolites with subordinate granitoids. Remnants of slightly younger supercrustal rocks or sedimentary and volcanic origin are aligned predominantly in a SW-NE direction.
Phanerozoic sediments are only exposed along a narrow coastal strip.
2.3.1
Stratigraphy
Approximately 90% of Liberia is underlain by Archean and Peleoproterozoic granitic rocks. The basement rocks can be divided into three major units on the basis of their radiometric age. The Archean rocks were affected by the earlier Leonian (3,500-2,900
Ma) and the younger Liberian (2,900-2,500 Ma) Orogenies. SW-NE trending greenstone belts of Birrimian age (2,100 Ma) have been reported from the southern central part of the country. The third unit comprises the Pan-African age province, which was metamorphosed and intruded about 550Ma ago. The Archean and Pan-
African provinces are separated by a series of WNW-ESE trending faults comprising the Todi Shear Zone. Gneisses of the Archean and part of the Pan-African age provinces are metamorphosed to amphibolites grade. Granulite facies rock, however, are restricted to the Pan-African age province, but are probably derived from Archean rocks.
Two small outliers of classic sedimentary rocks, the Gibi Mountain Formation, form heavily forested hills 32 km northeast of the Todi shear Zone. They lie
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Isolated diabas or gabbro dykes (400 – 180 Ma) are intrusive to the Precambrian rocks. Unmetamophosed laminated sandstones, arkoses, siltstones and conglomerates of possible Cretaceous age occur in narrow section (<5 km) along the coast.
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Figure 2-2: Geological overview of Liberia.
2.4
S OIL
The climate tends to become the dominant soil-forming factor in Liberia, reinforced by the associated effects of the abundant and dense vegetation. The warm and
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2010 humid climate conditions cause intensive mechanical and chemical weathering of the parent rock and leaching of the soil profile. As a result, Liberian soils share many important features, even though some minor variations reflect the more local influence of relief and geology. The bedrocks from which the rocks have formed are mainly of crystalline, igneous and metamorphic origin, consisting of granites, gneisses, gneissic sandstone and schists and shales. The three major groups of soil in
Liberia can be identified: latosols, lithosols and regosols.
The latosols are lateritic soils occupying about 75% of the total area, and occurring on undulating and rolling land. They are heavily leached, and silica, nutrients and humus are mostly washed out. Iron and aluminum minerals have accumulated as permanent residual materials, forming hardpans and cemented layers within the subsoil, while on the surface hard and rounded iron oxides can be observed. This process which is called laterization has a pronounced binding effect, making the soils impermeable and increasing the hazards of run-off and erosion. The prevalence of the iron oxides gives the laterites the characteristic brown and red color.
In sharp contrast to the latosols are azonal soils, classified as lithosol. The striking characteristic of these soils is that profile development is very slow and often subject to erosion. The lithosol represent about 17% of the total area on mostly hilly and rugged land. They are mostly very shallow and frequently show outcrops of decomposing rocks because of their elevated position. The percentage of the gravel is also very high and therefore nutrient and moisture storage capacity of the soil is greatly reduced.
Regosols are sandy soils which occur within the narrow coastal belt and also in small patches farther inland. Along the coast they are mainly marine sediments consisting of more than 70% of fine to coarse sand and silt. These sands are heavily leached
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2010 and bleached to an almost white color, and the percentage of clay and organic matter is very small. Where the drainage is poor, swamps develop.
Alongside the stream and river beds rich alluvial soils are encountered. They contain a high amount of the necessary plant nutrients and are best for agricultural production. However, they represent only between 2 to 3% of the total area.
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Figure 2-3: Soil type distribution in Liberia.
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2.5
H YDROLOGY
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
There are six major rivers which drain Liberia’s territory in a general northeastsouthwest direction. With the great number of their tributaries they have developed a dense system with a dendritic pattern. The six major rivers are: Mano, Lofa, St.
John, Cestos, Cavalla and St, Paul. These rivers have many tributaries which include but not limited to the Po, Du, Timbo, the Farmington and Sinoe River.
The hydrological system is influenced by the geological structure as well as the general slope of the relief of the country. The system generally follows the direction of the mountain ranges from north-east to south-west and perpendicular to the coast, with the exception of the Cavalla and its tributary, the Duobe which flow for some distance due east before they ultimately turn to the sea. As a matter of fact, the
Cavalla River and its tributary is the largest and longest river of 2550 m 3 /sec. They water an approximate area of 30,225 km 2 , and bordered by an irregular divide formed by the Pulu and Tsenpo Ranges. The other rivers are roughly parallel to each other and spaced at fairly regular intervals across the county. All the six rivers are not navigable and therefore do not support water transport and industrial fishing. Many rocks, waterfalls, rapids and sandbanks reduce navigation of these rivers very far inland; bedrock frequently outcrops in the riverbeds. Valleys and flood plains are not well developed, the gradients are fairly steep and irregular, and the basins are mostly narrow.
Closer to the coast, the river grade becomes less, and tidal current prevent the rivers from removing sand bars and accumulations. However, most streams overflow their banks regularly, and during the rainy seasons there is often severe flooding along the coastal plains. All major river basins in Liberia originate from Guinea.
Moreover, the six major rivers drain 80% of the country; whereas, small water courses such as Po, Du, Timbo, Mesurado, Farmington, Seinken and Sineo Rivers drain 20% of the county.
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Seasonal precipitation causes considerable fluctuations of the river levels. Although all of the main rivers carry a great volume of water all year round, the upper courses are usually shallow because of the fast run-off especially during the dry season.
During the rainy season most of the streams overflow their banks after heavy downpours. The six major rivers have varying potentials for the development of mini hydro-electric facilties.
Table 2-2: Major Rivers in Liberia. (Liberia Hydrological Services, 1988)
Basin
Mano
St. Paul
St. John
Cavalla
Cestos
Lofa
Area(Km²) Annual Flow
(m³/sec)
6,604 251
12,820
14,726
512.3
N/A
13,726
10,000
9,194
380
60.3
N/A
Sediment Load (metric ton/annum)
580
1,920
15,108
988
850
11,200
Highest Elevation (m above seal level)
750 n/a
1,000
1,500
1,500
1,200
2.6
V EGETATION
The tropical rain forest belt in West Africa extends from Sierra Leone to Ghana and comprises in Liberia most of the country except a very narrow strip along the coast where mangrove vegetation alters with coastal savannahs. The climatic conditions in the whole country allow the vegetation to develop into a tropical high forest and most probably the entire land area was once covered with it. Nowadays the total area of tropical high forest and old secondary forest consists only of about one-third of the country, while the remaining 65% is composed of forested areas such as young secondary forest and intermediate forest and further non-forested areas such as farmlands, savannas, towns, swamps, etc. The far northwest of the country and small parts of Nimba County are grass-woodlands. Although the general climatic conditions are nearly equal throughout the country, the amount of rainfall and humidity, which influence the vegetation in a large measure, decreases toward the interior. Consequently three vegetational zones can be distinguished: the coastal savannah, the high forest belt, and the northern savannah.
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The coastal savannah extends some 15 to 25 km from the coast into the country and was in earlier times covered with high forest as forest relics indicate. The actual vegetation consists mainly of grass with scattered, often malformed trees. There are also scattered oil palms and mango indicating former human occupation. Along the rivers in the coastal zone dense thickets of mangrove vegetation may have developed. Landward beyond the tide, another type of vegetation has developed with species such as Pandanus and Raphia palms.
The high forest belt in Liberia can be divided into the evergreen rain forest zone and the moist Semi-deciduous forest zone. The transition zone between these two belts lies in western Liberia about 70km from the coast and in the eastern part of the country up to 140km inland.
The evergreen rainforest receives an annual rainfall of 2000mm or more. And it consists of species which do not have a well marked period to leaf fall. The taller trees frequently reach over 60m. Because of the mixed character of this forest it is called mixed evergreen rainforest. Infrequent counting of tree species per acre show more than 40 species; sometimes patches of the forest may be dominated by only one or two species and this type of forest is called single dominant forest. Together with young trees of the dominant species many other species occupy the lower level of the canopy and may form one complete continuous layer of leaves preventing the light from reaching the soil. The shrub layer is not, however, normally very thick and is easy to enter.
A forest type normally separated from the evergreen forest is the wet coastal rainfall which is found in the south-eastern part of Liberia between the river cess and
Greenville and which reaches 65 to 83km into the country. The vegetation is specially characterized by the occurrence of many dominant stands.
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North of the belt of mixed evergreen forest is encountered the moist semi-deciduous forest which has many trees in common with the first type mentioned, but also many other species particular to this vegetation type. It may be that species are much more frequent in the mixed evergreen rain forest than in the moist semi-deciduous forest and vice versa. The climate condition in the north-western part of the country are characterized by an annual rainfall of 2030 to 2790mm and in the south-eastern Parts
1780 to 2030mm. the long dry season (4.5 to 5.5 months) force many species to drop their leave during part of this period to minimize their evaporation. The semi- deciduous forest is a transition to the deciduous forest type found in Ivory Coast but not in Liberia.
The three above mentioned type of high forest are most closely linked, but various kings of transition occur, which are mostly influenced by topography and soil conditions of the country. The influence of shilling cultivation on the vegetable has been immense. And most of the high forests have at time been converted into farm land. After the farms are abandoned the vegetation replaces itself again and gradually the high forest reappears. Several development stages can be recognized such as recent farmland, old farmland, and intermediate forest. This process of regeneration from farmland to secondary high forest takes approximately 100 to 130 years.
The northern savannah comprise the grass-woodland in the far north-western parts of the country and a small part of the Nimba Country and is a type of manmade savannah continuous burning and clearing for agriculture purpose prevent the original vegetation from establishing itself again. The so-called elephant grass which grows to a height of 3m is the typical grass species and only here and there small forested areas are present.
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Figure 2-4: Vegetation cover in Liberia.
2.7
L AKES
The only two major lakes are Lake Piso in Grand Cape Mount County and Lake
Shepherd in Harper, Mary Land County. Lake Piso is the largest of the two and both are located along the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Piso is characterized by vast expanse of wetlands and low land forest vegetation.
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2.8
B IODIVERSITY
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Liberia is among the nine different West African Countries straddled in the Upper
Guinean Forest belt (L. Poorter, et al. 2004). That stretches from western Togo to eastern Sierra Leone. This forest belt is considered as one of the highest global conservation priorities due to its high levels of endemism, species rarity and the extreme and immediate threat facing its survival.
The rich biodiversity of the country is currently threatened by two major factors (D.
Wiles, 2007):
1.
Loss and fragmentation of habitat caused by deforestation;
2.
Wildlife remains a critical source of protein to rural Liberians, as well as source of cash income.
The Mount Nimba, Cestos-Senkwehn rivershed, Lofa-Mano and Sapo National Park areas contains many endemic species.
2.8.1
Fauna and Flora
Liberia is home to approximately 150 mammals, 590 birds, 15 reptiles and amphibians and over 1,000 insect species.
Forest areas in Liberia were once known to host a wide range of animals including elephant, pygmy hippopotamus, buffalo, large primates and large hornbills; these species have largely disappeared due to hunting, farming and logging activities.
Several antelope species that prefer patchy forest and regenerating forest/bush fallow areas, are commonly reported in abundance in the interior. These include rare species such as Zebra and Jentik’s duiker. Primates such as chimpanzees, three species of colobus monkeys, Diana monkey, various guenons and manabies are reported to be abundant in the mature secondary and primary forest. Wild pigs and
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2010 porcupines exist in sparsely settled areas, and several members of the leopard group are also found.
The Leatherback turtles (Demochely Coriacoa) are critically endangered and along with the olive ridley (Lepitochely olivacea), Green turtle (Chelonia mydas),
Loggerhead turtle (Caretta Caretta) and Hawksbull turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate) are found on Liberia’s beaches. The sea turtles are widely hunted while nesting and are occasionally caught in artisanal fishermen’s net.
On the other hand, there are over 2000 flowering plant species, with 59 of them endemic to the country and one endemic genus. Among the plant species, 240 timber species are known to inhabit Liberia’s forest.
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Figure 2-5: Protected areas, nature reserves, and protected areas of Liberia (modified from Conservation International, Liberia Forest Re-assessment,
2004).
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2.9
E NERGY & E LECTRICITY R ESOURCES
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Energy is an essential sector in Liberia because it cuts across all the other sectors and serves as a catalyst for social, economic, and political growth and development.
Furthermore, energy contributes to employment, trade, fiscal revenues, food security, and regional and sub-regional development, besides its share of about o.8%
(CBL, 2008) of the overall gross domestic product (GDP) of Liberia as a sector.
The current energy market in Liberia is dominated by petroleum products that are imported in refined forms, and woody traditional biomass consumed primarily for cooking and heating as in nearly all of Sub-Sahara African countries. The market for petroleum is formal in nature while that of woody biomass in informal.
Table 2-3: Relevant Energy Sector Indicators.
Indicator
% of energy sector share of national GDP
2008 petroleum product consumption (US gallons)
Current power generation (national grid)
% of urban population with access to electricity
Current electricity tariff
% of rural areas electrified by national grid
% of rural population with access to electricity (private)
% of rural population with access to national grid (LEC)
Charcoal consumption in 2005
Fire wood consumption in 2005
Value
0.8
65,279,917
9.6 MW
10
US$ 0.43/kWh
0
<2
0
~36,500 tons
~10.8 million m 3
Source, Year
CBL, 2008
LPRC, 2008
LEC, 2008
NEP, 2008
LEC, 2008
LEC, 2008
NEP, 2009
LEC, 2008
NACUL, 2005
CSET, 2004
Prior to the 14 year civil crisis it was estimated that the total installed electricity generation capacity was 412MW. Overall 52 precent of pre-war capacity was heavy fuel (bunker) oil (HFO) thermal, 31 percent light oil thermal and 17 percent hydel
(CBL, 2000). The 17% or 68MW were the total generation capacity of two main hydropower stations. These were the mount coffee hydro power plant (64 MW) and firestone hydro-power plant, Harbel plant (4MW). A community micro-hydro power station of 30Kw was also located at Yandohun in Lofa County. The Mount Coffee and Yandohun plants were destroyed during the war where the Harbel plant is still
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2010 operation. The remaining fossil based power plants were owned by the Liberia
Electricity Corporation (LEC) and private concessionaires.
Fuel storage infrastructure facilities have also been damaged as a result of the conflict. Thus, fuel storage and handling is poor across the country with little or no safeguards to contain surface spilling.
As a result, unreliable supplies of electricity, lead to the use of generator as an alternative. In 2004, UNEP reported that approximately 45,000 generators were used in Monrovia.
One of the most critical impacts from the lack of electricity has been the increase in demand for alternative sources of energy given the abundance of Liberia forests.
Fuel wood and Charcoal became the principal energy sources and consumption skyrocketed both during and after war (UNEP 2004). In 2004, UNDP reported that
99.5 percent of the population relied on biomass (fire wood, Char coal and Palm oil) for the energy needs; a trend passing threat to biodiversity and forests, due to the unsustainable manner in which the production of their tradition fuel is done. In
2000, the central bank of Liberia estimated that 960.00 tree are cut down annually produce Charcoal for Monrovia area alone. Annual consumption of woody biomass was estimated at about 10,8 million m 3 (CSET, 2004) for fire wood, and 36,500 tons
(NACUL, 2005) for charcoal.
Moreover, prior to the war, the electricity supply system in Liberia, operated by
LEC, was based on a central Monrovia city system with radial lines extending into the country and independent isolated grid; the national electricity grid had a total of installed capacity of 191 MW of power by 1989 (NEP, 2008). However emergency power program (EPP) was launched in 2006 following the inauguration of president
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, the EPP was designed to re-establish public power supply as part of the Government political Stabilization and Economic reconstruction
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2010 program. The LEC now has a system with 9.6 MW diesel generations, 80 Km of transmission and distribution network, and over 2500 customers in Monrovia (NEP,
2009).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 2-6: Damaged LEC facilities; fuel storage problems in Free Port of Monrovia: leaking oil storage tanks posing threats to groundwater.
On the other hand, there has been a lack of policy and regulatory for the energy sector of Liberia, thus making the sector fragmented with no coordination mechanism. As a remedy to this problem, the Government, through the Ministry of
Lands, Mines and Energy formulated a National Energy Policy (NEP) in 2008 to detail the actions required to enable the country’s energy sector to play its strategic supporting role. The NEP calls for universal and sustainable access to affordable and reliable energy supplies in order to foster the economic, political, and social development of Liberia. One of the key pieces of the NEP related to rural energy is the creation of a Rural and Renewable Energy Agency (RREA) whose long-term goal
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2010 is to facilitate the economic transformation of rural Liberia by accelerating the commercial development of modern and renewable energy services in rural areas.
The Government of Liberia states the following targets in the NEP using 2009 as the base year:
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 10% by the energy sector in 2015.
Improving energy efficiency by 20% by 2015.
Raising the share of renewable energy from current level of 10% to 30% of electricity production in 2015.
Increasing the level of biofuels in transport fuel to 5% by 2015.
Implementing a long-term strategy to make Liberia a carbon neutral country, and eventually less carbon dependent by 2050.
There have been the following developments in Liberia’s energy sector since the election of the new Government into office in 2006:
Emergency Power: with the assistance of multilateral co-operation (Ghana,
EU, USAID) diesel units of 9.6 MW total across four sub-stations have been installed; in order to provide street lighting and a limited number of connections (>2500), small portion of the distribution network in Monrovia has been rehabilitated.
Monrovia Management Contract: IFC has been contracted by the Government of Liberia to attract the private sector into a management contract to provide power services in Monrovia, which will be funded by the Norwegian
Government. IFC undertook the due diligence analysis and proposed strategic options to the GOL. Manitoba Hydro has been selected for the
Management Contract and will begin operations July 1, 2010.
Another option under consideration is to supply Monrovia and Buchanan through
Côte d’Ivoire. This would require the construction of a transmission line, part of the
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2010 future West Africa Power Pool (WAPP), connecting Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone (CSLG). The World Bank is preparing a project for the financing of this CSLG transmission interconnector.
2.10
S OCIO -E CONOMICS
2.10.1
Demographics
The population of Liberia as reported by Liberia Institute of Statistics and Geo-
Information Services (LISGIS) in 2008 is 3,489,072. This population size is relatively small in comparison with other countries around the region despite the fact that the yearly rate of growth of the nation is slightly over two percent (2.1%) (LISGIS, 2008).
It is also estimated that the total population of Liberia would double in 34 years as of
2008 (i.e. by 2024) if the observed annual growth rate of 2.1 percent persists into the future. Out of the total population, 1,764,555 are males, and 1,724,517 are females
(LISGIS, 2008).
Table 2-4: Population Distribution and Sex Ratio (LISGIS, 2008).
County Male Female Total
Bomi
Bong
Gbarpolu
Grand Bassa
41,807 40,229 82,036
161,928 166,991 328,919
44,376 39,382 83,758
111,861 112,978 224,839
Grand Cape Mount 66,922 62,133 129,055
Grand Gedeh
Grand kru
Lofa
Margibi
65,062
99,900
61,084
99,789
126,146
29,330 27,776 57,106
130,143 139,971 270,114
199,689
Maryland
Montsserado
Nimba
Rivercess
Rivergee
Sinoe
70,725 65,679 136,404
585,833 558,973 1,144,806
232,700 235,388 468,088
33,860 32,002 65,862
35,360 31,958 67,318
54,748 50,184 104,932
Total 1,764,555 1,724,517 3,489,072
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Liberia is presently divided into 15 major counties; Bomi , Margibi, Maryland,
Montserrado, Sinoe, Nimba, Grand Gedeh, Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, Lofa,
Bong, Gbarpolu, Grand kru, River Cess, and River Gee. Each of these subdivisions is headed by a superintendent who serves as the vice juror to the President of Liberia.
The total national population is seen to be unevenly distributed among the counties.
The population distribution favors Montserrado, Nimba, Lofa, Grand Bassa, and
Margibi Counties in descending order of magnitude. Montserrado, Nimba and Bong
Counties hold exactly 56 percent of the population (LISGIS, 2008).
On the other hand, Grand Kru, River Cess, River Gee, Bomi and Gbarpolu counties hold the least population totals. They together have 10 percent of the national count and each of them contributes less than 2.5 percent (LISGIS, 2008).
In 2008, the population density of Liberia was 93 persons per square miles, with
Montserrado County being the most densely packed where the population density is over 1,500 persons per square mile and can be much higher in Monrovia and its environs. As a matter of fact, Monrovia has a population of 1,010,970 people and alone is more than five times greater thant the combined population of all county headquarter. It has a total population over 32 percent of the national population
(LISGIS, 2008).
Counties of Margibi, Maryland, Bomi and Nimba are classified as dense population concentrations with densities falling between 100-199 persons per square mile. The counties that hold moderate population concentration (55-99 personz per square miles) include Bong, Lofa, Grand Bassa and Cape Mount. The rest of the counties comprising Gbarpolu, Grand Gedeh, Grand Kru, River Cess, River Gee and Sinoe
Counties are sparsely populated; they typically have distribution between 22 and 38 persons per square mile.
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2.10.2
Household Characteristics
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Liberian households consist of an average of 5.0 persons. Almost one-third (31 percent) of households are headed by a woman (LDHS, 2007).
Housing conditions vary greatly based on residence. Only 3 percent of households have electricity. Electricity is almost non-existent in rural areas, while 7 percent of urban households have power. Only 10 percent of households nationwide have an improved (and not shared) toilet facility. About one-third have an non-improved facility, while 55 percent have no toilet facility at all (LDHS, 2007).
Half of Liberian households have a radio, while only 7 percent have a television.
Almost three in ten households have a mobile phone, while only 2 percent have a refrigerator. Even the most common households goods are not universal in Liberia- only 60 percent of households have a table or chairs (LDHS, 2007).
More than two in five Liberian women 15-49 have had little or no education. Only 8 percent of women and 19 percent of men age 15-49 have completed secondary school or beyond. Urban residents are more educated than rural residents; more than half of women and almost one-quarter of men in rural areas have received no education at all compared to only one-quarter of women and 8 percent of men in urban areas.
Education is particularly low in North Western and North Central regions, among both women and men (LDHS, 2007).
2.10.3
Land Use Pattern
Agriculture plays an important role in the country’s economy. During the pre-war years about 70 percent of the population lived in rural areas and depended on agriculture (crop and livestock production) for their livelihood. About 46 percent of the total land area of 9.8 million hectares is available for agriculture (FAO, 2005).
Most agriculture is carried out on small holdings, many of which are still cultivated
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2010 in the traditional ways of bush following shifting cultivation. These are also large individual and commercial plantations that produce rubber, coffee, cocoa, palm kernel, and other export crops. Land use pattern varies around the country; forested areas accounts for 46%of the land use, pastures about 20% and others 34%.
2.10.4
Economics
Agriculture and mining form the backbone of the Liberian economy. Timber and rubber are the main export items earning more than $100 million and $70 million annually respectively. Alluvial diamond and gold mining activities also account for some economic activity.
2.10.5
Health Care Delivery
The health infrastructure in the country is in very poor condition with about 70% of public health care facilities in a non-functional state. Access to basic health services is extremely low, which accounts for high infant and child mortality rates. Malaria, diarrhoea, acute respiratory infections, neonatal tetanus, measles, and malnutrition are the major causes of morbidity.
The incidence of communicable diseases e.g. HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, and River
Blindness continues to increase. HIV/AIDS prevalence is estimated at 8.2% of the population between the ages of 15-49 years.
2.10.6
Infrastructure
Liberia’s infrastructure was severely damaged by the war. Most Liberians have no access to electricity, improved water and sanitation facilities, acceptable housing, or decent roads. Weak infrastructure undermines income earning opportunities, limits access to health and education facilities, raises the price of goods and services, and weakens food security. Women and children bear a large burden as a result of poor infrastructure, as they must spend more time carrying water and other goods; are
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2010 more vulnerable to crime; and have less access to health facilities, raising the risk of child and maternal mortality. Persons with disabilities are also disproportionately disadvantaged.
Perhaps the most critical infrastructure problem is roads, which Liberians across the country consistently placed at the top of their priorities during PRS consultations.
Currently there is only around 700 km of paved road surface, almost all of which is damaged, and 1600 km of unpaved roads, which are mostly in need of repair. Farmto-market access is of paramount concern, and parts of the country remain cut off during the rainy season. It takes at least an hour for most rural dwellers to access a food market or the nearest potential transport option. Roads are central to reducing poverty, as they open up income-earning opportunities for the poor, improve access to health and education facilities, reduce transport costs and commodity prices, and help strengthen local governance.
Other transportation infrastructure is equally weak. Many bridges have been damaged and need rebuilding or repair. The limited railway network has not been operational for nearly 20 years. Civil aviation is limited to Monrovia with only UN flights operating upcountry. The Port of Monrovia is operational, but badly damaged and in need of urgent repairs.
Most Liberians use palm oil, kerosene and candles for light. While significant progress has been made since the end of the war, still only 25 percent of Liberians have access to safe drinking water and just 15 percent have access to human waste collection and disposal facilities. Most residents do not treat or boil their water, which has grave implications for the health and nutritional status of the population.
Garbage collection is minimal with the availability of one open dump site located at the outskirts of Monrovia, Whein Town.
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Many Liberians live in sub-standard housing. The war sparked massive internal displacements, with Monrovia hosting the majority of the IDPs. There is a huge mismatch between the number of urban dwellers and available social services, leading to overcrowding, deteriorating living conditions, and the growth of slums and illegal home occupation. Over a third of the population cannot afford to honor their rent payments, contributing to a high incidence of squatting.
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3
LEGISLATIVE & INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
3.1
L EGISLATIVE F RAMEWORK
Article 7 of the 1986 Constitution of the Republic of Liberia sets the fundamental basis for the constitutional, legislative, and institutional frameworks for the protection and management of the environment. It also encourages public participation in the protection and management of the environment and the natural resources in Liberia.
The Environment Protection Agency of Liberia (EPA) was created by the Legislative
Act of November 26, 2002 and published on April 30, 2003. The establishment of the
EPA marks a significant step forward in the protection and management of the environment of Liberia.
Part II, Section 5 of the Act designated the EPA as the principal Liberian authority for environmental management which shall co-ordinate, monitor, supervise, and consult with relevant stakeholders on all the activities for environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources. Section 6 (b) of the Act stipulates that the EPA should propose environmental policies and strategies to the Policy Council and ensure the integration of environmental concerns in the overall national planning.
Meanwhile, Section 1 of The EPML gives the responsibilities of sustainable development, protection and environmental management to the EPA in partnership with regulated Ministries and organizations and in a close relationship with the people of Liberia. The EPA should also provide high quality information and advice on the state of the environment and for matters connected therewith. This article indicates that environmental protection by the EPA should be accomplished taking into consideration public health and welfare of the Liberian societies. In addition,
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Section 15 of the EMPL states that business investors should present an environmental mitigation plan to the EPA, which should include the following sections:
Objectives.
Description of activities to be carried out by the project to mitigate any adverse effects on the environment.
Period within which the mitigation measures shall be implemented.
Proven efficacy of the mitigation measures of indicating their experimental nature.
Moreover, Section 12 of the same law requires environmental review for project or activities that may have significant impact on the environment. The project proponent shall submit to the EPA their plans for improving environmental performance including:
Identification of the major environmental effects; and
A comprehensive mitigation plan in accordance with section 15 of this Law
In addition, Section 6 of The Environmental Protection and Management Law which requires an Environmental Impact Assessment license or permit for the commencement of such projects, and Section 13 requires the preparation of an environmental impact study for such a project. Moreover, the Agency (EPA) is empowered to carry out among others, the following aspects of environmental protection and management in Liberia:
Establish environmental criteria, guidelines, specifications, and standards for production processes and the sustainable use of natural resources for the health and welfare of the present generation, and in order to prevent environmental degradation for the welfare of the future generations;
Identify projects, activities, and programs for which environmental impact assessment must be conducted under this Act.
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Review and approve environmental impact statements and environmental impact assessment submitted in accordance with this Act;
Monitor and assess projects, programs, and policies including activities being carried out by relevant ministries and bodies to ensure that the environment is not degraded by such activities and that environmental management objectives are adhered to and adequate early warning and monitoring on impending environmental emergencies is given;
Review sectoral environmental laws and regulations and recommend for amendments and to initiate proposals for the enactment of environmental legislations in accordance with this Act or any other Act;
Encourage the use of appropriate environmentally sound technologies and renewable sources of energy and natural resources;
Function as the national clearinghouse for all activities relating to regional and international environment-related conventions, treaties and agreements, and as national liaison with the secretariat for all such regional and international instruments.
Table 3-1 describes the main categories of legislation in Liberia. Table 3-2 shows
international conventions that are signed and ratified by the Liberian Government.
In terms of environmental legislation, Table 3-3 represents a list of all issued
legislation.
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Table 3-1: Categories of Legislations in Liberia.
Law Laws are passed by the National Legislature of Liberia comprising of the
Senate and the House of Representatives. Any citizen or group of citizens,
Cabinet Ministers, Managing Directors of public corporations or agencies can propose a bill to the National Legislature for enactment. The draft bill is first passed over to the appropriate Steering Committee of the Legislature. In case of environmental bill, this committee is generally the Committee on Natural
Resources and the Environment. The Committee reviews, assesses and presents the bill to the Legislative Plenary with appropriate amendments for debate, public hearing and subsequent enactment by the Legislature.
Executive
Order
The Executive Branch of government headed by the President can issue
Executive Order without the approval of the National Legislature. The
Executive orders have the power of a law provided that they do not contravene the existing law. The power of such orders has a limited time of existence.
Regulations The national Legislature has empowered Cabinet Ministers and Managing
Directors of public corporations and agencies to issue regulations for their respective functionaries without legislative approval or supervision, provided that such regulations are not inconsistent with the statutory Laws and the
Constitution of Liberia.
Table 3-2: International Environmental Conventions Signed/Ratified by the Government of Liberia.
CONVENTION
African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage
STATUS
Ratified
Ratified
Signed
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol Signed
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP) Signed
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Convention on Biodiversity
Bio-Safety Protocol
Convention on Desertification
Signed
Ratified
Ratified
Signed
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
Montréal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
Signed
Signed
YEAR
NA
1981
2002
2002
2002
2003
2000
2003
1998
1996
1996
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Table 3-3: Relevant Environmental Legislations.
Legislation (act)
Law
Law
Law
Law
Law
Law
Law
Law
Law
Date
1953
1957
1976
1976
1979
1988
03/04/ 2000
26/11/ 2002
26/11/2002
Title/ description
Conservation of the Forests of the Republic of Liberia. This
Law provided the framework for the use of forest and wildlife resources and allowed for the creation of government reserves, native authority reserves, commercial forests, national parks and wildlife refuges.
Supplementary Act for the Conservation of Forests. This
Supplementary Law also provided the framework for the use of forest and wildlife resources and allowed for the creation of government reserves, native authority reserves, commercial forests, national parks and wildlife refuges.
The Act that created the Forestry Development Authority
(FDA). The Act established and defined the responsibilities of the FDA, outlined forest offences and penalties; made provision for an Advisory Conservation Committee and specified powers of forest officers with regard to trees in reserve areas.
Public Health Act. It contains provision for the protection of drinking water resources and the inspection of potential sources of pollution.
The Natural Resources Law of Liberia. This Law includes chapters on forests, fish, and wildlife, soil, water, and minerals.
Wildlife and National Parks Act. The Act identifies a number of protected areas; specifies policies and objectives regarding wildlife and conservation in the country.
The New Minerals and Mining Law. The Law and its resulting policy call for restoration of land to its previous state as much as possible after mining activities. All medium to large-scale mining activities are to submit Environmental
Impact statements. Environmental audits and periodic assessments will be undertaken to ensure compliance.
The Environment Protection Agency (EPA) Act. The Act provides the Agency with the authority of government for the protection and management of the environment in
Liberia. It provides for an Environmental Administrative
Court to hear from aggrieved parties. It requires that an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) be carried out for all activities and projects likely to have an adverse impact on the environment.
The Environment Protection and Management Law. The Act enables the Environment Protection Agency to protect the environment through the implementation of the Law. It arranges the rules, regulations, and procedures for the conduct of EIA. It establishes regulations for environmental quality standards, pollution control and licensing, among others.
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Legislation (act)
Law
Law
Date
26/11/2002
2006
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Title/ description
The National Environmental Policy Act. It defines policies, goals, objectives, and principles of sustainable development and improvement of the physical environment, quality of life of the people and ensures coordination between economic development and growth with sustainable management of natural resources.
National New Forestry Reform Law. The administration of this Act provides for the Forestry Development Authority to exercise the power under the Law to assure sustainable management of the Republic’s forestland, conservation of the forest resources, protection of the environment, sustainable economic development with the participation of and for the benefit of all Liberians and to contribute to poverty alleviation in the country.
3.2
I NSTITUTIONAL F RAMEWORK
At a regional cooperation level, Liberia is a member of a number of organizations that play an important role in the protection and management of the environment.
These organizations include the Economic community of West Africa (ECOWAS),
The Mano River Union (MRU), The West African Rice Development Association
(WARDA), and the African Union (AU).
In addition to the EPA, other organizations play a vital role in environmental protection and management, particularly the Forestry Development Authority
(FDA), Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy (MLME), Ministry of Planning and
Economic Affairs (MPEA), Ministry of Justice (MOJ), Ministry of Public Works
(MPW), and Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MOHSW), Ministry of
Agriculture (MOA), Ministry of Commerce (MOC), Monrovia City Corporation
(MCC) and the Liberia Water and Sewer Corporation (LWSC).
However, the EPA is the principle authority in Liberia for the management of the environment and coordinates, monitors, supervises and consult with relevant stakeholders on all activities in the protection of the environment and sustainable use of natural resources. In addition to being responsible for the provision of
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The main functions of the EPA are:
6.
Co-ordinate, integrate, harmonize and monitor the implementation of environmental policy and decisions of the Policy Council by the Line
Ministries,
7.
Propose environmental policies and strategies to the Policy Council and ensure the integration of environmental concerns in overall national planning;
8.
Collect, analyze and prepare basic scientific data and other information pertaining to pollution, degradation and on environmental quality, resource use and other environmental protection and conservation matters and undertake research and prepare and disseminate every two years a report on the state of the environment in Liberia;
9.
Encourage the use of appropriate environmentally sound technologies and renewable sources of energy and natural resources;
10.
Establish environmental criteria, guidelines, specifications and standards for production processes and the sustainable use of natural resources for the health and welfare of the present generation, and in order to prevent environmental degradation for the welfare of the future generations.
Ministry of Land Mines and Energy
The MLME among other things supervises the development and management of water resources and conducts scientific and technical investigations required for environmental assessments. The implementation of water and sanitation activities is done through the Department of Mineral and Environmental Research of the
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2010 ministry, which houses both, the Liberian Geological Survey (LGS) and the Liberian
Hydrological Service (LHS). The LHS is responsible for collecting data on the quality, sources, and quantity of water resources in Liberia and monitoring rainfall and stream flow in river basin as well as ground and surface water quality. Training of technicians of the Ministry of Rural Development for emergency disinfection
(chlorination) of open wells has also been undertaken by MLME. The LHS mandate dictates that it be involved in special projects on the evaluation of urban sanitation, particularly the provision of guidance for geotechnical investigation of solid wastes landfill disposal sites.
Rural and Renewable Energy Agency (RREA)
One of the key pieces of the NEP related to rural energy is the creation of a Rural and Renewable Energy Agency (RREA)—an agency under but independent from the
Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy (MLME) whose long-term goal is to facilitate the economic transformation of rural Liberia by accelerating the commercial deployment of modern and renewable energy services in rural areas. The RREA’s principal functions include the planning and financing of projects to be implemented by public, private, and community developers. Facilitating the financing of projects includes managing a Rural Energy Fund that will provide low interest loans, loan guarantees, and grants as targeted subsidies to ensure energy access by the poor.
Secondary functions of the RREA include educating the general public about renewable energy as well as rural energy options and opportunities. Toward this end, the RREA will facilitate capacity building and technical assistance to support the development, operation, and maintenance of rural energy products and services delivered through rural energy service companies and community initiatives. One early mission of the RREA is to prepare a rural energy master plan, which will fully integrate energy into rural development (World Bank, 2010).
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Liberia Electricity Corporation (LEC)
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The Liberia Electricity Corporation (LEC), which was established by an act of
National Legislature on July 12, 1973, is a Public Corporation solely owned by the
Government of Liberia (GOL) with a mandate to produce and supply economic and reliable electric power to the entire nation, while at the same time maintaining the corporation financial viability.
Ministry of Public Works (MPW)
The MPW is responsible for the design, construction and maintenance of roads and highways, bridges, storm sewers, public buildings and other civil works in the country. Additionally, it has responsibility for the administration of urban and town planning, as well as provision of architectural and engineering services for all ministries and agencies of government. In principle, it is responsible for the installation of the entire infrastructure required for waste management delivery services including the construction of sanitary landfill facilities.
Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs (MPEA)
The MPEA is responsible for regional development planning, project preparation and co-ordination. The MPEA provides technical guidance to all governmental agencies in preparation of development programs and projects
Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MHSW)
The Division of Environmental and Occupational Health of the MHSW is responsible for handling matters related to water and sanitation. The responsibility ranges from conducting sanitary inspections of public facilities including food hygiene and drinking ware surveillance. The Division’s role also includes construction and/or supervision of water wells and pit latrines and the promotion of community health education. MHSW also provides for capacity building and training of environmental health technicians.
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Monrovia City Corporation (MCC)
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The Public Health Law of 1975 granted the MCC the responsibility of ensuring clean and sanitary environmental conditions in Monrovia. The MCC is responsible for environmental management including sanitation primarily in the form of beautification, street cleaning, and solid waste collection and disposal.
Liberia Water and Sewerage Corporation (LSWC)
The National Legislature Act of Liberia 1973 established the LWSC with the responsibility to:
Manage, operate and implement water and sewerage services;
Establish and maintain facilities throughout Liberia;
Apply the principle of fair and reasonable charges;
Trade and manufacture materials; and
Obtain rights and legal titles.
The planning, development, operation and maintenance of non-sewered domestic and public sanitation facilities are shared between MCC, LWSC and the MHSW.
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World Bank’s Safeguard Policies
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
4 WORLD BANK’S SAFEGUARD POLICIES
This section discusses the safeguard policies of the World Bank and their applicability. The World Bank’s environmental and social safeguard policies are fundamental to its support to sustainable poverty reduction. These policies provide guidelines in the identification, preparation and implementation of programs and projects funded by or supported by the Bank.
The safeguard policies provide the opportunity for building ownership among local populations for programs and projects that are being implemented; they have often set the platform for the participation of stakeholders in project design. The World
Bank’s Safeguard policies include:
1.
Environmental Assessment (OP4.01, BP 4.01, GP 4.01)
2.
Natural Habitats (OP 4.04, BP 4.04, GP 4.04)
3.
Forestry (OP 4.36, GP 4.36)
4.
Pest Management (OP 4.09)
5.
Physical Cultural Resources (OP 4.11)
6.
Indigenous Peoples (OP 4.10)
7.
Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12)
8.
Safety of Dams (OP 4.37, BP 4.37)
9.
Projects on International Waters (OP 7.50, BP 7.50, GP 7.50)
10.
Projects in Disputed Areas (OP 7.60, BP 7.60, GP 7.60)
The fact that the project is expected to have a nationwide geographic coverage, several bank policies may apply; considering the type and nature of the several projects proposed, the baseline data presented in Section 2, and the requirements of the Bank’s safeguard policies, the following Bank policies may be triggered:
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1.
OP 4.01 Environmental Assessment
2.
OP 4.04 Natural Habitats
3.
OP 4.11 Physical Cultural Resources
4.
OP 4.12 Involuntary Resettlement
5.
OP 4.37 Safety of Dams
6.
OP 7.50 Projects on International Waters
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Environmental Assessment (OP 4.01, BP 4.01, GP 4.01)
This policy requires environmental assessment (EA) of projects proposed for World
Bank financing to ensure that these projects are environmentally sound and sustainable, and that decision-making is improved through appropriate environmental screening, analysis of actions and mitigation of their likely environmental impacts and monitoring.
This policy is triggered if a project is likely to have potential adverse environmental and social impacts in its area of influence. As a result, the EA process usually takes into account parameters related to natural environment (air, water, and land), human health and safety, social aspects (involuntary resettlement, indigenous people, and cultural properties) and transboundary and global environmental aspects.
The construction and rehabilitation of various types of sub stations and distribution lines are likely to have some adverse environmental and social impacts. However, the locations of these sub projects are not identified yet. Therefore, the EA requires that an Environmental and Social Management Framework is established.
As a condition for the Bank appraisal of the power sector project, the policy obligates the Bank and Government of Liberia to disclose the ESMF report as a separate and stand alone document. The disclosure must precede the appraisal of the project.
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The disclosure should also be both in Liberia at a location accessed by the general public and local communities, and at the Infoshop of the World Bank.
Natural Habitats (OP 4.04, BP 4.04, GP 4.04)
This policy recognizes that the conservation of natural habitats is essential to safeguard their unique biodiversity. Natural habitats comprise terrestrial, freshwater, coastal, and marine ecosystems. They include areas lightly modified by human activities, but retaining their ecological functions 1and most native species.
The Bank supports cause significant conversion (loss) or the protection, management, and restoration of natural degradation of natural habitats. The Bank supports, and expects borrowers to apply precautionary approach to ensure environmentally sustainable development.
This policy will be triggered by any project that will have negative effects on natural habitats.
Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12)
The objective of this policy is to avoid and minimize involuntary resettlement, and ensure that the displaced populations are compensated by improving their former living standards. The involuntary resettlement is an integral part of project design and should be dealt with at the earliest stages of the project preparation. It encourages community participation in planning and implementing resettlement and in providing assistance to affected people, regardless of the legality of the title of land. This policy is triggered not only if physical relocation occurs, but also by any loss of land resulting in: relocation or loss of shelter; loss of assets or access to assets; loss of income sources or means of livelihood, whether or not the affected people must move to another location.
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A Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) is being prepared in compliance with OP
4.12. The RPF outlines the principles and procedures to be applied in the event that any World Bank funded projects/subprojects involve land acquisition and thus require the mitigation of potential adverse social impacts. The OP 4.12 is not usually triggered because people are being affected by physical displacement; it is triggered because the program activity causes land acquisition, whereby a physical piece of land is needed and people may be affected because they are cultivating on that land, they may have buildings on the land, they may be using the land for water and grazing of animals or they may otherwise access the land economically, spiritually or any other way which may not be possible during and after the sub project is implemented. Therefore, people are in most cases compensated for their loss (of land, property or access) whether in kind or in cash or both. Where there is land acquisition, impact on assets, and/or loss of livelihood, the RPF guidelines must be followed and a RAP completed prior to sub-project implementation.
In order to ensure that the displacement or restriction of access does not occur before necessary measures for resettlement and compensation are in place, the policy also requires that the resettlement plan is implemented before the start of the construction. The taking of land and related assets may take place only after compensation has been paid, and where applicable, resettlement site, new homes, related infrastructure and moving allowances have been provided to displaced persons. All displaced persons should benefit from the resettlement policy regardless of the total number affected, the severity of the impact and whether or not they have legal title to the land Special attention should be given to the needs of the vulnerable groups among those displaced.
OP 4.12 also requires the RPF to be disclosed both in Liberia and at the infoshop of the Bank before appraisal. Where there are differences between the Laws of Liberia
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Projects on International Waters (OP 7.50, BP 7.50, GP 7.50)
This policy applies when potential international water rights may be an issue, for sub projects on the following type of international waterways in Liberia: a.
any river, canal, lake, or similar body of water that forms a boundary between, or any river or body of surface water that flows through, two or more states. The Mano River begins in the Guinea highlands and forms a border between Liberia and Sierra Leone. b.
Any tributary or other body of surface water that is a component of any waterway described in (a) above. c.
Any bay, gulf, strait, or channel bounded by two or more states or, if within one state, recognized as a necessary channel of communication between the open sea and other states, and any river flowing into such waters.
The policy applies to water and energy/power type projects funded by the Bank.
Projects on international waterways may affect relations between the Bank and its borrowers and between states (whether members of the Bank or not). The Bank recognizes that the cooperation and goodwill of riparians is essential for the efficient use and protection of the waterway. Therefore, it attaches great importance to riparians' making appropriate agreements or arrangements for these purposes for the entire waterway or any part thereof. The Bank stands ready to assist riparians in achieving his end. This policy requires the Government of Liberia, if it has not already done so, to formally notify riparians of the proposed project and its details for the activities of sub project operators that are on international waterways.
Safety of Dams (OP 4.37, BP 4.37)
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The Bank may finance types of projects/programs that do not include a new dam but will rely on the performance of an existing dam such as water supply systems that draw directly from a reservoir controlled by an existing dam, diversion dams or hydraulic structures downstream from an existing dam, where failure of the upstream dam could cause extensive damage to or failure of a new Bank-funded structure; and or irrigation or water supply projects that will depend on the storage and operation of an existing dam. Projects/programs in this category also include operations that require increases in the capacity of an existing dam, or changes in the characteristics of the impounded materials, where failure of the existing dam could cause extensive damage to or failure of the Bank-funded facilities.
Activities in some types of electrification packages to receive financing under the
World Bank power sector intervention, such as hydropower type sub projects, may involve the use/rehabilitation of existing dams (large and small), or the construction of new dams. Whereas other types of sub projects may depend only on the use of existing dams. In these particular cases, the dams will probably used for one or a combination of these reasons; i.
as a reservoir. ii.
to manage water flow and levels in rivers/lakes. iii.
provision of head of water.
Therefore, for sub projects that involve the use of existing dams, the Bank requires that the sub project sponsors arrange for one or more independent dam specialists to: a.
inspect and evaluate the safety status of the existing dams or their appurtenances, and its performance history; b.
review and evaluate the owner's operation and maintenance procedures; and
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provide a written report of findings and recommendations for any remedial work or safety-related measures necessary to upgrade the existing dams to an acceptable standard of safety.
The Bank may accept previous assessments of dam safety or recommendations or improvements needed in the existing dam if the project sponsors or the owners/operators of the Dam provides evidence that;
an effective dam safety program is already in operation, and
full-level inspections and dam safety assessments of the existing dam, which are satisfactory to the Bank, have already been conducted and documented.
For sub projects that involve the construction of new dams, the Bank requires that the dam be designed and its construction supervised by experienced and competent professionals. It also requires that the sub project sponsor adopt and implement certain dam safety measures for the design, bid, tendering, construction, operation, and maintenance of the dam and associated works. The Bank distinguishes between small and large dams.
Small dams are normally less than 15m in height. This category includes, for example, low embankment tanks. Large dams at 15m or more in height. Dams that are between 10 and 15 m in height are treated as large dams if they present special design complexities -for example, an unusually large flood-handling requirement, location in a zone of high seismicity, foundations that are complex and difficult to prepare, or retention of toxic materials. Dams under 10 meters are treated as large dams if they are expected to become large dams during the operation of the facility.
For small dams, generic dam safety measures designed by qualified engineers are usually adequate. For large dams, the Bank requires, (i) reviews by an independent panel of experts of the investigation, design, and construction of the dam and the start of operations, (ii) preparation and implementation of detailed plans, a plan for
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Physical Cultural Resources OP 4.11
Cultural property includes sites having archaeological (prehistoric), palaentological historical, religious and unique natural values. The Bank will normally decline to finance a sub project that will significantly damage non-replicable cultural property, and will assist only those sub projects that are sited or designed so as to prevent such damage.
It is not anticipated that the World Bank projects will adversely affect sites having archeological, paleontological, historical, religious, or unique natural values as defined under the OP 4.11. However, a screening mechanism is proposed to ensure that any such sites are identified and avoided or impacts are mitigated, in line with the cultural resources policy. Awareness of possible chance finds will be raised among the public, the project contractors and operators, and chance-find procedures will be included in construction contracts.
Table 4-1: Summary of Bank Safeguard Policies Triggered By Projects Activities and Their Requirement.
Triggered Bank Safeguard
Policy
OP 4.01: Environmental
Assessment
Triggered Policy
Requirement
Party
1.
Preparation of ESMF
2.
Preparation of ESIAs for sub projects
1.
GoL to prepare ESMF
2.
Sub project sponsors to prepare ESIA
Timeframe
Implementation of
Action
1.
ESMF to be approved by Bank
& disclosed in
Liberia & Bank
Infoshop prior to program appraisal date.
2.
Sub project ESIA's to be approved by
EPA and disclosed in Liberia before license is granted.
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Triggered Bank Safeguard
Policy
OP 4.04 Natural Habitats
OP 4.12: Involuntary
Resettlement
OP 4.37: Safety of Dams
OP 7.50: Projects on
International Waters
OP 4.11: Physical Cultural
Resources
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Triggered Policy
Requirement
Conservation of natural habitat
1.
RPF preparation
2.
Sub project RAPs preparation
1.
Preparation of Dam
Safety Measures
Report rehabilitation for of existing small dams
2.
Use of experienced and competent professional
Notification of Riparian
Countries
Party
Sub sponsors project
1.
GoL prepare RPF to
2.
RAPs by Sup project sponsors
Timeframe
Implementation of
Action
1.
Before appraisal
Before contract award
1.
RPF to be approved by Bank
&disclosed in
Liberia & Bank
Infoshop prior to program appraisal date.
2.
Sub project RAPs to be approved by the respective
District officials & disclosed in Liberia before lincense is granted by the
Regulator.
Sub sponsors project
To be approved by
EPA and disclosed in Liberia before license is granted by the Regulator.
GoL
Before appraisal project.
Bank of
Cultural property 1.
ESMF by GoL
2.
In construction contracts
2.
3.
Before appraisal
Before contract award
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Project Description
5 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The rehabilitation and restoration of the energy infrastructure is an original component of the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) of the Government of Liberia.
Consequently, two major activities were proposed:
Catalyzing New and Renewable Energy in Rural Liberia;
The Liberia Electricity Sector Enhancement Project (LESEP).
The general development objectives of all activities are to improve the quality and efficiency of the provision of electric service, and to establish a sustainable basis for access expansion.
In the case of the “Catalyzing New and Renewable Energy in Rural Liberia”, 2-3 pilot projects will be conducted after the Rural and Renewable Energy Agency
(RREA) of Liberia is set up. These pilot projects will include renovation and restoration of the damaged 30 KW community-managed micro-hydropower that existed in the rural community of Yandohun, Lofa County, prior to the outbreak of the Civil War in the late 1990s; and one or two pilots utilizing on-site solar power generation in other rural areas of the country that will not be connected to the electricity grid in the next five years and contain a vibrant market area and significant population.
Whereas, in the context of the “Liberia Electricity Sector Enhancement Project
(LESEP)”, the objective is to rehabilitate, over a period of five years, Monrovia’s power supply and rapidly expand roll-out of the network to a significant share of the population, this operation will be managed by the Liberia Electricity Corporation
(LEC) and financed by the World Bank.
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Project Description
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
This ESMF is prepared to address potential environment and social impacts and provide mitigation measures for activities within the context of “Catalyzing New and Renewable Energy in Rural Liberia” and “Liberia Electricity Sector
Enhancement Project (LESEP)” and any other energy sector programs or projects prepared by the World Bank. These activities include:
Expansion of off-grid solar power;
Expansion of or rehabilitation of transmission lines;
Rehabilitation of new substations;
PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyl) issues rising from old facilities to be rehabilitated;
Rehabilitation of the HFO off-loading facility and HFO pipeline;
Construction or rehabilitation of fuel tanks;
Construction and rehabilitation of the distribution networks;
Rehabilitation of micro-hydropower stations;
Construction of micro-hydropower stations; ; and
Any other energy sector projects in urban or rural Liberia to be financed by the World Bank.
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6 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL
IMPACTS
This chapter identifies the potential environmental and social impacts that may arise from several alternative activities applicable in the Liberian context for the purpose of electricity generation. As noted in the previous section, the activities fall under two main categories, namely those intended to catalyze new renewable off-grid energy in the rural areas, and those providing practical and continuously reliable solutions for supplying grid power to the capital Monrovia.
The reform of the electricity sector in Liberia will start with a phase of rehabilitation and construction intended to repair the massive damage inflicted by the civil war to the existing power supply structures, and to expand the existing facilities and auxiliary infrastructure based on the most viable alternative in the rural and urban contexts, respectively. Renewable energy sources applicable in the rural context include solar power and micro-hydropower generation with two valid subalternatives for each, namely solar thermal generation and photovoltaic cells for the former and small reservoirs and run-of-river schemes for the latter. Possible alternatives for thermal power supply in the capital Monrovia include variable choices of fuel type, namely fuel oil (heavy fuel oil and diesel), natural gas, coal and biomass (wood chips). Impacts of auxiliary facilities including electric power transmission and distribution lines, sub-stations, and fuel supply storage terminals are also examined.
6.1
G ENERAL C ONSTRUCTION AND / OR R EHABILITATION A CTIVITIES
Below is a discussion of the impacts associated with the rehabilitation and construction phases. The latter impacts are generally consistent for all power generation activities due to the similarity of the works involved. Activity-specific
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6.1.1
Air Emissions
Construction and rehabilitation activities are usually associated with the release of fugitive particulate matter (PM) generated from land clearing, excavation and movement of earth materials, cut and fill operations, contact of construction machinery with bare soil, and exposure of bare soil and soil piles to wind. The use of construction equipments and power generators is expected to release exhaust related pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides
(SOx), particulate matter (PM) and hydrocarbons (HCs). The cleaning and rehabilitation of fuel oil tanks in oil supply facilities may generate volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. Air emissions during the rehabilitation and construction phases tend to be confined to the immediate vicinity of the rehabilitation or construction site.
6.1.2
Noise
During construction and rehabilitation activities, noise may be caused by the operation of pile drivers and demolition machines, earth moving and excavation equipment, generators, concrete mixers, cranes as well as fuel oil tank erection and pipe laying works. In-stream foundations for hydropower projects may involve underwater detonations from blasting. The increased noise level will impact construction workers and nearby residential areas. Nevertheless, the latter impact will be limited to the works’ implementation phase and will cease when the works
are complete. Table 6-1 shows typical noise levels encountered during construction
activities.
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Table 6-1: Noise levels during rehabilitation and construction works.
Equipment
Concrete pouring trucks
Cranes
Air compressors
Excavation equipment
Welders
Diesel locomotives
Dump trucks
Typical maximum noise level at
15 m (dBA)
87
86
89
90
73
97
87
World Bank Guideline for acceptable noise level 1
Residential / Institutional /
Educational
Daytime: 55 dBA
Nighttime: 45 dBA
Industrial / Commercial
Daytime and nighttime: 70 dBA
6.1.3
Solid Waste
Large amounts of waste materials including cleared solid waste debris, backfill earthwork and other construction wastes will be generated during the rehabilitation and construction period. If the piling and transportation of these waste materials are not managed properly, they will block the traffic and contaminate the environment.
Long term random piling may also deteriorate the air quality due to the flying dust and could result in respiratory problems to the people living in proximal areas. Used lubricants, paints, oils and other chemicals may also pose risks if improperly handled and / or disposed including soil and groundwater contamination and health and safety hazards.
Rehabilitation of power generation facilities will generate wastes loaded with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs are a mixture of chlorine substituted biphenyl compounds used in transformers and capacitors of the power industry due to their thermal stability, inflammability and excellent dielectric properties. PCBs contain impurities with reported toxic effects such as polychlorinated dibenzofurans and chlorinated napthalenes. Commercial preparations used in the electricity industry contain approximately 65% PCBs and 35% polychlorinated benzenes. PCBs are reported to cause mutation in plants, decline in some bird populations and reduced reproduction in sea mammals. Potential health effects in human beings
1 Source: World Bank, 2007; General EHS Guidelines.
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2010 exposed repeatedly to PCBs for prolonged hours include skin and eye irritation, liver damage, reduced immune response, reduced fertility and cancer. There is however less evidence available for low level exposure on human health. Certain PCBs have been associated with dioxin like toxicity and increased carcinogenicity.
On another hand, rehabilitation of fuel storage facilities may involve the removal of contaminated soils around fuel dispensers, piping, and tanks. Depending on the type and concentration of contaminants present, the latter soils may need to be managed as hazardous wastes. In addition, bulky, inert and contaminated solid waste items are likely to be generated during the rehabilitation of fuel storage facilities such as damaged tanks and sunken barges. The latter wastes may constitute an environmental burden if improperly managed.
6.1.4
Water Quality
Surface water pollution may result from uncontrolled discharges into rivers or seawater, accidental spills of oil, runoff, erosion, and sediment transport. The latter impact is particularly significant when rehabilitation and / or construction activities occur within or in close proximity to surface water such as in the case of the construction of hydropower structures or the rehabilitation and / or construction of heavy fuel oil supply facilities on the coastal strip. Polluted water flowing into surface water bodies could impact the aquatic organisms and affect the quality of life of downstream users when river waters are involved. Groundwater contamination may occur from percolation of oil and lubricants in soil. Nevertheless, waters disturbed by rehabilitation and construction activities are likely to recover when sediment is controlled and natural processes are permitted to replenish stream life.
6.1.5
Soil
During construction activities, soil erosion may be caused by exposure of soil surfaces to rain and wind during site clearing, earth moving, and excavation
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6.1.6
Flora and Fauna
Stream pollution by sediments from rehabilitation and construction activities often consists of suspended and settlable solid particles that may coat, bury, suffocate or abrade living organisms such as eggs, larvae, fish, etc. Many aquatic invertebrates and fish may undergo changes in population density and community composition if high concentrations of suspended solids are encountered. Aquatic vegetation may be adversely affected by a reduction in photosynthesis due to high turbidity. Dredging may also increase turbidity and sediment load and reintroduce into suspension bottom sludge trapping toxic precipitates. The toxic sludge may be ingested or concentrated in marine plant and animal species and biologically magnified in food chains. Detonations from blasting for in-stream foundation excavations may produce underwater shock waves potentially injuring or killing fish in sphere of influence.
The installation of power transmission lines and towers in forest areas necessitates the clearing of tall trees of 4.5 m or more within the rights-of-way to prevent power outages through contact of branches with transmission lines and towers, ignition of forest fires, corrosion of steel equipment, blocking of equipment access and interference with critical grounding equipment. The construction of power generation facilities and sub-stations also requires the clearing of trees and vegetations. Therefore, construction activities may result in loss of forests and plant cover, disturbance and loss of fauna habitats, weakening and degradation of soils,
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6.1.7
Traffic
The main impact on road traffic will be during clearing of solid waste debris and excavation of soil for construction. Longitudinal excavation will cause narrowing of the road, while the lateral crossing of roads may block them completely.
6.1.8
Health and Safety
Safety issues may arise during the rehabilitation and construction phases if community’s access to works’ site is not controlled. People may be injured by construction machinery or may fall in open trenches. During dam construction for hydropower generation, the safety of the structure must be ensured from the earliest exploration and design phases sudden dam failures during construction. Sediments also pose a potential health and safety problem as silts and other fine materials may be toxic or the materials may act as transport media for adsorbed toxic materials such as heavy metals or organics. Also, sediments reduce reservoir capacities, and increase flooding in downstream reaches of streams.
The rehabilitation and / or construction of fuel supply facilities are associated with the risk of release of flammable material due to accidental damages to the fuel tanks from works-induced landslide or collapse of tall structures such as cranes, and broken pipelines from works-induced vibration.
6.1.9
Socio-Economics
Although the rehabilitation and construction phase will generate several short term job opportunities for the local people, negative implications on the socio-economics
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The installation of power transmission lines and towers in agricultural lands during harvest period may cause a temporary damage to the cultivated crops. The construction of solar and thermal power stations and electricity transmission substations may necessitate the acquisition of lands and is therefore potentially associated with social problems such as the loss of houses and structures on the land, loss of access to common resources and facilities, and the potential change in the livelihoods of the communities who lived on the land or used it for cultivation.
6.1.10
Physical Cultural Resources
Improperly sited projects can damage physical cultural resources and diminish its value. Moreover, unregulated and careless excavation works may destroy potential buried archeological remains. Damage to physical cultural resources constitutes a threat to social cohesion and eliminates the potential for its use in tourism business.
If properly planned and sited, developments related to the power generation sector will have no impact on the country’s physical cultural resources.
6.2
O PERATION OF M ICRO -H YDROPOWER S TATION
Micro-hydropower projects refer to projects of 100 KW capacity or less. There are normally two ways of exploiting micro-hydropower schemes. The first is to build a dam and create a reservoir behind it from which water is taken to drive hydraulic turbines in the project’s powerhouse. The second, called a run-of-river scheme
involves the construction of a barrage or weir for head creation (Figure 6-1). In run-
of-river schemes, water is taken directly from the river into a headrace which is a diversion channel or pipework carrying the water to a powerhouse where the turbines are installed. They are simplest and cheapest to develop, and help to avoid the environmental problems associated with reservoir creation. However, such
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Direct relationships frequently exist between sizes of hydropower projects and magnitudes of environmental impacts with those involving the construction of a large dam having significant impacts and the smaller schemes, particularly microscale hydropower projects, having little or no impact if adequately planned, designed and managed. Therefore, while the nature of the impacts outlined below is similar to that of large scale projects, their significance is much lower in the context of micro-hydropower projects as will be pointed out in the discussion. a- River water diversion structure b- Abandoned diversion channel c- Damaged turbine in powerhouse d- Distribution line
Figure 6-1: Typical run-of-river micro-hydropower project (damaged and abandoned) managed by the community in Yandohun, Liberia (Courtesy of World Bank Mission, 2009).
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6.2.1
Air Emissions and Noise
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The effect of replacing fossil-fuelled power generation technologies by hydropower projects has generally a positive impact on air quality. Nevertheless, in the case of dam construction, the reservoir can become a source of methane if it contains a great deal of organic material, such as in tropical rain forests where conditions are right for anaerobic fermentation. In the worst case, a hydropower plant can produce more greenhouse emissions, over its lifetime, than a similarly sized fossil-fuelled power plant. However, this is not normally the case if the site is chosen carefully, and trees are cleared before inundation. Noise may be generated by the operation of pump(s)/generator(s), if any.
6.2.2
Water Quality
Trapping of water behind a dam affects the physical and chemical characteristics of the water in the impoundment, upstream and downstream areas as well as the groundwater quality and levels in the region surrounding the reservoir. Water quality within the reservoir will be very much dependent on what happens upstream in terms of increased population settlement and economic development, and the retention time within the reservoir. Quality is usually affected by salt accumulation, eutrophication from nutrient loading, turbidity, pollution from agricultural, industrial and human wastes. The upstream river will experience the reservoir “backwater effect”, which causes higher water levels. Basic impacts of this effect will be increased sedimentation, higher groundwater levels, slower water velocity, and increased flooding upstream. Furthermore, anaerobic conditions may occur in the deeper layers as organic material on the bottom of the reservoir decays, thus decreasing oxygen levels. In the downstream river, improved water quality is experienced as a result of trapping of sediments and nutrients behind the dam.
However, the changed water flow and sediment load lead to erosion of riverbed as a result of “hungry water” (with reduced silt loads) being released from the dam, and
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The significance of the negative impact on water quality is expected to be low due the micro-scale of the planned projects.
6.2.3
Soil
The new supply of hydroelectricity may attract people and industries to the catchment area. New construction to accommodate the expanding population may require considerable clearing and grading of previously undeveloped land. Clearing of formerly vegetated slopes could create increased dislodgement of sediment during periods of heavy precipitation. Accumulation of sediment in rivers and reservoirs not only could affect water quality and the underlying ecosystem but also could shorten the economic life of power production from reservoirs.
6.2.4
Fauna and Flora
The inundation in a reservoir area displaces terrestrial animals which escape to nearby areas and may push receiving ecosystems to beyond their carrying capacity.
Dams, barrages and weirs having no structures allowing fish passage block fish migration in the river, leading subsequently to changes in upstream and downstream species composition and even species loss. Flooded areas stimulate the growth of aquatic vegetation and subsequently the increase in aquatic lake-type fauna and reptiles and amphibians. People in neighboring villages not inundated may experience for a short-time a plague of rodents and non-venomous reptiles that are flooded from inundated lands.
On another hand, the operation of a dam or barrage changes the upstream and downstream river flow regimes and affects water quality. A river’s ecosystem and associated communities of plants and animals are a function of the flow, the quantity
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2010 and character of the sediment in motion through the channel, and the character and composition of the materials that make up the bed and banks of the channel. Flood and / or discharge timing, duration and frequency are all critical for the survival of communities of plants and animals living downstream. Changed water flow and quality may therefore reduce or eliminate the riparian vegetation and cause a change or even loss at times of the aquatic habitat for fish and other species. Such an impact is more significant in reservoir projects compared to barrage schemes because in the latter, the flow is only depleted in the reach between the diversion channel intake and the powerhouse location generating minimal interference with the natural flow regime.
Marine organisms can also undergo shock or destruction in passing through submerged intake channels and hydraulic turbines as a result of sudden pressure changes, contact with moving turbomachines, and exposure to changed pressure.
The damage is most significant when the aquatic biota concentration is high at the intake depths. Injured or stunned fish may be subject to predation.
Again, the significance of the negative impact on fauna and flora is expected to be low due the micro-scale of the planned projects.
6.2.5
Health and Safety
The establishment of a reservoir (in the case of dam construction) or a diversion channel (in the case of barrage construction) and the associated water management structures (canals, ditches, etc.) will create conditions fostering the establishment and spread of water related diseases such as encephalitis, malaria, cholera and typhoid, as well as bilharzias and malaria. Disease transmission will be facilitated by the increase in the humidity which will modify the local climate and create favorable habitat for insect disease vectors such as mosquitoes.
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Safety issues associated with hydropower projects include the danger of slipping and falling into water, electrical shocks resulting from uncontrolled access to powerhouses and electrical systems, and the possibility of dam or barrage failure and subsequent flooding of lands and properties downstream.
6.2.6
Socio-Economics
The most significant negative impact from a hydropower project involving the creation of a reservoir is the displacement of the houses and economic activities encountered in the area to be flooded and the associated disruption of livelihoods.
Road infrastructure and power transmission lines may also be inundated.
Nevertheless, the creation of a reservoir and improved electricity supply often results in a better access to the project area potentially contributing to economic development. Tourism activity may take place in the vicinity of the reservoir as a result of the improved access and the scenery. Fish accumulation in the reservoir may also take place, thus enhancing the local fishing activity. The flow in the downstream river is regulated, resulting in flood control which would enhance agricultural activity downstream thus generating additional income to the local people.
6.2.7
Physical Cultural Resources
If properly sited, micro-hydropower projects will have no negative impacts on the country’s physical cultural resources.
6.3
O PERATION OF T HERMAL P OWER G ENERATION P LANT
Analysis of impacts of possible alternatives for thermal power supply in the capital
Monrovia focused on variable choices of fuel type including fuel oil (heavy fuel oil and diesel), natural gas, coal and biomass (wood chips). Wood chips have a relatively high calorific value (19 GJ/tonne) compared to other types of biomass (as-
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2010 harvested wood: 10 GJ/tonne, straw: 15 GJ/tonne) and are readily available in
Liberia.
6.3.1
Air Emissions
The primary emissions to air from the combustion of fossil fuels or biomass are sulfur dioxide (SO
2
), nitric oxide (NO), particulate matter (PM), water vapour (H
2
O) and greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Other gases at low concentration in the exhaust include hydrogen chloride (HCl), nitrogen dioxide
(NO
2
), nitrous oxide (N
2
O), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur trioxide (SO
3
). The nitrogen oxides are produced by the oxidation of nitrogen molecules (N
2
) in the air used in the burners.
Coal-fueled plants are the largest emitters releasing about twice the CO
2
of a natural gas plant, as well as sulfur and particulates characteristic of the impurities in the original coal deposits. SO
2
is also created in the burning of sulfur-bearing coal. All power plants create NOx in amount depending mainly on the temperature of combustion. Emissions from oil-fired plants are lower than with coal, and particulates are not a problem. CO
2
emissions are lower, and NOx emissions are about the same as with coal. With natural gas plants, the major emissions are CO
2 and NOx. Table 2 shows a comparative analysis of CO
2
emissions per KWh of electricity for power generation alternatives from fossil fuels and wood chips.
Similar results are true for other plant emissions like SO
2
, CO and NOx, indicating that natural gas sounds to be the cleanest among fossil fuels although it emits far more than dry wood. Air emissions contribute to global warming and air quality deterioration, and may have negative impacts on fauna, flora and human health as discussed in later sections. Furthermore, acidic products of fossil fuel combustion can have negative effects on building-stone leading to the black, grimy appearance due to soot and SO
2
and the enhanced corrosion of limestone and marble due to sulfuric acid formed from deposited SO
2
.
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Table 6-2: Carbon dioxide emissions and production costs for selected thermal power generation fuels
Power generation alternative
Thermal + coal
Thermal + fuel oil
Thermal + natural gas
Wood
CO
2
emissions (g/KWh)
Breeze, 2005 World Bank, 2008 2
964
726
484
-160 4
68-1050
449-680
39-594
-
Defra,
2009
326
279
204
-
3
Cost (€/KWh)
Breeze 2005
2-15
3-11
1-4
-
6.3.2
Noise
Principal sources of noise in thermal power plants include the turbine generators and boilers and their auxiliaries such as coal pulverizers, reciprocating engines, fans and ductwork, pumps, compressors, condensers, precipitators, including rappers and plate vibrators, piping and valves, motors, transformers, circuit breakers and cooling towers. Thermal power plants used for base load operation may operate continually posing a significant source of noise if located in urban areas. Blowing safety valves are typically the loudest components in thermal power plants.
Nevertheless, they rarely operate, but when they do, they can constitute a source of nuisance to the nearby employees, and to a lesser extent, to wildlife and the public.
2 The reported range pertains to various types of fuels and generator types with or without the application of carbon capture and storage
3 These emission factors are based on the United Kingdom grid average mix of different types of generation technologies
4 Biomass has the potential to generate electricity with negative CO
2
emissions. While Breeze (2005) reported average emissions of – 160 g of CO
2
/ kwh of electricity generated from wood based on figures reported by the
European Commission (EC, 2001), negative emissions of up to – 410 g of CO
2
/ kwh have been reported elsewhere when biomass fuels are used with carbon capture and storage (Audus and Freund, 2004; UK POST,
2006). Even when carbon capture and storage is not feasible (such as in the case of small biomass plants with a capacity of less than 50 MW), the use of biomass for power generation is generally classed as carbon neutral (UK
POST, 2006), because the CO
2
released by burning is equivalent to the CO
2
absorbed by the plants during their growth.
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6.3.3
Solid Waste
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Coal-fired and biomass-fired thermal power plants generate the greatest amount of solid wastes including fly and bottom ash (called bed ash), boiler slag and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) sludge, although biomass burning often does not pose an
FGD generation problem due to its low sulfur content. A 2000 MW coal-fired power plant generates over 2000 tonnes of ash per day most of which is pulverized fuel ash
(PFA) which is an organic material rich in alumina, silica, calcium, magnesium and iron oxides. It also contains a wide range of trace elements such as lead, arsenic, selenium, mercury, copper, nickel and zinc, in addition to naturally occurring radioactive materials and polycyclic hydrocarbons. Ash residues are not typically classified as a hazardous waste due to their inert nature. In the absence of reuse, PFA is disposed in landfills potentially posing a problem of loss of land and amenity.
Nevertheless, ash residues containing potentially significant levels of heavy metals, radioactivity, or other potentially hazardous materials may cause water pollution from leaching of hazardous materials into surface waters and groundwaters and air pollution from dust blow.
Low-volume solid wastes from thermal power plants include coal mill rejects/pyrites, cooling tower sludge, wastewater treatment sludge and water treatment sludge. The latter wastes may contain heavy metals and organic compounds, in addition to inert materials. Except for oil-fired steam electric boilers burning residual oil, other technologies using better fuels such as distillate oil generate little oil combustion wastes with gas-fired thermal power plants generating no solid waste because of the negligible ash content.
6.3.4
Water Consumption
Large quantities of cooling water are needed inside fossil fuel power generation stations for condensation of steam in turbines and cooling of combustion facilities. A
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2010 direct cooled station of 2000 MW would need about 60 m3 of water per second available only at coastal sites in general. Inland sites need cooling towers and about
2 m3 per second of water to replace evaporation losses. Water is also required for boiler makeup, auxiliary station equipment, ash handling, and FGD systems. The withdrawal of such large quantities of water has the potential to compete with other important water uses such as agricultural irrigation or drinking water sources. It may also damage fish populations and other aquatic organisms however in a small area immediately around the intake.
6.3.5
Water Quality
Water discharges consist of ash conveyance water, once-through condenser cooling water, wet FGD system discharges, sanitary wastewater, boiler blowdown, in-plant drains including those from the laboratory, storm water, and demineralizer backwash / regeneration wastewater. Ash conveyance water (mostly in plants burning coal or biomass) may lead to increased turbidity, sea / river floor elevation and may be loaded with high levels of heavy metals. Although the turbulence around the outfall should disperse and dilute the ash, it has been observed that the bottom ash outfall sometimes plugs up temporarily, which may indicate local heaping of the bottom ash.
Cooling tower blowdown tends to be very high in total dissolved solids and may contain toxic chemicals used in cooling tower additives (such as chlorine, biocides, and corrosion inhibiting chemicals containing chromium and zinc). In-plant drains may also contain toxic chemicals originating from cleaning solutions and corrosives and potentially causing pH excursions in the receiving water body. Storm waters may be loaded with hydrocarbons some of which are toxic such as benzene, and are likely to entrain large amounts of particulates, especially from coal storage yards if any, which can interfere with aquatic life by reducing visibility, and by their
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2010 covering and clogging action. However, quick recovery is likely after short storm events.
Moreover, thermal power plants with steam-powered generators and once-through cooling systems use significant volumes of water to cool and condense the steam for return to the boiler, ejecting thus about two-thirds of the total heat generated in the form of a massive flow of water heated to 10-12°C above the intake temperature. The heated water is normally discharged back to the source water or the nearest surface water body. The latter thermal pollution may cause damage to the local aquatic ecology. However, the latter damage is alleviated by the facts that the flow of cooling water only slightly perturbs the huge natural flows at coastal and estuarine sites; the warm water floats in a thin layer on the surface of the main body of water so that it has no effect on deep-bed life and dissipates its heat rapidly to the atmosphere; the natural ecology is already able to tolerate wide swings in temperature caused by seasonal and daily changes; and the turbulence in the flowing water results in aeration that compensates for oxygen losses due to the temperature increase.
6.3.6
Aquatic Fauna and Flora
Withdrawal and discharge with elevated temperature and chemical contaminants such as biocides or other additives, if used, may affect aquatic organisms, including phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, crustaceans, shellfish, and many other forms of aquatic life. Aquatic organisms drawn into water supply structures may be subjected to thermal, pressure and biocidal stresses and may be significantly harmed or killed at times by impingement on the intake screens or entrainment in the cooling water systems. Among small organisms, zooplankton is the most sensitive to damage produced by the water supply hardware because it has a larger size and complex organization compared to bacterio- and phytoplankton. Additionally, aquatic organisms may be entrapped in the intake canals. There may be special concerns
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Thermal discharges decrease the level of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water which may be harmful to aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals resulting in more food consumption and food source shortages potentially causing sharp decrease in certain populations. Changes in the environment may also result in a migration of organisms to other more suitable environments. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.
Acid deposition and the alteration of the pH of aquatic systems may lead to the acidification of surface water bodies particularly lakes and ponds harming thus the aquatic life. Contamination of water by heavy metals and toxic chemicals from ash residues such as copper and mercury is equally harmful to aquatic organisms and may accumulate and get biomagnified in species of mollusks, crustaceans, and fish that are harvested by humans.
6.3.7
Forests
Acid deposition of air emissions from thermal power generation including dry deposition of SO
2
, NO
2
, HNO
3
and particulate sulfate matter and wet deposition to surfaces may have harmful effects on forests. When a forest system is subjected to acid deposition, the foliar canopy can initially provide some neutralizing capacity.
However, if the quantity of acid components is high, the neutralizing capacity is overcome altering the ability of the trees to tolerate other environmental stresses such as droughts, insects, and other air pollutants such as ozone.
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6.3.8
Vegetation and Crops
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Air emissions have various effects on plants and crops classified as visible symptoms and non-visual or subtle effects. Visible symptoms are deviations from the normal healthy appearance of the leaves due to tissue collapse (necrosis) and loss of color
(chlorosis). Air pollution may also cause physiological alterations such as early senescence, leaf drop, elongation of stem and leaf structures, and decreased yield of ornamental and fruit trees. The non-visual or subtle effects involve reduced plant growth and alteration of physiological and biochemical processes as well as changes in the reproductive cycle.
6.3.9
Health and Safety
Air emissions from thermal power plants are reportedly associated with harmful effects on humans’ respiratory system particularly NOx, SO
2
and fine PM. Another potential health hazard of power generation is cancer induced by substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These are produced by incomplete burning of fossil fuels and are known carcinogens, particularly for lung cancer.
Occupational health and safety problems may arise from potential electrical shock accidents inside the facility and from the absence of mitigation measures for noise reduction. Other health and safety impacts include the exposure to high electric and magnetic fields inside the facility, the excessive heat near combustion facilities, and the entry to restricted areas during maintenance such as turbines, condensers and cooling water towers. Other potential negative impacts are associated with the inhalation of toxic dust, exposure to chemicals and the fire and explosion hazards due to storage and transfer of fuels.
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6.3.10
Socio-Economics
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Positive impacts of the operation and maintenance of thermal power plants include the reliable and continuous supply of power (obviously subject to the availability of fuels) and the added income for the local people through new long-term employment opportunities inside the plant. Further, power supply will contribute to the economic development of the country by attracting energy-intensive economic developments. The improvement in power supply may also increase the surface of cultivated areas in proximal regions due to the potential addition of agricultural pump sets.
6.3.11
Visual Intrusion
Visual intrusion may become an inevitable consequence depending on the scale of the power generation station due to the size of the cooling towers and boilers the height of which may reach 100 and 200 meters, respectively. Stack height may also reach 200 meters. As a result, if improperly mitigated by artificial hills or tree plantations, the latter facilities may become a massive eyesore. Additionally, the condensation of water vapor from stacks and cooling towers leads to the formation of a visible local plume and occasionally to the production of convective clouds.
6.4
P OWER T RANSMISSION AND D ISTRIBUTION
The electricity power transmission system includes the transmission line, its right of way (ROW), switchyards, sub-stations and access or maintenance roads. The principle structures of the transmission line include the line itself, conductors, towers and supports etc. The width of the ROW ranges from 12 to 100 meters depending on voltage. Below are the major environmental and social impacts associated with the operation of power transmission and distribution structures.
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6.4.1
Land Resources
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Electric power transmission systems have a great impact on land resources.
Although ROWs are generally not very wide, they can interfere with, or fragment existing land uses along the ROW particularly that a strip of around 3 meters should be kept clear for maintenance purposes. Further, transmission lines can open up more remote lands to human activities such as settlement, agriculture, hunting, recreation etc. These effects can be significant if natural areas such as wetlands or wild lands are affected or if newly accessible lands are home of indigenous people.
On another hand, land contamination by oil leakages through the joints of substation transformers may occur due to defective packing and improper tightening.
6.4.2
Noise
Unusual noise from transformers may occur due to loss of core-bolts, core plates, coil clamps, loose external fittings and mechanical forces due to short circuits.
6.4.3
Fauna and Flora
Clearing of vegetation from ROWs using broadcast aerial spraying of herbicides affords no selectivity and releases unnecessarily large amount of chemicals into the environment that may potentially lead to the elimination of desirable species and direct poisoning of wild life. However, properly managed ROWs can provide feeding and resting sites for birds and mammals. Power lines and structures can serve as nesting sites and perches for many birds. On the other hand, avian collisions with power lines can occur in large numbers if located within daily flyways or migration corridors, or if groups are traveling at night or during low light conditions
(e.g. dense fog).
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6.4.4
Health and Safety
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The use of broadcast aerial spraying of herbicides for the purpose of ROW clearing may result in the contamination of surface waters and terrestrial food chains.
Placement of lines near human activity increases the risk for electrocution.
Additionally, the electric power transmission lines create electromagnetic fields
(EMF) which may pose health hazards depending on the lines’ voltage strength.
However, power frequency EMF typically has a frequency in the range of 50 – 60
Hertz (Hz), and is considered Extremely Low Frequency (ELF). Although there is public and scientific concern over the potential health effects associated with exposure to EMF, there is no empirical data demonstrating adverse health effects from exposure to typical EMF levels from power transmissions lines and equipment.
However, while the evidence of adverse health risks is weak, it is still sufficient to warrant limited concern (World Bank 2007d). Fire hazards may also occur due to ignition of insulating oil in the oil filled switchgears and transformer units.
Unchecked growth of tall trees and accumulation of vegetation within ROWs may also result in the ignition of forest fires.
6.4.5
Aircraft Safety
Power transmission towers can impact aircraft safety directly through collision or indirectly through radar interference.
6.4.6
Socio-Economics
When a power line passes parallel to telecommunication lines, electrical interferences are caused to telecom lines due to electromagnetic inductions. Besides, the installation and operation of power transmission and distribution structures may result in the depreciation of the price of immediately adjacent lands and properties.
Nevertheless, the increased availability of power supply in areas facing previously electricity shortage and / or absence of supply will open up the latter areas for new
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6.5
O PERATION OF F UEL O IL S TORAGE T ERMINALS
Fuel oil storage terminals are designed to receive and dispatch large shipments of fuel oil. They are often located at the sea coast although some facilities may also be situated inland and along watercourses. Following are the major environmental and social issues potentially arising from the operation of such terminals, which include oil pipelines and storage tanks.
6.5.1
Air Quality
Emissions of VOCs may result from fuel oil storage facilities and are related to three types of losses including storage, working and fugitive losses. Storage losses are evaporative losses resulting from changes in temperature and pressure causing vapor to be forced out of the tank through vents. Working losses are those resulting from operational activities such as filling, withdrawal, additive blending, and loading / unloading of transport links. Fugitive losses are due to leaks from seals, flanges, and other types of equipment connections. VOCs such as styrene and limonene may react with nitrogen oxides or with ozone to produce new oxidation products and secondary aerosols, which contribute to smog formation and may cause sensory irritation symptoms and respiratory symptoms in humans.
6.5.2
Solid Waste
Wastes generated at terminals may include tank bottom sludge as well as spill cleanup materials and soils contaminated with oil. Typically, sludge is composed of water, hydrocarbons, and various solids including sand, scale and rust and may pose ecological problems if improperly managed.
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6.5.3
Water Quality
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Process wastewater consists mainly of tank bottom draining and contaminated storm water runoff, including water from tank leaks and spills that collects in hydrocarbon contaminated secondary containment areas. Other possible sources of wastewater include oil contaminated water from washing tanker trucks and railcars, and wastewater from vapor recovery processes.
Depending on the type and quality of fuel product stored at the terminal, effluents from tank bottom water, storm water, and other sources may contain separate phase and dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) and oxygenates (e.g. MTBE). Wastewater may also contain caustics, ammonia, metals and phenols, in addition to common wastewater contaminants including total suspended solids (TSS), and Fecal Coliforms. The release of the latter constituents into the environment can impact surface and groundwater quality and surrounding marine environment if not treated properly prior to disposal.
6.5.4
Spills and Leakages
The storage and transfer of liquid materials in crude oil and petroleum product terminals creates the potential for leaks or accidental releases inland or in the marine environment from tanks, pipes, hoses, and pumps during loading and unloading of products. Examples of accidental oil spills involve vessels that come in distress or collide, oil well blowouts, pipeline ruptures, and explosions at storage facilities.
Hydrocarbons entering the ecosystem through spills may eliminate vegetation due to their phytotoxic properties, and can become dangerous especially if they enter the food-chain since several of the more persistent compounds like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic. Biological effects of oil spills on aquatic organisms include acute toxicity (lethal, sublethal, immediate effects), chronic toxicity (delayed effects), bioaccumulation (in mollusks like mussels) and tainting of seafood. The
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2010 ability of animal and plant populations to recover varies among organisms. While abundant organisms with highly mobile young stages which are produced regularly in large numbers may repopulate a cleaned-up area rapidly, slow maturing, longlived species with low reproductive rates may take many years to recover their numbers and age structure. Examples for the latter group are seals, otters, reptiles
(turtles), whales and dolphins and some cold water fish. In general, the rate of recovery in tropical or regions is relatively fast due to the warm temperatures enhancing oil biodegradation and subsequent attenuation. The storage and transfer of fuel oil also poses a risk of fire and explosion due to its flammable and combustible nature.
6.5.5
Occupational Health and Safety
Chemical hazards may result from the dermal contact with fuels and inhalation of fuel vapors during fuel loading and unloading. Fire and explosion hazards at crude oil and petroleum product terminals may result from the presence of combustible gases and liquids, oxygen, and ignition sources during loading and unloading activities, and / or leaks and spills of flammable products. Possible ignition sources include sparks associated with the buildup of static electricity, lightning, and open flames. Other workspace hazards may result from unregulated access to confined spaces such as storage tanks, secondary containment areas, and storm water / wastewater management infrastructure.
6.5.6
Community Health and Safety
Community health and safety issues associated with the operation of terminal facilities may include potential exposure to spills, fires, and explosions. Road, rail, or water transport activities associated with fuel delivery and distribution also constitute a potential source of chemical hazard to the public. Adequate design and
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6.6
I NSTALLATION AND O PERATION OF O FF -G RID -S OLAR P OWER
G ENERATION S YSTEMS
Impacts from two types of solar energy generation methods, namely solar thermal generation and photovoltaic cells will be examined. Solar thermal generation involves using the sun as a source of heat that is captured, concentrated and used to drive a heat engine. The heat engine may be a conventional steam turbine, in which case the heat will be used to generate steam, but it could also be a gas turbine or a sterling engine. On the other hand, a photovoltaic cell is a solid-state device like a transistor or a microchip using the physical characteristics of a semiconductor such as silicon to turn the sunlight directly into electricity. Both methods can only generate electricity when the sun is shining, and must therefore incorporate energy storage systems to provide off-grid power continuously.
Solar power is one of the most environmentally benign methods of generating electricity. Neither solar thermal nor solar photovoltaic power plants generate any atmospheric emissions during operation. A photovoltaic installation makes no noise either, and a solar thermal plant very little. There might even be some benefits locally from the shade created by the arrays of solar collectors. Nevertheless both types of plant do have little environmental impact particularly when life cycle implications are considered.
On a utility scale, both types of solar power require a significant amount of space, more than that required by a fossil fuel power plant. Solar thermal power plants rely on conventional mechanical and electrical components posing a possibility of spillages of heat transfer fluid. Solar photovoltaic devices use silicon as the predominant material which is very energy intensive to produce from its pure form.
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Indeed, lifetime analysis of photovoltaic systems show a relatively high level of emissions of carbon dioxide and other atmospheric emissions as a result of the emissions from the predominantly fossil-fuel-fired power plants generating the electricity used in the production of the silicon. Furthermore, a life cycle analysis of batteries for stand-alone PV systems indicates that the batteries are responsible for most of the environmental impacts, due to their relatively short life span and their heavy metal content (Tsoutsos et al. 2005).
The large-scale deployment of solar cells will involve much larger quantities of semiconducting material than has been manufactured for micro-processors. Some newer semiconductor materials contain toxic elements like cadmium and cadmium telluride. The semiconductor is a stable material but it will be important to ensure that conditions cannot occur which would permit cadmium to enter the environment. This will be particularly important when a plant is decommissioned.
The processes involved in the manufacture of both silicon and other solar cells involve toxic organic chemicals and these, too, have to be strictly contained.
It is useful to note finally that solar systems are the most expensive technologies to install with a capital cost of 3000 $/KW in USA in 2003 for photovoltaic cells and
2400-2900 $/KW for solar thermal power plants, compared to 1250-1800 $/KW for coal-fired plants, 900-1300 $/KW for diesel-fired plants and 500-550 $/KW for gas turbines (Breeze, 2005).
6.7
S UMMARY OF I MPACTS
Table 3 presents a summary of the significance and frequency of occurrence of potential environmental and social impacts arising from the implementation of several power supply alternatives. The table clearly shows that different alternatives have distinct impacts, with renewable energy schemes and natural gas or biomass -
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Table 6-3: Summary of positive and negative impacts of alternative activities for power generation in Liberia
Impact significance and frequency of occurrence
Emissions / Receptors
Activity
Installation and operation of off-grid solar power generation systems
Solar thermal generation
Photovoltaic cells
Rehabilitation/construction of a micro-hydropower station
Operation of a micro-hydropower station
Reservoir scheme
Run-of-river scheme
Rehabilitation/construction of a thermal power generation plant
Operation of a thermal power generation plant
Burning coal
Burning fuel oil (heavy fuel oil, diesel)
Burning natural gas
Burning biomass (wood chips)
Rehabilitation/construction of power transmission and
+
+
-/0 - - -/0 0
-/0
0
-/0
0
0
-/0
-/0
- -
0
0
0
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-
0
-/0
- - - - - - -
- - - - -
-
-/0
0
0
-
+
-
-
0
- -
-
-
-/0
-
0
0
-/0 - - -/0 0 -/0 -
-/0
-/0
-
-/0
-/0
-
0
0
0
0
-
0
0
0
-
0
-/0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-/0
-/0
- -/0 0 -/0
- -
-
-
0
0
0
-/0
-/0
0 -/0 -/0 -/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-
- -/0 0
- -/0 0
- -/0 0
- -/0 0
-
-
-
-
0 -/0 -/0 -/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
- -/0 -/0
- -/0 -/0
-/+ - -/0
-/+ 0 -/0
++ 0 -/0
-/+ - -/0
++ -/0 -/0
++ -/0 -/0
++ -/0 -/0
++ -/0 -/0
-/+ - -/0
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Impact significance and frequency of occurrence
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Emissions / Receptors
Activity distribution facilities
Operation of power transmission and distribution facilities
Operation of distribution facilities
Rehabilitation/construction of fuel oil storage terminals
Operation of fuel oil storage terminals
0 -/0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
-
-/0
-/0
0
-/+
-/+
-/0 - - -
-/0 0 - 0
-
-
-
0
-
- -
/0
0
0
-
- -
/0
0 -/0 -
0 0 0
-
-
0 -/0 -/0
0 -/0 -/0
- -
-
-/0
-/0
++
0/+
-/+
++
-/0
-/0
-
-
-/0
-/0
-/0
-/0
*Key: 0: No significant impact; + + +: High positive impact; + +: Moderate positive impact; +: Low positive impact; - - -: High negative impact; - -: Moderate negative impact; -
: Low negative impact;
Frequently occurring impact Rarely occurring or short-term impact
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7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MITIGATION
MEASURES
The potential environmental impacts that may be associated with the implementation of several power supply alternatives for the purpose of electricity generation can be minimized by careful site/ right of way selection, planning and staging of construction activities, adopting proper management practices during operation and relying on effective environmental monitoring and training to support management decisions. This chapter plan proposes several potential impactmitigation or control measures that should earn the proposed projects more acceptability, by reducing or eliminating to the extent possible many of the impacts that have been discussed in Section 6. Mitigation measures are intended to reduce the effect of potentially significant impacts on the environment. Thus, they are highly dependent on the significance of the predicted impact, the nature of the impact (permanent vs. temporary), or the phase of the project (construction vs. operation). Accordingly, the mitigation measures presented below are generic to a certain extent, and need to be refined and adapted to each of the proposed energy projects, once the detailed project components are available.
7.1
G ENERAL C ONSTRUCTION AND / OR R EHABILITATION A CTIVITIES
Below is a discussion of the mitigation measures for the impacts associated with the rehabilitation and construction phases, which are generally consistent for all power generation activities due to the similarity of the works involved. As aforementioned, due to the localized and temporary nature of rehabilitation and construction works, fast recovery is likely to take place especially if the project is small or if field activities are accomplished in stages, where only small parcels are disturbed at a time.
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7.1.1
Air Emissions
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Construction and rehabilitation activities are usually associated with the release of fugitive particulate matter (PM) generated from land clearing, excavation and movement of earth materials, cut and fill operations, contact of construction machinery with bare soil, and exposure of bare soil and soil piles to wind. In general, control techniques for minimizing PM emissions during construction generally involve watering of surfaces, chemical stabilization, or reduction of surface wind speed with windbreaks or source enclosures. Furthermore, surface improvements offer long term control techniques. These include covering the road surface with a new material of lower silt content, such as covering a dirt road with gravel or slag.
Also, regular maintenance practices, such as grading of gravel roads, help to retain larger aggregate sizes on the traveled portion of the road and thus help reduce emissions. The amount of emissions reduction is tied directly to the reduction in surface silt content. Other mitigation measures include, maintaining good housekeeping practices throughout the construction phase. These low cost measures include:
Proper site enclosure through appropriate hoarding and screening;
On-site mixing and unloading operations;
Proper handling of cement material;
Maintaining minimal traffic speed on-site and on access roads to the site;
Covering all vehicles hauling materials likely to give off excessive dust emissions;
Ensuring adequate maintenance and repair of construction machinery and vehicles;
Avoiding burning of material resulting from site clearance;
Covering any excavated dusty materials or stockpile of dusty materials entirely by impervious sheeting;
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Proper water spraying when necessary;
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The provision of water troughs at entry and exit points to prevent the carryover of dust emissions, beyond the construction site;
In addition to PM generation, other types of pollutants are expected as a result of construction activities. These pollutants comprise CO
2
, CO, NOx, SOx, and HC and are mainly emitted by truck traffic and on-site equipment such as concrete trucks, dump trucks, excavators and backhoes. Measures to reduce truck traffic emissions include proper truck maintenance and the adoption of a traffic management plan while avoiding congested routes. Concerning on-site construction equipment, proper maintenance procedures and the quality of diesel fuel used are important to reduce emissions. In addition, equipment should be turned off when not in use, which would reduce power needs and emissions of pollutants.
The supervising consultant will have the responsibility of ensuring the implementation of these measures by the contractor.
7.1.2
Noise
As revealed by the impact analysis, noise levels emitted during the construction and rehabilitation phases may significantly exceed international noise level standards.
Hence, mitigation measures are required during this phase. Typical mitigation measures that need to be enforced during construction to minimize noise levels are:
Enclosing the site with barriers/fencing
Effectively utilizing material stockpiles and other structures, where feasible, to reduce noise from on-site construction activities
Choosing inherently quiet equipment
Operating only well-maintained mechanical equipment on-site
Keeping equipment speed as low as possible
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Shutting down or throttling down to a minimum equipment that may be intermittent in use, between work periods
Utilizing and properly maintaining silencers or mufflers that reduce vibration on construction equipment during construction works
Restricting access to the site for truck traffic outside of normal construction hours
Proper site logistics and planning
Limiting site working hours if possible
Scheduling noisy activities during the morning hours
Informing the locals when noisy activities are planned
Enforcing noise monitoring
The noise control measures will be included within the construction contracts and be considered as requirements from contractors. The supervising consultant will have the responsibility of ensuring the implementation of these measures.
7.1.3
Solid Waste
During the construction and rehabilitation phases, there will be generation of construction debris as a result of various construction activities. The generated materials can be used for reclamation purposes whenever applicable. Nevertheless, care should be taken to ensure the absence of contaminated fill material and the adequacy of the physical and chemical properties of such material to limit potential adverse impacts on water and soil and ensure the safety of the project. Construction and demolition wastes can also be minimized through careful planning during the design stage, whereby reducing or eliminating over-ordering of construction materials will decrease waste generation and reduce project costs (cost of surplus materials). The contractor should carry out sorting of construction and demolition wastes into various categories and adopt re-use/recycle on site whenever deemed feasible.
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Chemical wastes generated during the construction phase include containers that were used for storage of chemical wastes on site, the chemical residue as well as contaminated material. Furthermore, rehabilitation of fuel storage facilities may involve the removal of contaminated soils around fuel dispensers, piping, and tanks, as well as bulky, inert and contaminated solid waste items such as damaged tanks and sunken barges. In addition, dredging activities at hydrocarbon contaminated harbors will produce polluted dredging sludge that should also be handled as chemical waste. These materials should be segregated and properly stored and disposed of as hazardous waste. Storage should take place in a separate area that has an impermeable floor, adequate ventilation and a roof to prevent rainfall from entering. In addition all chemical wastes should be clearly labeled in English and
Liberian, stored in corrosion resistant containers and arranged so that incompatible materials are adequately separated. The contractor should have a prior agreement with the EPA for the disposal of hazardous waste generated on-site.
General refuse generated on-site during the construction phase should be stored in enclosed bins or compaction units separate from construction and chemical wastes.
An agreement should be drafted between the contractor and the solid waste collector in the county where the project is being implemented to identify collection sites and schedule the removal to minimize odor, pest infestation and litter buildup. The burning of refuse on the construction site should be strictly prohibited and penalized. General refuse is generated largely by food service activities on site, so reusable rather than disposable dishware should be promoted if feasible. Aluminum cans may be recovered from the waste stream by individual collectors if they are segregated and made easily accessible, so separate, labeled bins for their storage should be provided if feasible.
Finally, a PCB Management Plan needs to be formulated and implemented by the contractor, whenever rehabilitation activities involve the replacement and handling
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2010 of PCB containing transformers and capacitors. The PCB Management Plan should comprise of the following:
Identification and removal of PCB contaminated material, whereby a comprehensive inventory of transformers containing PCB-contaminated oil,
PCB contaminated capacitors and other material should be prepared prior to the initiation of the rehabilitation activities.
Decontamination of PCB items: Certain PCB waste such as contaminated containers & contaminated components removed from PCB equipment shall be subjected to decontamination procedures to reduce the PCB concentration below 50 ppm. This would then make the waste suitable for disposal at landfill sites. To decontaminate a PCB item, the contents should first be thoroughly drained. A solvent such as kerosene or turpentine should then be used to fill the item. At least 18 hours should be allowed to elapse before the item is drained. This rinsing procedure is repeated at least three times and the last rinse should be checked to ensure that PCB concentration is less than 50 ppm. The solvent may be reused for rinsing purposes till its PCB content is within the permissible limit of 50 ppm. The contaminated solvent is then disposed off as PCB waste. All decontaminated articles should be properly labeled "DANGER- HAD CONTAINED CHEMICAL WASTE" in both
English and the local language.
Packaging, labeling & handling of PCB waste: PCB liquid waste should be filled in adequately sealed and properly labeled steel drums in good condition. The drums should be clearly marked ‘DANGER -CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’ in both English and the local language along with the chemical waste label. The drums should never be fully filled and a 100 mm air space should be allowed between the top of the drums and the level of liquid contents.
Solid PCB waste should be packed in heavy duty and leak proof polythene sacks and placed into new or good conditioned steel drums, fitted with
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2010 removable lids. The drums should be properly sealed and labeled ‘DANGER
CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’ in both English and the local language along with the chemical waste label. Large PCB capacitors which do not fit into drums should be inspected for leakage before packing .If they are in poor condition, they shall be packaged in heavy duty and leak proof polythene sacks which should then be stored in large steel containers surrounded by noncombustible absorbent material such as vermiculite. Scrap capacitors and their containers should be properly labeled and clearly marked ‘DANGER
CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’ in both English and the local language together with the chemical waste label. The capacitors should be stored with terminals positioning upwards so as to prevent leakage.
Transport: PCB waste should be transported by vehicles in good condition under the supervision of experienced personnel and in compliance with the following conditions: o All loading & unloading operations should be carried out with care to avoid any damage which may result in leakage & spillage. o The drums /equipments must be clearly marked ‘DANGER
CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’ in both English and the local language along with the chemical waste label. o The drums or equipment must be loaded and fastened securely so that they are in an upright position and do not move about or fall off the vehicle. o Drain spouts, cooling tubes, and bushings of transformers should be adequately protected to prevent damage during transport. o Vehicle should have hazard warning panels clearly marked with indelible ink against retro reflective background.
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2010 o Vehicles must be equipped with safety gear including an appropriate fire extinguisher for emergency use and a spill clean-up kit consisting of a spade, absorbent material and spare drums. o The complete load should be covered with a tarpaulin to prevent rainwater from contact with drums/equipment. Suitable bundling could be provided by placing sand bags around the cargoes.
Emergency response: As a strategy to reduce risks associated with PCB articles and PCB wastes, emergency containment and cleanup procedures for accidental release of PCB into the environment due to a spill or fire shall be formulated appropriate for their particular situations. The procedures shall cover all relevant areas including: o spill response o protective equipment o cleanup procedures o storage and disposal of contaminated material o staff training o regulatory authorities emergency contacts
PCB liquids do not burn easily but the vapor can be extremely irritating. Some decomposition products of PCBs are highly toxic. In the case of a fire outbreak, the fire department should be contacted immediately and informed that fire involves
PCBs . Foam or dry chemicals should be used to extinguish the fire rather than water, to minimize contaminated run off.
Storage: PCB wastes have to be properly stored before disposal arrangements are made. An indoor storage site is preferable to outdoor one because it eliminates the danger of contaminated rainwater run-off. An ideal location will be the one having a noncorrosive atmosphere, good ventilation, normal room temperature of 25 C or less, dry surfaces and impermeable floor with no
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2010 drains. If outdoor storage is chosen, then suitable fencing and impermeable floor should be provided. A roof or similar covering is a must for outdoor locations. In case of liquid PCB waste, precaution should be taken to keep items in closed areas adequate to contain any spillage or leakage. If spillage or leakage does occur, immediate action is required to contain spillage by using suitable oil absorbing material such as vermiculite or sand . Further, the following measures should be followed when storing PCB-contaminated material, including: o Do not stack containers of PCB waste one over the other o Place metal drip trays under rain spouts on transformers o Allow aisles between container and equipments to facilitate regular inspection o Keep first aid & safety equipments handy o Provide adequate fire-fighting equipment o Keep record of all items entering and exiting the storage area o Do not store with flammable goods in same location.
Disposal: A cost effective technology has not yet been developed for destruction of PCBs. The only safe destruction technique known is high temperature incineration (1,200 °C for 2 seconds). However, this technique is controversial as it does not preclude the possibility of derivative emissions
(dioxin & furan), chemical degradation, biodegradation and is complicated and expensive and not commercially viable. Low level contaminated wastes can be disposed of in a properly engineered and operated secure landfill, designed to prevent seepage. A synthetic liner compatible with PCB waste with low permeability, durability and chemical resistance provides the best solution for this purpose. Landfills or abandoned sites without any potential resource nearby are preferred. Necessary measures should be taken to prevent future use of the site.
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7.1.4
Surface Water Quality
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During land-based construction activities, the primary sources of potential impacts to water quality will be from pollutants in site runoff, which may enter surface waters (marine and river) directly or through the storm drain system. As such, the surface run-off from the construction site should be directed into storm drains via adequately designed sand/silt removal facilities such as sand traps, silt traps and sediment basins. Channels, earth bunds or sand bag barriers should be provided onsite to properly direct stormwater to silt removal facilities before discharge into the surrounding waters. Silt removal facilities should be maintained whereby deposited silt and grit are regularly removed after each rainstorm to ensure that these facilities are functioning properly at all times. In addition, the rainwater pumped out from trenches or foundation excavations should be discharged into storm drains via silt removal facilities and not directly to the aquatic environment. Open stockpiles of construction materials on site should be covered with tarpaulin or similar fabric during rainstorm events to prevent the washing away of construction materials, while earthworks should be well compacted as soon as the final surfaces are formed to prevent erosion especially during the wet season.
Water used in vehicle and plant servicing areas, vehicle wash bays and lubrication bays should be collected and connected to foul sewers via an oil/grease trap. Oil leakage or spillage should be contained and cleaned up immediately. Spent oil and lubricants should be collected and stored for recycling or proper disposal. In addition, all fuel tanks and chemical storage areas should be provided with locks.
The contractor should also prepare guidelines and procedures for immediate cleanup actions following any spillages of oil, fuel or chemicals.
Finally, sewage from toilets, kitchens and similar facilities should be contained in sanitary cesspools before being transported by trucks to a nearby wastewater treatment plant. As for the wastewater generated from concreting, plastering,
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2010 internal decoration, cleaning work and other similar activities, it should undergo large object removal by bar traps at drain inlets.
When rehabilitating areas where, at present, oil storage are located and sites are hydrocarbon contaminated, , it is necessary to clean up the site completely before starting any rehabilitation activities. A rapid environmental audit will need to be
conducted to identify the action plan for site clean-up. Refer to section 7.5.4 for more
details on this issue.
7.1.5
Soil and Groundwater
During the construction phase, accidental discharge of on-site wastewater and chemicals can adversely affect groundwater and soil in the area. Mitigation measures include proper storage of chemicals on site and the installation of natural or synthetic liners beneath chemical storage tanks. Equally important measures include proper surface drainage during both the construction and operation phases, minimization of on-site water and chemical usage (oil, lubricants and fuel), as well as limiting the exposure of the soil to accidental releases of pollutants. Chemicals used on-site should preferably be non-toxic and readily biodegradable.
7.1.6
Flora and Fauna
To minimize stream pollution by sediments, first it is recommended to reduce or prevent soil erosion from the construction site by:
Scheduling construction/ rehabilitation to avoid heavy rainfall periods (i.e., during the dry season) to the extent practical
Contouring and minimizing length and steepness of slopes
Mulching to stabilize exposed areas
Re-vegetating areas promptly
Designing channels and ditches for post-construction flows
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Lining steep channel and slopes (e.g. use jute matting)
Reducing or preventing off-site sediment transport through use of settlement ponds, silt fences, and water treatment, and modifying or suspending activities during extreme rainfall and high winds to the extent practical
Restricting the duration and timing of in-stream activities to lower low periods, and avoiding periods critical to biological cycles of valued flora and fauna (e.g., migration, spawning, etc.)
For in-stream works, using isolation techniques such as berming or diversion during construction to limit the exposure of disturbed sediments to moving water
To minimize the impacts of dredging activities, the following mitigation measures should be executed by the contractor:
Adoption of construction sequencing and work procedures to minimize streambed disturbance
Control of the rate of dredging to minimize the sediment loss rate
Use of tightly closing grabs during dredging, to restrict the loss of fine sediment to suspension
Careful loading of barges to avoid splashing of material
Use of barges for the transport of dredged materials that are fitted with tight bottom seals in order to prevent leakage of material during loading and transport
Filling of barges to a level which ensures that materials do not spill over during loading and transport and that adequate freeboard is maintained to ensure that the decks are not washed by wave action
Control of the speed of the trailer dredger within the works area to prevent propeller wash from stirring up the seabed sediments
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Building of suitable barriers to intercept the transport of SS away from the project area
Scheduling dredging activity during periods that don’t interfere with fish spawning or intense migration
If the dredged sludge is removed from hydrocarbon polluted harbors, it should be
handled and disposed of as chemical waste as detailed in section 7.1.3.
As for vegetation damage and habitat loss associated with the installation of power transmission lines and towers in forest areas, the following mitigation measures are recommended:
Select right-of ways to avoid important natural areas such as wild lands and sensitive habitats
Utilize appropriate clearing techniques (hand clearing vs. mechanized clearing)
Maintain native ground cover beneath lines
Replant disturbed sites
Manage right-of-ways to maximize wildlife benefits
7.1.7
Traffic
Typical primary measures adopted to mitigate traffic impacts during the construction and rehabilitation phases include the proper dissemination of information regarding the construction schedule, as well as providing alternate routes when needed and when feasible during all phases of construction. In this respect, proper planning and development of a traffic control plan that takes into account the reservations and inputs of local stakeholders is essential to minimize the effects and inconvenience of construction activities on commuters as well as ensure the safety of motorists, pedestrians and workers in the vicinity of construction zones.
The basic principle in the development of traffic control plans is that motorists
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Preliminary routing schemes covering various construction phases must be developed and communicated early on to the public. In addition, limiting the movement of heavy machinery during the construction phase to off-peak hours and providing prior notification are crucial measures to minimize the potential negative impacts of traffic.
At the bidding stage, the contractor must include a traffic re-routing plan for the construction phase. The construction period should take into consideration the possibility of night construction provided it does not disturb neighboring residents and commercial facilities. The tender documents will require contractors to present detailed plans for utility relocation (whenever applicable) that is approved by concerned agencies before excavating the site. Without compromising safety of workers, pedestrians, or vehicles, traffic roads will be re-opened as early as possible in order to minimize the impact on traffic during the construction period.
7.1.8
Health and Safety
During construction and rehabilitation activities, health and safety at the site are considered primarily in terms of accident occurrence (direct and indirect) to workers on-site, pedestrians, and machine operators or passengers. In the absence of national health and safety guidelines for construction projects, contractors need to follow international guidelines and procedures to ensure worker and community health and safety. Occupational health and safety measures should include:
Restriction of access to the construction site by proper fencing whereby site boundaries adjoining roads, streets or other areas accessible to the public
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Establishment of buffering areas around the site
Provision of guards on entrances and exits to the site
Installation of warning signs at the entrance of the site to prohibit public access
Provision of training about the fundamentals of occupational health and safety procedures
Provision of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (impermeable latex gloves, working overalls, safety boots, safety helmets, hearing protecting devices for workers exposed to noise levels exceeding 90 dBA5, and lifesaving vests for construction sites near water bodies)
Ensuring that workers can swim and that lifesaving rings are available at the worksite, near water
Ensuring that the protective material is being used wherever it is required
Ensuring that especially sensitive or dangerous areas (like areas exposed to high noise levels, areas for especially hazardous work etc.) are clearly designated
Ensuring that all maintenance work necessary for keeping machines and other equipment in a good state will be regularly carried out.
Ensuring that the workers (and especially those doing hazardous work or otherwise exposed to risks) are qualified, well trained and instructed in handling their equipment, including health protection equipment.
Provision of adequate loading and off-loading space
Development of an emergency response plan
Provision of on-site medical facility/first aid
Provision of appropriate lighting during night-time works
5 The maximum allowable 8-hour occupational noise standard set by OSHA
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Implementation of speed limits for trucks entering and exiting the site
Regarding hazardous substances, the following measures should be implemented by the contractor:
Ensuring that hazardous substances are being kept in suitable, safe, adequately marked and locked storing places
Ensuring that containers of such substances are clearly marked, and that material safety data sheets are available
Ensuring that all workers dealing with such substances are adequately informed about the risks, trained in handling those materials, and trained in first aid measures to be taken in the case of an accident.
Designating an area where contaminated materials and hazardous waste can be stored for proper disposal according to environmental guidelines.
Regarding waterborne and water-related diseases substances, the following measures should be implemented by the contractor:
The adoption of good housekeeping practices for ensuring hygiene on site
The elimination of pools of stagnant water, which could serve as breeding places for mosquitoes
The provision of bednets for workers living on site. Ideally, these nets should be treated with an insecticide
The appropriate elimination of waste of all types, including wastewater
Regarding other communicable diseases, particularly sexually-transmitted diseases
(such as HIV/AIDS) which are of concern due to labor mobility, the following measures should be implemented by the contractor:
Providing surveillance and active screening and treatment of workers
Preventing illness among workers in local communities by:
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Undertaking health awareness and education initiatives, for example, by implementing an information strategy to reinforce person-to-person counseling addressing systemic factors that can influence individual behavior as well as promoting individual protection, and protecting others from infection, by encouraging condom use
Training health workers in disease treatment
Conducting immunization programs for workers in local communities to improve health and guard against infection
Providing health services
Providing treatment through standard case management in on-site or community health care facilities. Ensuring readyaccess to medical treatment, confidentiality and appropriate care, particularly with respect to migrant workers
Promoting collaboration with local authorities to enhance access of workers families and the community to public health services and promote immunization
The contractor is responsible for observing local safety regulations and taking all necessary measures to safeguard personnel working on site. In particular, the contractor should ensure that only persons who are properly trained are employed and that the correct tools and procedures are used. The contractor should provide a safety specialist responsible for the preparation, implementation and maintenance of a comprehensive safety program, which will be periodically evaluated. The responsibility of the safety specialist includes performing safety training and conducting safety inspections, sessions and practice. She/he will also be responsible for the investigation of accidents. A safety committee should be formed and regular safety meetings should be organized. All safety equipment and tools should be provided and maintained by the contractor.
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In addition, for the rehabilitation and/or construction of fuel supply facilities, firefighting equipment such as dry powder extinguishers should be provided within the premises of the site. Moreover, fire fighting and leak checks training drills for the construction staff should be conducted. Note that smoking as well as litter or weed build up should be prohibited in the area as these may pose fire risks.
7.1.9
Socio-Economics
To mitigate negative socio-economic impacts, the following measures should be observed:
Select project sites and rights-of-way (ROW) to avoid important social, agricultural, and cultural resources and avoid areas of human activity
Utilize alternative designs to reduce land and ROW width requirements and minimize land use impacts
Ensure a high rate of local employment to minimize influx of foreign contract workers
Manage resettlement in accordance with World Bank Procedures.
7.1.10
Landscape and Visual Impacts
Visual impacts during the construction activities are unavoidable but are of a shortterm. During the construction phase, the site will witness heavy construction activities that will be associated with the presence of a multitude of heavy construction equipment, and construction spoils. As such, the site should be enclosed with non-transparent fencing to minimize the visual impacts on nearby areas. Construction equipment, construction materials, and transport vehicles should be prohibited from parking outside the fenced boundary of the construction site.
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7.1.11
Physical Cultural Resources
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At the planning stage, appropriate project siting should be conducted to avoid physical cultural resources and touristic sites. Prior to construction of new facilities, a field survey of physical cultural resources should be conducted and procedures to deal with ‘Chance Finds’ should be established, particularly where excavation works will take place. Construction teams should be trained on the ‘Chance Find
Procedures’.
7.2
O PERATION OF A M ICRO -H YDROPOWER S TATION
As aforementioned, potential environmental impacts associated with the operation of a micro-hydropower station are similar in nature to that of large scale projects, but are of much lower significance. The contractor and supervising consultant are responsible for the mitigation measures associated directly with the design elements of the station and their construction. The operator and the EPA will be responsible for the mitigation measures associated with the actual operation of the plant.
7.2.1
Air Emissions and Noise
Methane emissions due to organic material decomposition in the reservoir may be mitigated by choosing the site carefully and clearing the flora before inundation. As for noise levels during operation, they may be mitigated by adopting the following measures:
Sitting of new facilities by taking into consideration the distances between the noise sources and nearby sensitive receptors
Use of noise control techniques such as: using acoustic machine enclosures; using mufflers or silencers; using sound absorptive materials in walls and ceilings; using vibration isolators and flexible connections;
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Use of noise barriers such as berms and vegetation to limit ambient noise at plant property lines, especially where sensitive noise receptors may be present;
Provision of the necessary PPE for workers on-site.
7.2.2
Water Quality
Given the small scale of micro-hydro power plants, impacts on water quality are expected to be low. The following are mitigation measures that apply for small and large scale projects and are to be adopted based on project specificities:
Clearance of woody vegetation from inundation zone prior to flooding;
Regulation of water discharge and manipulation of water levels to discourage weed growth;
Control of land uses, wastewater discharges, and agricultural chemical use in watershed;
Limiting of retention time of water in reservoir;
Provision of multi-level releases to avoid discharge of anoxic water;
Hydraulic removal of sediments from reservoir by flushing, sluicing, and/or release of density currents;
Operation of reservoir to minimize sedimentation (this may result in loss of power benefits);
Regulation of dam releases to partially replicate the natural flooding regime;
Maintenance of at least minimum flow to maintain groundwater recharge.
7.2.3
Soil
Uncontrolled migration of people into the project area and the associated clearing of lands can be mitigated by limiting access of people to the project area. Basin-wide integrated land-use planning is recommended to avoid overuse, misuse, and conflicting use of water and land resources.
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7.2.4
Fauna and Flora
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In micro-hydropower stations involving water storage in a reservoir, storage of enough water to operate the turbine may result in unsatisfactory conditions for fish downstream because the flow decreases when the generation is reduced. The lower flow can result in stranding newly deposited fish eggs in spawning areas. The eggs apparently can survive periods of de-watering greater than those occurring in normal peaking operation but small fish can be stranded particularly if the level drop is rapid. In micro-hydropower plants of the diversion type, the reduction in flow in the streambed between the point of diversion and the tailrace downstream of the powerhouse may affect spawning, incubation, rearing, and the passage of fish and of living space for adult fish (ESHA, 2004).
To mitigate the impacts on aquatic life, a ‘reserved flow’ to be released downstream of a water diversion work needs to be determined and maintained. There are various methods for calculating the reserved flow. Following the implementation of the required reserved flow based on the selected calculation method, there is a possibility for the developer to decrease the level of the required reserved flow through modifying the physical structure of the streambed. River restructuring allows the double opportunity of achieving a better environmental efficiency of the water released (water depths and velocities suited to the ecosystem requirements) and the increase in energy production from a renewable source. Well-known measures of river rehabilitation and river restructuring include growing trees on the riverbanks to provide shadowed areas, gravel deposits in the streambed to improve the substratum, reinforcement of the riverside through shrubs to fight erosion, etc.
Other types of restructuring includes the construction of pools for fish breeding, meandering low water riverbeds to increase velocities and depths in the case of low flow, modification of the slope to increase the water depths concentrating in small waterfalls or ramps (30-40 cm). The difficulty with these types of works is in making
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Furthermore, fish migration needs to be secured by securing appropriate fish passage. Anadromous fish are those, which spawn in fresh water but spend most of their lives in the ocean. Catadromous fish are those that spawn in the ocean, reach adulthood in fresh water and require passages at dams and weirs. A great variety of fish pass designs are available, depending on the species of fish involved. Site and species-specific criteria and economics would determine which solution is most appropriate. Effective fish passage design for a specific site requires good communication between engineers and biologists, and a thorough understanding of site characteristics. Upstream passage failure tends to result from a lack of adequate attention to operation and maintenance of facilities. The upstream passage can be provided for through: fish ladders, lifts (elevators or locks), pumps and transportation operations. Pumps are a very controversial method. Transportation is used together with high dams. Fish bypass systems (natural-like creek without steps, pool and weir, Denil-passes, vertical slots, hybrid etc.) can be designed to accommodate fish that are bottom swimmers, surface swimmers or orifice swimmers. However, not all kinds of fish will use ladders. Fish elevators and locks are favored for fish that do not use ladders. The most common fish pass is the weir and pool fish pass, a series of pools with water flowing from pool to pool over rectangular weirs. The pools then play a double role: provide rest areas and dissipate the energy of the water descending through the ladder. The size and height of the pools must be designed as a function of the fish to be handled (ESHA, 2004).
As for downstream migrating fish, in the past, they used to pass through the turbine.
The fish-kill associated with this method varied from a few percent to more than
40% depending on the turbine design and more specifically on the peripheral speed of the runner. Recently an innovative self-cleaning static intake screen, that does not
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2010 need power, has been used for fish protection. The screen uses the Coanda effect, a phenomenon exhibited by a fluid, whereby the flow tends to follow the surface of a solid object that is placed in its path. Furthermore, behavioral guidance systems and a variety of alternative technologies to divert or attract downstream migrants have been under study. These technologies include strobe lights for repelling fish, mercury lights for attracting fish, a sound generating device known as "hammer" for repelling fish as well as quite a number of electrical guidance systems. Behavioral guidance techniques are site and species specific. However, it appears unlikely that behavioral methods will perform as well as fixed screens over a wide range of hydraulic conditions. The disadvantage of behavioral screens over conventional mechanical screens is that they do not exclude 100% of fish, whereas a mechanical screen of sufficiently small aperture will do so. Typical efficiencies for behavioral barriers range from 50% to 90%, depending upon type and environmental and plant conditions. Most fish penetrating the barrier are likely to go on to pass through the turbine, thereby putting them at risk of injury (ESHA, 2004).
When the screen is located in the intake downstream of the entrance, a bypass returning the fish to the river is needed. According to behavioral characteristics, fish migrating downstream cannot be expected to swim back upstream to find the entrance. This must therefore be located at the downstream end of the screen, assuming the screen is inclined in the direction of the flow. Fish are frequently reluctant to move into small size entrances. A minimum bypass entrance of 45cm is recommended. It would be preferable that the entrance width could be adjustable by the use of fabricated metal inserts to reduce the size of the opening. The bypass entrance design should provide for smooth flow acceleration into the bypass conduit with no sudden contractions, expansions or bends. To return fish from the bypass entrance back to the river, fully closed conduits or open channels can be used. Fish do not like to enter in conduits with abrupt contrast in lighting. Open channels are better suited for that role. Internal surfaces should be very smooth to avoid fish
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2010 injury. High density polyethylene and PVC are excellent materials for bypass conduits. Abrupt changes in section should be avoided due to their associated turbulence and pressure changes. In full flow conduit pressures below atmospheric should be avoided because they can injure or even kill fish. Air entrainment in a full flow conduit generates hydraulic turbulence and surging thus avoiding gas super saturation in the water, which can be detrimental to fish. Conduit discharge velocities should not be too high (relative to the typical velocities in the outfall) so as to create shear forces that can injure fish. Velocities close to 0.8 m/sec are recommended (ESHA, 2004).
Regarding the impact on terrestrial animals, it is recommended to bury open canals entirely and even repopulate with vegetation so they do not represent any barrier. In contradiction, the burial of the water conveyance structure is said to be a loss of aquatic habitat for several purposes. As such, if open canals are opted for, it is recommended to use ladder constructions to help animals that may fall into an open canal to get out (ESHA, 2004).
7.2.5
Visual Intrusion
Most of the components comprising a hydro-power plant may be screened from view using landscaping and vegetation. Painted in non-contrasting colors and textures to obtain non-reflecting surfaces a component will blend with or complement the characteristic landscape. The layout of the penstock, which is usually the main cause of nuisance, must be carefully studied using every natural feature - rocks, ground, vegetation - to shroud it and if there is no other solution, painting it so as to minimize contrast with the background. If the penstock can be interred, this is usually the best solution, although the operator has to meet some disadvantages in terms of maintenance and control. Expansion joints and concrete anchor blocks can then be reduced or eliminated; the ground is returned to its original state and the pipe does not form a barrier to the passage of wildlife.
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7.2.6
Health and Safety
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To minimize the proliferation of water-related diseases associated with hydropower projects, the following mitigation measures need to be adopted:
Design and operation of water management structures to decrease habitat for vector
Applying appropriate vector control measures, disease prophylaxis and treatment
As for safety-related issues, the following mitigation measures are recommended:
Use of signs, barriers (e.g. locks on doors, use of gates, use of steel posts surrounding transmission towers, etc.), and education / public outreach to prevent public contact with potentially dangerous equipment;
Grounding conducting objects (e.g. fences or other metallic structures) installed near power lines, to prevent shock
Periodic maintenance of signs and structures
Developing an Emergency Response Plan in case of dam failure and the release of large water quantities
Regular training on the Emergency Response Plan
7.2.7
Socio-Economics
To minimize the potential negative impact of dislocation of people living in the project area, the following measures are recommended:
Relocation of people to suitable areas. Avoid disruption of tribal/indigenous groups by avoiding dislocation of unacculturated people, and where not possible, relocate in area allowing them to retain lifestyle and customs;
Provision of compensation in kind for resources lost;
Maintenance of standards of living by ensuring access to resources at least equaling those lost;
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Provision of adequate health and social services, infrastructure, and employment opportunities
7.2.8
Physical Cultural Resources
Proper sitting of a hydropower plant to avoid loss of historic and cultural properties is essential.
7.3
O PERATION OF A F OSSIL -F UEL AND B IOMASS F IRED P OWER P LANT
Analysis of impacts of possible alternatives for thermal power supply in the capital
Monrovia focused on variable choices of fuel type including fuel oil (heavy fuel oil and diesel), natural gas, coal and biomass (wood chips). Wood chips have a relatively high calorific value (19 GJ/tonne) compared to other types of biomass (asharvested wood: 10 GJ/tonne, straw: 15 GJ/tonne) and are readily available in
Liberia. The contractor and supervising consultant are responsible for the mitigation measures associated directly with the design elements of the station and their construction. The operator and the EPA will be responsible for the mitigation measures associated with the actual operation of the plant.
7.3.1
Air Emissions
Multiple air emissions from a thermal power generation plant may be reduced by optimizing energy utilization efficiency of the generation process. This depends on the nature and quality of fuel, the type of combustion system, the operating temperature of the combustion turbines, the operating pressure and temperature of steam turbines, the local climate conditions, the type of cooling system used, etc.
Recommended measures to minimize, and control air emissions include (World
Bank, 2008):
Use of the cleanest fuel economically available (natural gas is preferable to oil, which is preferable to coal), if that is consistent with the overall energy and
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2010 environmental policy of Liberia. For most large power plants, fuel choice is often part of the national energy policy, and fuels, combustion technology and pollution control technology, which are all interrelated, should be evaluated very carefully upstream of the project to optimize the project’s environmental performance;
If burning coal, preference should be given to high-heat-content, low-ash, and low-sulfur coal;
Selection of the best power generation technology for the fuel chosen to balance the environmental and economic benefits. The choice of technology and pollution control systems will be based on the site-specific environmental assessment (some examples include the use of higher energy-efficient systems, such as combined cycle gas turbine system for natural gas and oilfired units);
Designing stack heights according to Good International Industry Practice
(GIIP) to avoid excessive ground level concentrations and minimize impacts;
Considering use of combined heat and power (CHP, or cogeneration) facilities. By making use of otherwise wasted heat, CHP facilities can achieve thermal efficiencies of 70 – 90 percent, compared with 32 – 45 percent for conventional thermal power plants.
Ensure that emissions from a single project do not contribute more than 25% of the applicable ambient air quality standards to allow additional, future sustainable development in the same air shed.
As a second step, and in the case where emission levels in the flue gas still exceed national and international air pollution emission standards, specific control technologies need to be applied as described below. For the control of sulfur oxides, the choice of technology depends on a cost-benefit analysis of the environmental performance of different fuels, the cost of controls, and the existence of a market for
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2 emissions include (World Bank, 2008):
Use of lime (CaO) or limestone (CaCO
3
) in coal-fired fluidized bed combustion boilers to have integrated desulfurization which can achieve a removal efficiency of up to 80-90 % through use of Fluidized Bed Combustion
Depending on the plant size, fuel quality, and potential for significant emissions of SO
2
, use of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) for large boilers using coal or oil and for large reciprocating engines. The optimal type of FGD system (e.g., wet FGD using limestone with 85 to 98% removal efficiency, dry
FGD using lime with 70 to 94% removal efficiency, seawater FGD with up to
90% removal efficiency) depends on the capacity of the plant, fuel properties, site conditions, and the cost and availability of reagent as well as by-product disposal and utilization.
Treatment of NOX from the flue gas may be required in some cases depending on the ambient air quality objectives. Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control NOX emissions include (World Bank, 2008):
Use of low NO
X
burners with other combustion modifications, such as low excess air (LEA) firing, for boiler plants. Installation of additional NOX controls for boilers may be necessary to meet emissions limits; a selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system can be used for pulverized coal-fired, oilfired, and gas-fired boilers or a selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR) system for a fluidized-bed boiler;
Use of dry low-NO
X
combustors for combustion turbines burning natural gas;
Use of water injection or SCR for combustion turbines and reciprocating engines burning liquid fuels;
Optimization of operational parameters for existing reciprocating engines burning natural gas to reduce NOx emissions;
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Use of lean-burn concept or SCR for new gas engines.
Regarding PM emitted from the combustion process, the proven technologies for their removal in power plants are fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs).
The choice of technology depends on the fuel properties, type of FGD system if used for SO
2
control, and ambient air quality objectives. Particulate matter can also be released during transfer and storage of coal and additives, such as lime.
Recommendations to prevent, minimize, and control particulate matter emissions include (World Bank, 2008):
Installation of dust controls capable of over 99% removal efficiency, such as
ESPs or Fabric Filters (baghouses), for coal-fired power plants.
Use of enclosed conveyors with well designed, extraction and filtration equipment on conveyor transfer points to prevent the emission of dust;
Design and operate transport systems to minimize the generation and transport of dust on site;
Storage of lime or limestone in silos with well designed, extraction and filtration equipment;
Use of wind fences in open storage of coal or use of enclosed storage structures to minimize fugitive dust emissions
Finally, carbon dioxide, one of the major greenhouse gases (GHGs) is emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels. Recommendations to avoid, minimize, and offset emissions of carbon dioxide from new and existing thermal power plants include, among others (World Bank, 2008):
Use of less carbon intensive fossil fuels, in other words, less carbon containing fuel per unit of calorific value. For example, gas is less carbon intensive than oil and oil is less than coal. Alternatively, use co-firing with carbon neutral fuels, such as biomass
Use of combined heat and power plants (CHP) where feasible;
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Use of higher energy conversion efficiency technology of the same fuel type / power plant size than that of the country/region average.
Use of high performance monitoring and process control techniques, good design and maintenance of the combustion system so that initially designed efficiency performance can be maintained.Negative impacts of fossil fuel combustion on building stone can be mitigated by applying appropriate air pollution control measures, as detailed above.
Conducting atmospheric dispersion modeling for assessing the extent of ambient air pollution from the proposed power plant may be effective in developing air quality management scenarios and in designing the power plant to minimize air quality degradation in the project area.
7.3.2
Noise
Several mitigation measures may be applied to minimize the impact of noise emitted during the operation of the thermal power plant, including (World Bank, 2008):
Siting of new facilities by taking into consideration the distances between the noise sources and nearby sensitive receptors (residential receptors, schools, hospitals, religious places, etc.) to the extent possible
Use of noise control techniques such as: using acoustic machine enclosures; selecting structures according to their noise isolation effect to envelop the building; using mufflers or silencers in intake and exhaust channels; using sound absorptive materials in walls and ceilings; using vibration isolators and flexible connections; applying a carefully detailed design to prevent possible noise leakage through openings or to minimize pressure variations in piping;
Modification of the plant configuration or use of noise barriers such as berms and vegetation to limit ambient noise at plant property lines, especially where sensitive noise receptors may be present;
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Provision of the necessary PPE for workers on-site.
Noise propagation models may be effective tools to help evaluate noise management options such as alternative plant locations, general arrangement of the plant and auxiliary equipment, building enclosure design, and, expected compliance with the national and international noise standards.
7.3.3
Solid Waste
In the case of coal-fired or biomass-fired plant, significant quantities of inert ash will be produced. An appropriate management plan for the generated ash needs to be developed at the design phase, in coordination with the authorities responsible for solid waste management in the project area. The high-volume coal combustion wastes (CCWs) are typically managed in landfills or surface impoundments or, increasingly, may be applied to a variety of beneficial uses. Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control the volume of solid wastes from thermal power plants include (World Bank, 2008):
Dry handling of the coal combustion wastes, in particular fly ash, which will eliminate the need for surface impoundments and its associated ecological risk;
Recycling of CCWs in uses such as cement and other concrete products, construction fills, agricultural uses such as calcium fertilizers (provided trace metals or other potentially hazardous materials levels are within accepted thresholds), waste management applications, mining applications, construction materials (e.g., synthetic gypsum for plasterboard), and incorporation into other products provided the residues (such as trace metals and radioactivity) are not considered hazardous. Ensuring consistent quality of fuels and additives helps to ensure the CCWs can be recycled
If beneficial reuse is not feasible, disposal of CCW in permitted landfills with
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2010 environmental controls such as run-on/run-off controls, liners, leachate collection systems, groundwater monitoring, closure controls, daily (or other operational) cover, and fugitive dust controls is recommended;
Dry collection of bottom ash and fly ash from power plants combusting heavy fuel oil if containing high levels of economically valuable metals such as vanadium and recycle for vanadium recovery (where economically viable) or disposal in a permitted landfill with environmental controls;
Management of ash disposal and reclamation so as to minimize environmental impacts – especially the migration of toxic metals, if present, to nearby surface and groundwater bodies, in addition to the transport of suspended solids in surface runoff due to seasonal precipitation and flooding.
In particular, construction, operation, and maintenance of surface impoundments should be conducted in accordance with internationally recognized standards.
Reuse of sludge from treatment of wastewaters from FGD plants. This sludge may be re-used in the FGD plant due to the calcium components. It can also be used as an additive in coal-fired plant combustion to improve the ash melting behavior
Low-volume wastes are also managed in landfills or surface impoundments, but are more frequently managed in surface impoundments. Many coal-fired plants comanage large-volume and low-volume wastes.
7.3.4
Water Consumption
Since significant water quantities are needed for cooling purposes at thermal power plants, provisions should be made, at the design phase, to recycle the water being used, and thus reduce the stress of water withdrawal on existing water sources. In areas with limited water resources, water conservation may be ensured by (World
Bank, 2008):
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Using a closed-cycle, recirculating cooling water system (e.g., natural or forced draft cooling tower), or closed circuit dry cooling system (e.g., air cooled condensers) if necessary to prevent unacceptable adverse impacts.
Once-through cooling water systems may be acceptable if compatible with the hydrology and ecology of the water source and the receiving water and may be the preferred or feasible alternative for certain pollution control technologies such as seawater scrubbers.
Use of dry scrubbers in situations where these controls are also required or recycling of wastewater in coal-fired plants for use as FGD makeup. Note that an HFO plant does not use significant quantities of water as a coal-fired plant.
Use of air-cooled systems
7.3.5
Water Quality
The characteristics of the wastewaters generated depend on the type of fuel burned and the ways in which the water has been used. Contamination arises from demineralizers; lubricating and auxiliary fuel oils; trace contaminants in the fuel
(introduced through the ash-handling wastewater and wet FGD system discharges); and chlorine, biocides, and other chemicals used to manage the quality of water in cooling systems. Recommended measures to prevent, minimize, and control wastewater effluents from thermal power plants include:
Recycling of wastewater in coal-fired plants for use as FGD makeup. This practice conserves water and reduces the number of wastewater streams requiring treatment and discharge;
In coal-fired power plants without FGD systems, treatment of process wastewater in conventional physical-chemical treatment systems for pH adjustment and removal of total suspended solids (TSS), and oil / grease, at a minimum. These treatment systems can also be used to remove most heavy metals to part-per-billion (ppb) levels by chemical precipitation as either
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2010 metal hydroxide or metal organosulfide compounds;
Collection of fly ash in dry form and bottom ash in drag chain conveyor systems in new coal-fired power plants;
Consider use of soot blowers or other dry methods to remove fireside wastes from heat transfer surfaces so as to minimize the frequency and amount of water used in fireside washes;
Use of infiltration and runoff control measures such as compacted soils, protective liners, and sedimentation controls for runoff from coal piles;
Spraying of coal piles with anionic detergents to inhibit bacterial growth and minimize acidity of leachate;
Use of SOx removal systems that generate less wastewater, if feasible;
Treatment of low-volume wastewater streams that are typically collected in the boiler and turbine room sumps in conventional oil-water separators before discharge;
Treatment of acidic low-volume wastewater streams, such as those associated with the regeneration of makeup demineralizer and deep-bed condensate polishing systems, by chemical neutralization in-situ before discharge;
Pretreatment of cooling tower makeup water, installation of automated bleed/feed controllers, and use of inert construction materials to reduce chemical treatment requirements for cooling towers;
Elimination of metals such as chromium and zinc from chemical additives used to control scaling and corrosion in cooling towers;
Use the minimum required quantities of chlorinated biocides in place of brominated biocides or alternatively apply intermittent shock dosing of chlorine as opposed to continuous low level feed.
In plants using HFO, sufficient storage tank capacity should be provided to handle the liquid oily waste. The waste should be divided in three fractions and stored in clearly marked separate tank, including used lubricant oil, used diesel oil with little
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2010 or no water content, other oily waste with varying water content. It is important for later use of waste products, that the fractions are not mixed. A specific waste management plan should be elaborated by the operator with assistance from an international consultant.
Measures to mitigate the impact of thermal water discharges are presented in Section
Regarding sanitary wastewater generated at the thermal power plant, provisions should be made for wastewater treatment and disposal methods in accordance with national regulations and standards. This should be done in coordination with the
EPA and the local authorities at the early design stage.
7.3.6
Aquatic Fauna and Flora
The main impact on aquatic fauna and flora is caused by the intake of large volumes of water from a nearby water source for cooling purposes and the discharge of the heated water back into the water body. At the design stage, a survey of fauna and flora in the water body is essential to ensure the protection of fisheries, as well as threatened, endangered, or other protected species if available. Furthermore, the design of the intake and discharge should be based on the study of the surface water hydrology of the water body. To prevent, minimize, and control such an impact, the following measures are recommended:
For lakes or reservoirs, intake flow must not disrupt the thermal stratification or turnover pattern of the water source;
For estuaries or tidal rivers, reduction of intake flow to 1% of the tidal excursion volume;
If there are threatened, endangered, or other protected species or if there are fisheries within the hydraulic zone of influence of the intake, reduction of impingement and entrainment of fish and shellfish by the installation of
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2010 technologies such as barrier nets (seasonal or year-round), fish handling and return systems, fine mesh screens, wedge-wire screens, and aquatic filter barrier systems;
Operational measures to reduce impingement and entrainment include seasonal shutdowns, if necessary, or reductions in flow or continuous use of screens. Designing the location of the intake structure in a different direction or further out into the water body may also reduce impingement and entrainment;
Use an alternative heat dissipation design such as a closed cycle cooling;
Dilute the thermal condition by discharging water into larger receiving water bodies;
Install mechanical diffusers;
Cool water on-site in a holding pond prior to discharge;
Explore opportunities to use waste heat.
7.3.7
Forests, Vegetation, and Crops
Forests in Liberia represent a very important natural resource to the country and needs to be preserved. Appropriate air pollution control technologies need to be put in place to minimize air emissions capable of affecting vegetation and crops and
causing acid deposition. Refer to section 7.3.1 for more information on air pollution
control.
7.3.8
Health and Safety
The operation of a thermal power plant is associated with various occupational health and safety impacts, including: non-ionizing radiation, heat, noise, electrical hazards, fire and explosion hazards, chemical hazards, and dust. A worker health and safety plan needs to be implemented to promote and maintain safe and
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2010 environmentally sound operation practices at the power plant. The plant should include the following measures:
Identification of potential exposure levels to electric and magnetic fields
(EMF) in the workplace, including surveys of exposure levels in new projects and the use of personal monitors during working activities;
Training of workers in the identification of occupational EMF levels and hazards;
Establishment and identification of safety zones where EMF levels are acceptable for public exposure;
Implementation of action plans to address potential or confirmed exposure levels that exceed reference occupational exposure levels developed by international organizations. Action plans may include limiting exposure time through work rotation, increasing the distance between the source and the worker, when feasible, or the use of shielding materials.
Regular inspection and maintenance of pressure vessels, piping; and related hot equipment;
Provision of adequate ventilation in work areas to reduce heat and humidity;
Reducing the time required for work in elevated temperature environments and ensuring access to drinking water;
Shielding surfaces where workers come in close contact with hot equipment, including generating equipment, pipes etc;
Use of warning signs near high temperature surfaces and personal protective equipment (PPE) as appropriate, including insulated gloves and shoes.
Provision of sound-insulated control rooms with noise levels below 60 dBA;
Design of generators to meet applicable occupational noise levels (< 90 dBA);
Identification and marking of high noise areas and requiring that personal noise protecting gear is used all the time when working there (typically areas with noise levels >85 dBA)
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Consider installation of hazard warning lights inside electrical equipment enclosures to warn of inadvertent energization;
Use of voltage sensors prior to and during workers' entrance into enclosures containing electrical components;
Deactivation and proper grounding of live power equipment and distribution lines according to applicable legislation and guidelines whenever possible before work is performed on or proximal to them;
Provision of specialized electrical safety training to those workers working with or around exposed components of electric circuits;
Use of automated combustion and safety controls;
Proper maintenance of boiler safety controls;
Use of dust controls (e.g., exhaust ventilation)
Regular inspection and maintenance of asbestos containing materials (e.g., insulation in older plants may contain asbestos) to prevent airborne asbestos particles.
7.3.9
Socio-Economics
The increased demand on infrastructure associated with the improvement in power supply may be offset at the government level by developing an infrastructure plan and securing financial support for increased demands.
7.3.10
Visual Intrusion
Various mitigation measures may be implemented to minimize the visual intrusion impacts by the massive thermal power plant structures. These may include:
Enclose the site with non-transparent fencing to minimize visual impacts
Preserve existing vegetation when feasible
Select construction materials that will blend with the background
Select architectural designs that will blend with the surrounding features of
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Select appropriate paint colors for the exterior of the plant to help it blend with the surroundings
Incorporate underground utilities (to the extent possible) to house electrical, storage, and operational equipment
Ensure that open areas adjacent to the erected structures are grassed and planted with shrubs, trees and ground covers
Select and enforce designs that will maximize the unbarred view of the sea
(when applicable) from most areas within the region of influence
Avoid onsite storage of construction spoils
Remove wastes and debris weekly from the landscaped areas
Maintain landscaped areas sufficiently in order to prevent the loss of plants and grass by means of uncontrolled growth, diseases, insects, absence of nutrients, extreme climatic conditions and others.
7.4
P OWER T RANSMISSION AND D ISTRIBUTION
The electricity power transmission system includes the transmission line, its right of way (ROW), switchyards, sub-stations and access or maintenance roads. The principle structures of the transmission line include the line itself, conductors, towers and supports etc. The width of the ROW ranges from 12 to 100 meters depending on voltage. Below are the mitigation measures for the major environmental and social impacts associated with the operation of power transmission and distribution structures.
7.4.1
Land Resources
To mitigate loss of land use and natural habitat fragmentation, the following mitigation measures are recommended:
Select the ROW to avoid important social, agricultural, and cultural resources;
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Route ROWs away from wild lands;
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Provide access control;
Utilize alternative tower designs to reduce ROW width requirements and minimize land use impacts;
Adjust the length of the span to avoid site-specific tower pad impacts;
Manage resettlement in accordance with World Bank procedures.
7.4.2
Noise
Measures to mitigate noise impact should be addressed during project planning stages to locate rights-of-way away from human receptors, to the extent possible.
Use of noise barriers or noise canceling acoustic devices should be considered as necessary.
7.4.3
Fauna and Flora
The construction and maintenance of the ROWs may have a significant impact on terrestrial habitats, particularly in Liberia, which has a wealth in forests.
Recommended mitigation measures include:
Selecting transmission and distribution rights-of-way, access roads, lines, towers, and substations to avoid critical habitat through use of existing utility and transport corridors, whenever possible;
Installing transmission lines above existing vegetation to avoid land clearing;
Avoiding construction activities during the breeding season and other sensitive seasons or times of day;
Revegetating disturbed areas with native plant species;
Removing invasive plant species during routine vegetation maintenance;
Regular maintenance of vegetation within the rights-of-way to avoid disruption to overhead power lines and towers. This should be achieved through the implementation of an integrated vegetation management
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2010 approach (IVM). The selective removal of tall-growing tree species and the encouragement of low-growing grasses and shrubs is the common approach to vegetation management in transmission line rights-of-way. Alternative vegetation management techniques should be selected based on environmental and site considerations including potential impacts to nontarget, endangered and threatened species;
Removing invasive plant species, whenever possible, and cultivating native plant species;
Avoiding clearing in riparian areas;
Avoiding use of machinery in the vicinity of watercourses.
In the case where the use of herbicides is the preferred approach to control vegetation growth within the ROWs, herbicide application should be managed to avoid their migration into off-site land or water environments.
Regarding the risk of forest fires, the following mitigation measures are recommended:
Monitoring right-of-way vegetation according to fire risk;
Removing blowdown and other high-hazard fuel accumulations;
Time thinning, slashing, and other maintenance activities to avoid forest fire seasons;
·Disposal of maintenance slash by truck or controlled burning . Controlled burning should adhere to applicable burning regulations, fire suppression equipment requirements, and typically must be monitored by a fire watcher;
Planting and managing fire resistant species, such as hardwoods, within, and adjacent to, rights-of-way;
Establishing a network of fuel breaks of less flammable materials or cleared land to slow progress of fires and allow fire fighting access.
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Regarding avian and bat collisions and electrocutions, they can be minimized by the following measures (World Bank, 2008):
Aligning transmission corridors to avoid critical habitats (e.g. nesting grounds, heronries, rookeries, bat foraging corridors, and migration corridors);
Maintaining 1.5 meter spacing between energized components and grounded hardware or, where spacing is not feasible, covering energized parts and hardware;
Retrofitting existing transmission or distribution systems by installing elevated perches, insulating jumper loops, placing obstructive perch deterrents (e.g. insulated ”V’s”), changing the location of conductors, and / or using raptor hoods;
Considering the installation of underground transmission and distribution lines in sensitive areas;
Installing visibility enhancement objects such as marker balls, bird deterrents, or diverters.
7.4.4
Health and Safety
Both community and occupational health and safety are of concern in electric power transmission projects. Community health and safety issues involve chemical and
EMF exposure, and electrocution and fire hazards. Chemical contamination from chemical maintenance techniques may be minimized by adopting the following mitigation measures:
Utilizing mechanical clearing techniques, grazing and/or selective chemical applications;
Selecting herbicides with minimal undesired effects;
Not applying herbicides with broadcast aerial spraying;
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Maintaining natural low-growing vegetation along the ROW.
Electrocution hazard may result from direct contact with high-voltage electricity or from contact with tools, vehicles, ladders, or other devices that are in contact with high-voltage electricity. Recommended techniques to prevent these hazards include:
Use of signs, barriers (e.g. locks on doors, use of gates, use of steel posts surrounding transmission towers, particularly in urban areas), and education
/ public outreach to prevent public contact with potentially dangerous equipment;
Grounding conducting objects (e.g. fences or other metallic structures) installed near power lines, to prevent shock.
Despite the fact that the evidence of adverse health risks associated with exposure to
EMF is weak 6 (NCIRP 2009), some mitigation measures are recommended, including:
Considering siting new facilities so as to avoid or minimize exposure to the public. Installation of transmission lines or other high voltage equipment above or adjacent to residential properties or other locations intended for highly frequent human occupancy, (e.g. schools or offices), should be avoided;
Evaluating potential exposure to the public against the reference levels developed by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP).
If EMF levels are confirmed or expected to be above the recommended exposure limits, application of engineering techniques should be considered to reduce the EMF produced by power lines, substations, or transformers. For
6 In the absence of experimental evidence and given the methodological uncertainties in the epidemiologic literature, there is no chronic disease for which an etiological relation to EMF can be regarded as established
(Ahlbom et al., 2001) .
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2010 example, shielding with specific metal alloys, burying transmission lines, increasing height of transmission towers, performing modifications to size, spacing, and configuration of conductors.
Mitigation measures for fire hazards were presented in Section 7.4.3.
As for occupational health and safety, hazards specific to electric power transmission and distribution projects primarily include live power lines, working at height, electric and magnetic fields, and exposure to chemicals. Prevention and control measures associated with live power lines include:
Only allowing trained and certified workers to install, maintain, or repair electrical equipment;
Deactivating and properly grounding live power distribution lines before work is performed on, or in close proximity, to the lines;
Ensuring that live-wire work is conducted by trained workers with strict adherence to specific safety and insulation standards;
Workers should not approach an exposed energized or conductive part even if properly trained unless: The worker is properly insulated from the energized part with gloves or other approved insulation; or, the energized part is properly insulated from the worker and any other conductive object; or, the worker is properly isolated and insulated from any other conductive object;
Where maintenance and operation is required within minimum setback distances, specific training, safety measures, personal safety devices, and other precautions should be defined in a health and safety plan. (
Workers may be exposed to occupational hazards when working at elevation during construction, maintenance, and operation activities. Prevention and control measures for working at height include:
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Testing structures for integrity prior to undertaking work;
Implementation of a fall protection program that includes training in climbing techniques and use of fall protection measures; inspection, maintenance, and replacement of fall protection equipment; and rescue of fall-arrested workers, among others;
Establishment of criteria for use of 100 percent fall protection (typically when working over 2 meters above the working surface, but sometimes extended to
7 meters, depending on the activity). The fall protection system should be appropriate for the tower structure and necessary movements, including ascent, descent, and moving from point to point;
Provision of an adequate work-positioning device system for workers.
Connectors on positioning systems should be compatible with the tower components to which they are attached;
Hoisting equipment should be properly rated and maintained and hoist operators properly trained;
Safety belts should be of not less than 16 mm two-in-one nylon or material of equivalent strength. Rope safety belts should be replaced before signs of aging or fraying of fibers become evident;
When operating power tools at height, workers should use a second (backup) safety strap;
Signs and other obstructions should be removed from poles or structures prior to undertaking work;
An approved tool bag should be used for raising or lowering tools or materials to workers on structures.
Electric utility workers typically have a higher exposure to EMF than the general public due to working in proximity to electric power lines. Occupational EMF exposure should be prevented or minimized through the preparation and implementation of an EMF safety program including the following components:
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Identification of potential exposure levels to electric and magnetic fields
(EMF) in the workplace, including surveys of exposure levels in new projects and the use of personal monitors during working activities;
Training of workers in the identification of occupational EMF levels and hazards;
Establishing “No Approach” zones around or under high voltage power lines
in conformance with Table 7-1exposure
Table 7-1. No approach zones for high voltage power lines
Nominal phase to phase voltage rating
750 or more volts, but no more than 150,000 volts
More than 150,000 volts, but no more than 250,000 Volts
More than 250,000 volts
Minimal distance
3 meters
4.5 meters
6 meters
Implementation of action plans to address potential or confirmed exposure levels that exceed reference occupational exposure levels developed by international organizations. Action plans may include limiting exposure time through work rotation, increasing the distance between the source and the worker, when feasible, or the use of shielding materials.
Occupational exposures to chemicals in this sector primarily include handling of pesticides (herbicides) used for right–of-way maintenance. Recommendations specific to the use of pesticides include:
Train personnel to apply pesticides and ensure that personnel have received the necessary certifications or equivalent training where such certifications are not required;
Respect post-treatment intervals to avoid operator exposure during reentry to crops with residues of pesticides;
Ensure hygiene practices are followed to avoid exposure of family members
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7.4.5
Traffic
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Aircraft collision impacts caused by transmission lines may be mitigated by adhering to the following (World Bank, 2008):
Avoiding the siting of transmission lines and towers close to airports and outside of known flight path envelopes;
Consultation with regulatory air traffic authorities prior to installation;
Adherence to regional or national air traffic safety regulations;
Use of buried lines when installation is required in flight sensitive areas.
7.4.6
Socio-Economics
To minimize the socio-economic impacts of electric power transmission projects, the following measures are recommended:
Extensive public consultation during the planning of powerline and power line right-of-way locations;
Accurate assessment of changes in property values due to power line proximity;
Siting power lines, and designing substations, with due consideration to landscape views and important environmental and community features;
Location of high-voltage transmission and distribution lines in less populated areas, where possible;
Burying transmission or distribution lines when power must be transported through dense residential or commercial areas.
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7.5
O PERATION OF F UEL O IL S TORAGE T ERMINALS
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Fuel oil storage terminals are designed to receive and dispatch large shipments of fuel oil. They are often located at the sea coast although some facilities may also be situated inland and at watercourses. Following are the recommended mitigation measures for the major environmental and social issues potentially arising from the operation of such terminals, including storage tanks and connecting pipelines..
7.5.1
Air Quality
Recommendations to prevent and control the emission of VOCs from storage and working losses which apply to most bulk fuel storage tanks, as well as aboveground piping and pump systems, include the following (World Bank, 2007c):
Maintaining stable tank pressure and vapor space by: o Coordinating filling and withdrawal schedules, and implementing vapor balancing between tanks (a process whereby vapor displaced during filling activities is transferred to the vapor space of the tank being emptied or to other containment in preparation for vapor recovery); o Reducing breathing losses by using white or other reflective color paints with low heat absorption properties on exteriors of storage tanks for lighter distillates (e.g. gasoline, ethanol, and methanol) or by insulating tanks. The potential for visual impacts from tank colors should be considered;
Where vapor emissions contribute or result in ambient air quality levels in excess of health-based standards, installation of secondary emissions controls such as vapor condensing and recovery units, catalytic oxidizers, vapor combustion units, or gas adsorption media;
Use of gasoline supply and return systems, vapor recovery hoses, and vapor
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2010 tight trucks / railcars / vessels during loading and unloading of transport vehicles;
Use of bottom loading truck / rail car filling systems;
Establishing a procedure for periodic monitoring of fugitive emissions from pipes, valves, seals, tanks and other infrastructure components with vapor detection equipment, and with subsequent maintenance or replacement of components as needed. The procedure should specify the monitoring frequency and locations, as well as the trigger levels for repairs.
In the case of fixed roof tanks,
Based on the nature of materials being stored, minimizing storage and working losses through installation of internal floating roof and seals;
Further minimizing working losses during filling and emptying through vapor balancing and vapor recovery techniques, as described above;
Maintaining the insulation of heavy fuel storage tanks (which is necessary together with a heating source to maintain fuel viscosity) in good condition in order to maintain the negligible levels of storage loss typically associated with this type of insulation;
Reducing the generation of dissolved gases by eliminating the pressure drop from the tank fill line.
In the case of floating roof tanks
Installing decks, fittings, and rim seals according to design specifications of international standards to minimize evaporative losses;
Protecting rim seals from wind and weather damage and conducting regular maintenance;
Consider the use of double seal systems for floating roof tanks where appropriate based on the nature of the material being stored, the size of the
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2010 tank(s) in question, throughputs, location considerations, and meteorology;
Using sleeves to eliminate emissions from slotted guide poles;
Minimize losses from tank roof landing events by limiting the number and durations of such events. Use practices that minimize the impact of tank roof landing events, such as keeping legs on a low setting or restricting activities to evenings when temperatures are cooler and the potential for ozone formation is lower. Consider cone bottom drain dry floor designs which reduce potential emissions when a tank roof is landed.
In the case of variable vapor space tanks,
When feasible, upgrading tank systems with variable vapor space tanks.
These tanks use expandable vapor reservoirs to account for changes to vapor volume resulting from temperature and pressure changes and can function as integrated components of vapor systems for fixed roof tanks. Examples of variable vapor space tanks are lifter roof tanks and flexible diaphragm tanks.
These systems minimize VOC emissions from storage losses.
In the case of pressurized tanks,
Consistent with manufacturer’s recommended pressure /vacuum settings, low-pressure tanks which can emit working losses during filling operations should be equipped with a pressure / vacuum vent that is set to minimize breathing loss from temperature or pressure changes. High-pressure storage tanks have next to no evaporative or working losses.
Finally, tank cleaning and degassing can generate significant quantities of VOCs.
Measures to minimize VOC emissions include:
Routing tank degassing vapors to an appropriate emissions control device.
Restricting activities to a season when the potential for ozone formation is
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Periodically inspecting tanks internally, and establishing an inspection frequency based on the condition of the tank at the previous internal inspection (typically 10 years or less).
7.5.2
Solid Waste
Tank sludge and spill cleanup materials should be managed via re-processing for product recovery or as a waste at a facility licensed to handle this type of material in an environmentally sound manner. Small quantities of oil contaminated soils should be managed via land treatment or as a waste at a facility licensed to handle this type of material.
In the case of site upgrade and decommissioning, such as the rehabilitation of HFO storage tanks at the Monrovia Port, contaminated soils and water may be encountered around fuel dispensers, piping, and tanks during excavation for repairs, upgrades or decommissioning. Depending on the type and concentration of contaminants present, small quantities of soils or liquids may need to be managed as a hazardous waste. Larger quantities of affected soils and other environmental media, including sediment and groundwater, may require management according to guidance applicable to contaminated land. Terminals should have formal procedures to address and manage the planned or unplanned discovery of site upgrade and decommissioning waste, as well as to address the discovery of more extensive evidence of environmental contamination. Removal operations of any tanks and connected piping should include the following procedures:
Residual fuel should be removed from the tank and all associated pipes and managed as a hazardous waste;
Before commencing tank removal operations the tanks should be inerted so as to remove the risk of explosion. Proven inerting methods include
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2010 hydrophobic foam fill, nitrogen foam fill, nitrogen gas purging, water fill, dry ice, combustion of gas, and cleaning-degassing;
All vent pipes and risers associated with the tank should be dismantled and / or capped-off and clearly labeled;
Tank dismantling should be carried out off-site, if the facility is currently used to store fuel and there is not sufficient space to carry out the dismantling work safely;
If tanks and piping are left in situ, recommended closure methods should include cleaning and removing contents, inerting, and filling with sand and cement slurry, hydrophobic foams, or foamed concrete.
7.5.3
Water Quality
Process wastewater contaminated with various types of hydrocarbons can impact surface and groundwater quality and surrounding marine environment if not treated properly prior to disposal. Mitigation measures involve both generation and treatment of storm water and tank bottom water.
Contaminated storm water quality and volumes may depend on site-specific considerations including overall housekeeping and spill prevention practices, rainfall, and total runoff area. Measures to minimize generation of oil contaminated stormwater runoff primarily include (World Bank, 2007d):
Application of effective spill prevention and control;
Implementation of secondary containment procedures that avoid accidental or intentional releases of contaminated containment fluids;
Installation of stormwater channels and collection ponds with subsequent treatment through oil / water separators. Oil / water separators should be properly selected, designed, operated, and maintained.
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As for tank bottom water, measures to prevent its accumulation include (World
Bank, 2007d):
Regular maintenance to locate and repair / replace tank roof, seals, or other sources of water infiltration;
Use of domes on floating roof tanks to reduce rainwater penetration;
Use of meters (“sight glasses”) to determine water content in tank, as well as vortex eliminators / barriers to minimize product release during draw off.
As the major wastewater sources are tank bottom water and stormwater runoff, wastewater flows in this sector typically occur in batches, not lending themselves to on-site biological treatment. These types of effluents may need to be pre-treated via oil / water separators, with further on-site or off-site biological and chemical treatment and activated carbon systems, depending on the volume of contaminants present, and whether the facility is discharging the wastewater into a municipal system or directly to surface waters. Fuel storage tank operators, together with the
EPA, should arrange for off-site process wastewater treatment.
7.5.4
Spills and Leakages
The most important measure to minimize the impact of spills and leakages is the proper siting of the fuel pipeline right of way and the fuel storage tank facility. Other measures to manage hazards of leaks and spills of crude oil and petroleum byproducts include (World Bank, 2007d):
Storage tanks and components should meet international standards for structural design integrity and operational performance to avoid catastrophic failures during normal operation and during exposure to natural hazards and to prevent fires and explosions. Applicable international standards typically include provisions for overfill protection, metering and flow control, fire protection (including flame arresting devises), and grounding (to prevent
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2010 electrostatic charge). Overfill protection equipment include level gauges, alarms, and automatic cutoff systems. Other standard equipment include the use of “breakaway” hose connections in fuel dispensing equipment which provide emergency shutdown of flow should the fueling connection be broken through movement;
Storage tanks should have appropriate secondary containment. Secondary containment design needs depend on the type of tank, the nature and volume of the material(s) being stored, and site configuration, and includes: o Depending on the size and location of the tanks, use of double bottom and double wall containment, impervious linings underneath tanks, or internal tank liners o Installation of impervious asphalt or concrete surfaces with polyethylene sheeting underneath in areas of potential petroleum leaks and spills, including below gauges, pipes, and pumps, and below rail and truck loading / unloading areas o Secondary containment in rail and truck tanker loading areas should be appropriate for the size of the railcar or truck, level, curbed, sealed, and draining to a sump connected to a spill retention area. The spill retention area should also be equipped with an oil / water separator to allow the routine discharge of collected rainwater
Storage tanks and components (e.g. roofs and seals)should undergo periodic inspection for corrosion and structural integrity and be subject to regular maintenance and replacement of equipment (e.g. pipes, seals, connectors, and valves);
Loading / unloading activities should be conducted by properly trained personnel according to pre-established formal procedures to prevent accidental releases and fire /explosion hazards. Procedures should include all aspects of the delivery or loading operation from arrival to departure,
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For unloading / loading activities involving marine vessels and terminals, preparing and implementing spill prevention procedures for tanker loading and off-loading according to applicable international standards and guidelines which specifically address advance communications and planning with the receiving terminal;
Facilities should develop a spill prevention and control plan that addresses significant scenarios and magnitudes of releases. The plan should be supported by the necessary resources and training. Adequate spill response equipment should be conveniently available to address the most likely types of spills. Where appropriate, spill control and response plans should be developed in coordination with the relevant local regulatory agencies;
Above Ground Storage Tanks (ASTs) should be located in a secure area, protected from potential collisions by vehicles, vandalism, and other hazards.
7.5.5
Occupational Health and Safety
Chemicals hazards associated with the handling of fuels and other chemicals may be controlled by applying the following measures (World Bank, 2007d):
Corrosive, oxidizing and reactive chemicals should be segregated from flammable materials and from other chemicals of incompatible class (acids vs. bases, oxidizers vs. reducers, water sensitive vs. water based, etc.), stored in ventilated areas and in containers with appropriate secondary containment to minimize intermixing during spills
Workers who are required to handle such chemicals should be provided with specialized training and provided with, and wear, appropriate PPE (gloves, apron, splash suits, face shield or goggles, etc).
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Qualified first-aid should be ensured at all times. Appropriately equipped first-aid stations should be easily accessible throughout the place of work, and eye-wash stations and/or emergency showers should be provided close to all workstations where the recommended first-aid response is immediate flushing with water
The following measures are recommended to minimize fire and explosion hazards at terminal storage facilities (World Bank, 2007d):
Crude oil and petroleum product terminals storage facilities should be designed, constructed, and operated according to international standards for the prevention and control of fire and explosion hazards, including provisions for distances between tanks in the facility and between the facility and adjacent buildings, provision of additional cooling water capacity for adjacent tanks, or other risk-based management approaches;
Implementing safety procedures for loading and unloading of product to transport systems (e.g. rail and tanker trucks, and vessels), including use of fail-safe control valves and emergency shutdown equipment;
Prevention of potential ignition sources such as: o Proper grounding to avoid static electricity buildup and lightning hazards (including formal procedures for the use and maintenance of grounding connections) o Use of intrinsically safe electrical installations and non-sparking tools o Implementation of permit systems and formal procedures for conducting any hot work during maintenance activities, including proper tank cleaning and venting
Preparation of a fire response plan supported by the necessary resources and training, including training in the use of fire suppression equipment and evacuation. Procedures may include coordination activities with local
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Facilities should be properly equipped with fire suppression equipment that meets internationally recognized technical specifications for the type and amount of flammable and combustible materials stored at the facility.
Examples of fire suppression equipment include mobile / portable equipment such as fire extinguishers, and specialized vehicles, as well as automatic or manually operated fixed fire suppression systems.
Regarding confined space hazards, engineering measures should be implemented to eliminate, to the degree feasible, the existence and adverse character of confined spaces. These include (World Bank, 2007a):
Confined spaces should be provided with permanent safety measures for venting, monitoring, and rescue operations, to the extent possible. The area adjoining an access to a confined space should provide ample room for emergency and rescue operations
Prior to entry into a permit-required confined space: o Process or feed lines into the space should be disconnected or drained, and blanked and locked-out. o Mechanical equipment in the space should be disconnected, deenergized, locked-out, and braced, as appropriate. o The atmosphere within the confined space should be tested to assure the oxygen content is between 19.5 percent and 23 percent, and that the presence of any flammable gas or vapor does not exceed 25 percent of its respective Lower Explosive Limit (LEL). o If the atmospheric conditions are not met, the confined space should be ventilated until the target safe atmosphere is achieved, or entry is only to be undertaken with appropriate and additional PPE.
Safety precautions should include Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
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(SCBA), life lines, and safety watch workers stationed outside the confined space, with rescue and first aid equipment readily available.
Before workers are required to enter a confined space, adequate and appropriate training in confined space hazard control, atmospheric testing, use of the necessary PPE, as well as the serviceability and integrity of the PPE should be verified. Further, adequate and appropriate rescue and / or recovery plans and equipment should be in place before the worker enters the confined space.
7.5.6
Community Health and Safety
Adequate design and sound management of storage terminals are key considerations for the reduction of the probability of large magnitude accidental events. Facilities should prepare an emergency preparedness and response plan that considers the role of communities and community infrastructure as appropriate.
7.6
I NSTALLATION AND O PERATION OF O FF -G RID -S OLAR P OWER
G ENERATION S YSTEMS
Solar power generation systems are environmentally benign and have little direct environmental impacts, including considerable space requirement, possibility of spillages of heat transfer fluids, and possibility of cadmium and cadmium telluride contamination when a plant is decommissioned.
Regarding the required space, impact mitigation includes:
Selecting project site to avoid important social, agricultural, and cultural resources;
Selecting project site away from wild lands;
Providing site access control;
Managing resettlement in accordance with World Bank procedures
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Regarding the spillage of heat transfer fluids, it is recommended to use improved technology if possible (air as heat-transfer medium), and the adoption of good operating practices and compliance with existing safety regulations. As for the disposal of end-of-life solar panels (PV modules) arrangements should be done with the manufacturers for a take back and recycling scheme. Finally, regarding cadmium contamination, all microprocessors should be recovered and adequately disposed of as hazardous waste upon decommissioning.
7.7
S UMMARY OF M ITIGATION M EASURES
Table 7-2 - Table 7-3 present a summary of the proposed mitigation measures for the
potential environmental and social impacts arising from the implementation of several power supply alternatives. Implementation responsibility is also included.
As for the cost of the mitigation, it will be allocated as such:
During the design phase, mitigation cost will be included in the final design preparation
During the construction phase, mitigation cost will be included with construction costs
During operation, mitigation costs will be part of the operation costs
The schedule of implementation of the mitigation measures will be consistent with the project execution phases.
It should be noted that the mitigation measures referred to in the below table are generic measures, meaning they will only require action once specific projects are identified and assessed. Similarly, the cost of the mitigation activities would be assessed as part of the rehabilitation or construction works to be conducted by the contractor under the specific project. The bidding documents of the contractor would be reviewed to ensure that the recommendations set forth herein are reflected and their implementation adequately included in the overall price of the works. At
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ESMF or in specific Environmental Assessments and/or Environmental Management
Plans, as well as the relevant bidding documents.
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Table 7-2: Summary of proposed mitigation measures for generic construction and/or rehabilitation activities.
Impact Responsibility
Air quality
Noise
Mitigation Measures
GENERIC CONSTRUCTION AND/OR REHABILITATION ACTIVITIES
Watering of surfaces and/or chemical stabilization
Reduction of surface wind speed with windbreaks or source enclosures
Covering the road surface with a new material of lower silt content
Grading of gravel roads
Proper site enclosure through appropriate hoarding and screening;
On-site mixing and unloading operations;
Proper handling of cement material;
Maintaining minimal traffic speed on-site and on access roads to the site;
Covering all vehicles hauling materials likely to give off excessive dust emissions;
Ensuring adequate maintenance and repair of construction machinery and vehicles;
Avoiding burning of material resulting from site clearance;
Covering any excavated dusty materials or stockpile of dusty materials entirely by impervious sheeting;
The provision of water troughs at entry and exit points to prevent the carryover of dust emissions, beyond the construction site
Proper truck maintenance
The adoption of a traffic management plan while avoiding congested routes
The adoption of proper maintenance procedures for on-site construction equipment and the use of diesel fuel of acceptable
Turning off equipment when not in use
Enclosing the site with barriers/fencing
Effectively utilizing material stockpiles and other structures to reduce noise from on-site construction activities
Choosing inherently quiet equipment
Operating only well-maintained mechanical equipment on-site
Keeping equipment speed as low as possible
Shutting down or throttling down to a minimum equipment that may be intermittent in use
Utilizing and properly maintaining silencers or mufflers that reduce vibration on construction equipment
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Impact
Solid waste
(construction waste, chemical waste, general refuse)
PCB waste
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Mitigation Measures
Restricting access to the site for truck traffic outside of normal construction hours
Proper site logistics and planning
Limiting site working hours if possible
Scheduling noisy activities during the morning hours
Informing the locals when noisy activities are planned
Enforcing noise monitoring
Use of generated construction debris materials for reclamation purposes whenever applicable, after ensuring the absence of contamination and the adequacy of the physical and chemical properties of such material
Minimization of construction and demolition wastes through careful planning during the design stage, whereby reducing or eliminating over-ordering of construction materials
Sorting of construction and demolition wastes into various categories and adopting reuse/recycle on site whenever deemed feasible.
Segregating chemical wastes and properly storing and disposing of it as hazardous waste.
Storing chemical wastes in a separate area that has an impermeable floor, adequate ventilation and a roof to prevent rainfall from seeping
Clearly labeling all chemical waste in English and Liberian, storing it in corrosion resistant containers and arranging so that incompatible materials are adequately separated
Securing a prior agreement with the EPA for the disposal of hazardous waste generated on-site
Drafting an agreement should with the solid waste collector in the county where the project is being implemented to identify collection sites and schedule the removal to minimize odor, pest infestation and litter buildup
Prohibiting the burning of refuse on the construction site
Promoting recycling and reuse of general refuse.
Formulating and implementing a PCB Management Plan by the contractor to comprise of the following:
Preparing a comprehensive inventory of transformers containing PCB-contaminated oil,
PCB contaminated capacitors and other material prior to the initiation of the rehabilitation activities.
Decontamination of PCB items to reduce the PCB concentration below 50 ppm by draining the item and then rinsing it with a solvent such as kerosene or turpentine
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Mitigation Measures
Labeling decontaminated items "DANGER- HAD CONTAINED CHEMICAL WASTE" in both English and the local language
Filling PCB liquid waste in adequately sealed and properly labeled steel drums in good condition and marking the drums ‘DANGER -CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’ in both English and the local language along with the chemical waste label.
Packing solid PCB waste in heavy duty and leak proof polythene sacks and placing them into new or good conditioned steel drums, fitted with removable lids, which are properly sealed and labeled ‘DANGER CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’ in both English and the local language along with the chemical waste label.
Transport PCB waste by vehicles in good condition under the supervision of experienced personnel and in compliance with the following conditions:
All loading & unloading operations should be carried out with care to avoid any damage
which may result in leakage & spillage.
The drums /equipments must be clearly marked ‘DANGER CHEMICAL (PCB) WASTE’
in both English and the local language along with the chemical waste label.
The drums or equipment must be loaded and fastened securely so that they are in an
upright position and do not move about or fall off the vehicle.
Drain spouts, cooling tubes, and bushings of transformers should be adequately
protected to prevent damage during transport.
Vehicle should have hazard warning panels clearly marked with indelible ink against
retro reflective background.
Vehicles must be equipped with safety gear including an appropriate fire extinguisher for emergency use and a spill clean-up kit consisting of a spade, absorbent material and spare drums.
The complete load should be covered with a tarpaulin to prevent rainwater from contact with drums/equipment. Suitable bundling could be provided by placing sand bags around the cargoes.
Formulate emergency containment and cleanup procedures for accidental release of PCB into the environment due to a spill or fire that cover the following areas:
spill response
protective equipment
Responsibility
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Impact
Surface water
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Mitigation Measures
cleanup procedures
storage and disposal of contaminated material
staff training
regulatory authorities emergency contacts
PCB liquids do not bun easily but the vapor can be extremely irritating. Some
decomposition products of PCBs are highly toxic. In the case of a fire outbreak, the fire department should be contacted immediately and informed that fire involves PCBs . Foam or dry chemicals should be used to extinguish the fire rather than water, to minimize contaminated run off
Storage of PCB wastes before disposal arrangements are made in an indoor storage site having a noncorrosive atmosphere, good ventilation, normal room temperature of 25 C or less, dry surfaces and impermeable floor with no drains
Disposal of low level contaminated wastes in a properly engineered and operated secure landfill, designed to prevent seepage by using a synthetic liner compatible with PCB waste with low permeability, durability and chemical resistance.
Provide channels, earth bunds or sand bag barriers to properly direct storm water to silt removal facilities
Use adequately designed sand/silt removal facilities such as sand traps, silt traps and sediment basins before discharge into the surrounding waters
Maintain silt removal facilities by regularly removing deposited silt and grit
Discharge rainwater pumped out from trenches or foundation excavations into storm drains via silt removal facilities and not directly to the aquatic environment
Cover open stockpiles of construction materials on site with tarpaulin or similar fabric during rainstorm events to prevent the washing away of construction materials
Compact earthworks as soon as the final surfaces are formed to prevent erosion especially during the wet season
Collect and connect water used in vehicle and plant servicing areas to foul sewers via an oil/grease trap. Oil leakage or spillage should be contained and cleaned up immediately
Collect spent oil and lubricants and store them for recycling or proper disposal
Prepare guidelines and procedures for immediate clean-up actions following any spillages of oil, fuel or chemicals.
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Impact
Soil and groundwater
Flora and Fauna
Erosion
Dredging
Land clearing
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Mitigation Measures
Contain sewage from toilets, kitchens and similar facilities in sanitary cesspools before being transported by trucks to a nearby wastewater treatment plant
Proper storage of chemicals on site
The installation of natural or synthetic liners beneath chemical storage tanks
Proper surface drainage during both the construction and operation phases
Minimization of on-site water and chemical usage (oil, lubricants and fuel)
Limiting the exposure of the soil to accidental releases of pollutants
Use of non-toxic and readily biodegradable chemicals on-site
Scheduling construction/ rehabilitation to avoid heavy rainfall periods (i.e., during the dry season) to the extent practical
Contouring and minimizing length and steepness of slopes
Mulching to stabilize exposed areas
Re-vegetating areas promptly
Designing channels and ditches for post-construction flows
Lining steep channel and slopes (e.g. use jute matting)
Reducing or preventing off-site sediment transport through use of settlement ponds, silt fences, and water treatment, and modifying or suspending activities during extreme rainfall and high winds to the extent practical
Restricting the duration and timing of in-stream activities to lower low periods, and avoiding periods critical to biological cycles of valued flora and fauna (e.g., migration, spawning, etc.)
For in-stream works, using isolation techniques such as berming or diversion during construction to limit the exposure of disturbed sediments to moving water
Adoption of construction sequencing and work procedures to minimize streambed disturbance
Control of the rate of dredging to minimize the sediment loss rate
Use of tightly closing grabs during dredging, to restrict the loss of fine sediment to suspension
Careful loading of barges to avoid splashing of material
Use of barges for the transport of dredged materials that are fitted with tight bottom seals in order to prevent leakage of material during loading and transport
Filling of barges to a level which ensures that materials do not spill over during loading and transport and that adequate freeboard is maintained to ensure that the decks are not washed
Responsibility
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Mitigation Measures by wave action
Control of the speed of the trailer dredger within the works area to prevent propeller wash from stirring up the seabed sediments
Building of suitable barriers to intercept the transport of SS away from the project area
Scheduling dredging activity during periods that don’t interfere with fish spawning or intense migration
Responsibility
Traffic
Health and safety
Select right-of ways to avoid important natural areas such as wild lands and sensitive habitats
Utilize appropriate clearing techniques (hand clearing vs. mechanized clearing)
Maintain native ground cover beneath lines
Replant disturbed sites
Manage right-of-ways to maximize wildlife benefits
Proper planning and development of a traffic control plan that takes into account the reservations and inputs of local communities
Proper dissemination of information regarding the construction schedule
Providing alternate routes when needed and when feasible during all phases of construction
Ensuring safety of motorists through adequate warning, signing, delineation and channeling at least 500 m down and up-gradient from the construction site
Limiting the movement of heavy machinery during the construction phase to off-peak hours and providing prior notification
Providing a traffic re-routing plan for the construction phase at the bidding stage
Restriction of access to the construction site by proper fencing
Establishment of buffering areas around the site
Provision of guards on entrances and exits to the site
Installation of warning signs at the entrance of the site to prohibit public access
Provision of training about the fundamentals of occupational health and safety procedures
Provision of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (impermeable latex gloves, working overalls, safety boots, safety helmets, hearing protecting devices for workers exposed to noise levels exceeding 90 dBA7, and lifesaving vests for construction sites near water bodies)
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7 The maximum allowable 8-hour occupational noise standard set by OSHA
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Mitigation Measures
Ensuring that workers can swim and that lifesaving rings are available at the worksite, near water
Ensuring that the protective material is being used wherever it is required
Ensuring that especially sensitive or dangerous areas (like areas exposed to high noise levels, areas for especially hazardous work etc.) are clearly designated
Ensuring that all maintenance work necessary for keeping machines and other equipment in a good state will be regularly carried out.
Ensuring that the workers are qualified, well trained and instructed in handling their equipment, including health protection equipment.
Provision of adequate loading and off-loading space
Development of an emergency response plan
Provision of on-site medical facility/first aid
Provision of appropriate lighting during night-time works
Implementation of speed limits for trucks entering and exiting the site
Ensuring that hazardous substances are being kept in suitable, safe, adequately marked and locked storing places
Ensuring that containers of hazardous substances are clearly marked, and that material safety data sheets are available
Ensuring that all workers dealing with hazardous substances are adequately informed about the risks, trained in handling those materials, and trained in first aid measures to be taken in the case of an accident
Designating an area where contaminated materials and hazardous waste can be stored for proper disposal according to environmental guidelines
The adoption of good housekeeping practices for ensuring hygiene on site
The elimination of pools of stagnant water, which could serve as breeding places for mosquitoes
The provision of bednets for workers living on site.
The appropriate elimination of waste of all types, including wastewater
The provision of a safety specialist responsible for the preparation, implementation and maintenance of a comprehensive safety program
For the rehabilitation and/or construction of fuel supply facilities, provision of fire-fighting
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Impact
Socio-economics
Landscape and visual impacts
Physical cultural resources
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Mitigation Measures equipment such as dry powder extinguishers
Conducting fire fighting and leak checks training drills for the construction staff
Prohibition of smoking as well as litter or weed build up in the area as these may pose fire risks
Select project site and rights-of-way (ROW) to avoid important social, agricultural, and cultural resources and avoid areas of human activity
Utilize alternative designs to reduce land and ROW width requirements and minimize land use impacts
Ensure a high rate of local employment to minimize influx of foreign contract workers
Manage resettlement in accordance with World Bank Procedures.
Enclose the site with non-transparent fencing to minimize the visual impacts on nearby areas
Prohibit the parking of construction equipment, construction materials, and transport vehicles outside the fenced boundary of the construction site
Conduct appropriate project siting at the planning stage to avoid physical cultural resources and touristic sites
Adopt, ‘Archaeological Chance Find Procedures’ particularly where excavation works will take place
Responsibility
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Table 7-3: Summary of proposed mitigation measures for the construction and operation of a micro-hydropower station.
Responsibility Impact
Air and noise quality
Water quality
Soil
Mitigation Measures
CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF A MICRO-HYDROPOWER STATION
Choosing the site carefully and clearing the flora before inundation to minimize methane emissions due to organic material decomposition in the reservoir
Siting of new facilities by taking into consideration the distances between the noise sources and nearby sensitive receptors
Use of noise control techniques such as: using acoustic machine enclosures; using mufflers or silencers; using sound absorptive materials in walls and ceilings; using vibration isolators and flexible connections;
Use of noise barriers such as berms and vegetation to limit ambient noise at plant property lines, especially where sensitive noise receptors may be present;
Provision of the necessary PPE for workers on-site
Clearance of woody vegetation from inundation zone prior to flooding
Regulation of water discharge and manipulation of water levels to discourage weed growth
Control of land uses, wastewater discharges, and agricultural chemical use in watershed
Limiting of retention time of water in reservoir
Provision of multi-level releases to avoid discharge of anoxic water
Hydraulic removal of sediments from reservoir by flushing, sluicing, and/or release of density currents
Operation of reservoir to minimize sedimentation;
Regulation of dam releases to partially replicate the natural flooding regime;
Maintenance of at least minimum flow to maintain groundwater recharge.
Limiting access of people to the project area
The development of basin-wide integrated land-use planning to avoid overuse, misuse, and conflicting use of water and land resources.
Fauna and flora
Determine and maintain a ‘reserved flow’ downstream of a water diversion work
Perform river rehabilitation and river restructuring works (growing trees on the riverbanks, gravel deposits in the streambed, reinforcement of the riverside through shrubs to fight erosion, the construction of pools for fish breeding, meandering low water riverbeds,
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Visual intrusion
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Mitigation Measures modification of the slope, etc.)
Secure appropriate upstream fish passage for fish migration through fish ladders (natural-like creek without steps, pool and weir, Denil-passes, vertical slots, hybrid), lifts (elevators or locks), pumps and transportation operations
Secure appropriate downstream fish passage by using an innovative self-cleaning static intake screen that uses the Coanda effect
Using behavioral guidance systems (strobe lights for repelling fish, mercury lights for attracting fish, a sound generating device known as "hammer" for repelling fish as well as quite a number of electrical guidance systems) to divert or attract downstream migrants
When the screen is located in the intake downstream of the entrance, install a bypass at the downstream end of the screen to return the fish to the river.
Bypass entrance should be a minimum of 45 cm
Bypass entrance should be a minimum of 45 cm
The bypass entrance design should provide for smooth flow acceleration into the bypass
conduit with no sudden contractions, expansions or bends
To return fish from the bypass entrance back to the river, fully closed conduits or open channels can be used
Conduit discharge velocities close to 0.8 m/sec are recommended
Regarding the impact on terrestrial animals, bury open canals entirely and repopulate with vegetation so they do not represent any barrier
If open canals are opted for, use ladder constructions to help animals that may fall into an open canal to get out
Screen most of the components comprising a hydro-power plant from view using landscaping and vegetation
Paint components in non-contrasting colors and textures to obtain non-reflecting
Use every natural feature- rocks, ground, vegetation - to shroud the penstock or paint it so as to minimize contrast with the background
Bury the penstock if possible to reduce or eliminate expansion joints and concrete anchor blocks, return the ground to its original state and eliminate the barrier to the passage of wildlife
Design and operation of water management structures to decrease habitat for vector
Applying appropriate vector control measures, disease prophylaxis and treatment
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Physical cultural resources
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Mitigation Measures
Use of signs, barriers (e.g. locks on doors, use of gates, use of steel posts surrounding transmission towers, etc.), and education / public outreach to prevent public contact with potentially dangerous equipment;
Grounding conducting objects (e.g. fences or other metallic structures) installed near power lines, to prevent shock.
Periodic maintenance of signs and structures
Regular training on emergency response plan
Relocation of people to suitable areas
Avoid disruption of tribal/indigenous groups by avoiding dislocation of unacculturated people
Provision of compensation in kind for resources lost
Maintenance of standards of living by ensuring access to resources at least equaling those lost
Provision of adequate health and social services, infrastructure, and employment opportunities
Proper siting of a hydropower plant to avoid loss of historic and cultural properties
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Table 7-4: Summary of proposed mitigation measures for general construction and/or rehabilitation activities.
Impact Responsibility
Land resources
Noise
Fauna and flora
Mitigation Measures
POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Select the ROW to avoid important social, agricultural, and cultural resources;
Route ROWs away from wild lands;
Provide access control;
Utilize alternative tower designs to reduce ROW width requirements and minimize land use impacts;
Adjust the length of the span to avoid site-specific tower pad impacts;
Manage resettlement in accordance with World Bank procedures.
Locate ROWs away from human receptors, to the extent possible
Use noise barriers or noise canceling acoustic devices
Selecting transmission and distribution rights-of-way, access roads, lines, towers, and substations to avoid critical habitat through use of existing utility and transport corridors, whenever possible
Installing transmission lines above existing vegetation to avoid land clearing
Avoiding construction activities during the breeding season and other sensitive seasons or times of day
Re-vegetating disturbed areas with native plant species
Removing invasive plant species during routine vegetation maintenance
Regular maintenance of vegetation within the rights-of-way to avoid disruption to overhead power lines and towers
Removing invasive plant species, whenever possible, and cultivating native plant species
Avoiding clearing in riparian areas
Avoiding use of machinery in the vicinity of watercourses
Manage herbicide application to avoid their migration into off-site land or water environments
Monitoring right-of-way vegetation according to fire risk
Removing blowdown and other high-hazard fuel accumulations
Time thinning, slashing, and other maintenance activities to avoid forest fire seasons
Disposal of maintenance slash by truck or controlled burning
Planting and managing fire resistant species, such as hardwoods, within, and adjacent to, rights-of-way
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Community health and safety
Occupational health and safety
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Mitigation Measures
Establishing a network of fuel breaks of less flammable materials or cleared land to slow progress of fires and allow fire fighting access
Aligning transmission corridors to avoid critical avian habitats (e.g. nesting grounds, heronries, rookeries, bat foraging corridors, and migration corridors)
Maintaining 1.5 meter spacing between energized components and grounded hardware or, where spacing is not feasible, covering energized parts and hardware
Retrofitting existing transmission or distribution systems by installing elevated perches, insulating jumper loops, placing obstructive perch deterrents (e.g. insulated ”V’s”), changing the location of conductors, and / or using raptor hoods
Considering the installation of underground transmission and distribution lines in sensitive areas
Installing visibility enhancement objects such as marker balls, bird deterrents, or diverters
Utilizing mechanical clearing techniques, grazing and/or selective chemical applications
Selecting herbicides with minimal undesired effects
Not applying herbicides with broadcast aerial spraying
Maintaining natural low-growing vegetation along the ROW
Use of signs, barriers (e.g. locks on doors, use of gates, use of steel posts surrounding transmission towers, particularly in urban areas), and education / public outreach to prevent public contact with potentially dangerous equipment
Grounding conducting objects (e.g. fences or other metallic structures) installed near power lines, to prevent shock
Considering siting new facilities so as to avoid or minimize EMF exposure to the public
Installation of transmission lines or other high voltage equipment above or adjacent to residential properties or other locations intended for highly frequent human occupancy, (e.g. schools or offices), should be avoided
Evaluating potential exposure to the public against the reference levels developed by the
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)
Application of engineering techniques to reduce the EMF produced by power lines, substations, or transformers
Only allowing trained and certified workers to install, maintain, or repair electrical equipment
Deactivating and properly grounding live power distribution lines before work is performed
Responsibility
Consultant/ contractor
Consultant/ contractor
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Impact
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Mitigation Measures on, or in close proximity, to the lines
Ensuring that live-wire work is conducted by trained workers with strict adherence to specific safety and insulation standards;
Where maintenance and operation is required within minimum setback distances, defining specific training, safety measures, personal safety devices, and other precautions in a health and safety plan
When working at elevations, testing structures for integrity prior to undertaking work;
Implementation of a fall protection program that includes training in climbing techniques and use of fall protection measures; inspection, maintenance, and replacement of fall protection equipment; and rescue of fall-arrested workers;
Establishment of criteria for use of 100 percent fall protection
Provision of an adequate work-positioning device system for workers. Connectors on positioning systems should be compatible with the tower components to which they are attached;
Properly rate and maintain hoisting equipment and properly train hoist operators;
Ensure that safety belts are not less than 16 mm two-in-one nylon or material of equivalent strength. Replace rope safety belts before signs of aging or fraying of fibers become evident;
When operating power tools at height, use a second (backup) safety strap;
Remove signs and other obstructions from poles or structures prior to undertaking work;
Identify potential exposure levels to electric and magnetic fields (EMF) in the workplace, including surveys of exposure levels in new projects and the use of personal monitors during working activities;
Train workers in the identification of occupational EMF levels and hazards;
Establish and identify safety zones where EMF levels are acceptable for public exposure;
Implement action plans to address potential or confirmed exposure levels that exceed reference occupational exposure levels (limiting exposure time through work rotation, increasing the distance between the source and the worker, or the use of shielding material)
Train personnel to apply pesticides and ensure that personnel have received the necessary certifications or equivalent training where such certifications are not required;
Respect post-treatment intervals to avoid operator exposure during reentry to crops with residues of pesticides;
Responsibility
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Impact
Airline traffic
Socio-economics
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2010
Mitigation Measures
Ensure hygiene practices are followed to avoid exposure of family members to pesticides residues.
Avoid the siting of transmission lines and towers close to airports and outside of known flight path envelopes
Consult with regulatory air traffic authorities prior to installation;
Adhere to regional or national air traffic safety regulations;
Use buried lines when installation is required in flight sensitive areas
Extensive public consultation during the planning of powerline and power line right-of-way locations;
Accurate assessment of changes in property values due to power line proximity;
Siting power lines, and designing substations, with due consideration to landscape views and important environmental and community features;
Location of high-voltage transmission and distribution lines in less populated areas, where possible;
Burying transmission or distribution lines when power must be transported through dense residential or commercial areas.
Responsibility
Consultant/ contractor
Consultant/ contractor
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Table 7-5: Summary of proposed mitigation measures for the operation of fuel oil storage terminals.
Impact Responsibility
Air quality
Solid waste
Mitigation Measures
OPERATION OF FUEL OIL STORAGE TERMINALS
Coordinating filling and withdrawal schedules, and implementing vapor balancing between tanks
Reducing breathing losses by using white or other reflective color paints with low heat absorption properties on exteriors of storage tanks for lighter distillates or by insulating tanks
Where vapor emissions contribute or result in ambient air quality levels in excess of healthbased standards, installation of secondary emissions controls such as vapor condensing and recovery units, catalytic oxidizers, vapor combustion units, or gas adsorption media
Use of gasoline supply and return systems, vapor recovery hoses, and vapor tight trucks / railcars / vessels during loading and unloading of transport vehicles
Use of bottom loading truck / rail car filling systems
Establishing a procedure for periodic monitoring of fugitive emissions from pipes, valves, seals, tanks and other infrastructure components with vapor detection equipment, and with subsequent maintenance or replacement of components as needed
Routing tank degassing vapors to an appropriate emissions control device.
Restricting activities to a season when the potential for ozone formation is reduced or to a time of the day when the potential for ozone formation is less;
Periodically inspecting tanks internally, and establishing an inspection frequency based on the condition of the tank at the previous internal inspection (typically 10 years or less).
Re-processing of tank sludge and spill cleanup for product recovery or as a waste at a facility licensed to handle this type of material in an environmentally sound manner
Manage small quantities of oil contaminated via land treatment or as a waste at a facility licensed to handle this type of material.
Manage small quantities of soils or liquids as a hazardous waste
Manage larger quantities of affected soils and other environmental media, including sediment and groundwater, according to guidance applicable to contaminated land.
Removal operations of any tanks and connected piping should include the following procedures:
Remove residual fuel from the tank and all associated pipes and manage it as a hazardous waste;
Consultant/ contractor
Operator/ EPA
Operator/ EPA
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Impact
Water quality
Spills and leakages
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Mitigation Measures
Inert tanks before commencing tank removal operations the tanks so as to remove the risk of explosion (hydrophobic foam fill, nitrogen foam fill, nitrogen gas purging, water fill, dry ice, combustion of gas, and cleaning-degassing)
Dismantle and/or cap off and clearly label all vent pipes and risers associated with the tank
Application of effective spill prevention and control
Implementation of secondary containment procedures that avoid accidental or intentional releases of contaminated containment fluids
Installation of storm water channels and collection ponds with subsequent treatment through oil / water separators
Regular maintenance to locate and repair / replace tank roof, seals, or other sources of water infiltration
Use of domes on floating roof tanks to reduce rainwater penetration
Use of meters (“sight glasses”) to determine water content in tank, as well as vortex eliminators
/ barriers to minimize product release during draw off.
Pre-treatment of effluents via oil / water separators, with further on-site or off-site biological and chemical treatment and activated carbon systems, depending on the volume of contaminants present, and whether the facility is discharging the wastewater into a municipal system or directly to surface waters.
Ensure that storage tanks and components meet international standards for structural design integrity and operational performance to avoid catastrophic failures
provisions for overfill protection, metering and flow control, fire protection
overfill protection equipment include level gauges, alarms, and automatic cutoff systems.
the use of “breakaway” hose connections in fuel dispensing equipment which provide emergency shutdown of flow should the fueling connection be broken through movement
Storage tanks should have appropriate secondary containment.
use of double bottom and double wall containment, impervious linings underneath tanks, or internal tank liners
Installation of impervious asphalt or concrete surfaces with polyethylene sheeting underneath in areas of potential petroleum leaks and spills, including below gauges, pipes, and pumps, and below rail and truck loading / unloading areas
Perform periodic inspection of storage tanks and components
Responsibility
Operator/ EPA
Operator/ EPA
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Impact
Occupational health and safety
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Mitigation Measures
Conduct loading / unloading activities by properly trained personnel according to preestablished formal procedures to prevent accidental releases and fire /explosion hazards
For unloading / loading activities involving marine vessels and terminals, prepare and implement spill prevention procedures for tanker loading and off-loading according to applicable international standards and guidelines which specifically address advance communications and planning with the receiving terminal
Develop a spill prevention and control plan that addresses significant scenarios and magnitudes of releases
Locate Above Ground Storage Tanks (ASTs) in a secure area, protected from potential collisions by vehicles, vandalism, and other hazards
Segregate corrosive, oxidizing and reactive chemicals from flammable materials and from other chemicals of incompatible class, store them in ventilated areas and in containers with appropriate secondary containment to minimize intermixing during spills
Provide workers who are required to handle such chemicals with specialized training and with appropriate PPE (gloves, apron, splash suits, face shield or goggles, etc).
Ensure qualified first-aid at all times.
Design and operate crude oil and petroleum product terminals storage facilities according to international standards for the prevention and control of fire and explosion hazards, including provisions for distances between tanks in the facility and between the facility and adjacent buildings, provision of additional cooling water capacity for adjacent tanks, or other risk-based management approaches;
Implement safety procedures for loading and unloading of product to transport systems including use of fail-safe control valves and emergency shutdown equipment;
Prevent of potential ignition sources such as:
Proper grounding to avoid static electricity buildup and lightning hazards
Use of intrinsically safe electrical installations and non-sparking tools
Implementation of permit systems and formal procedures for conducting any hot work during maintenance activities, including proper tank cleaning and venting
Prepare of a fire response plan supported by the necessary resources and training
Properly equip facilities with fire suppression equipment that meets internationally recognized technical specifications for the type and amount of flammable and combustible materials
Responsibility
Consultant/ contractor
Operator/ EPA
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Impact
Community health and safety
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Mitigation Measures stored at the facility
Provide confined spaces with permanent safety measures for venting, monitoring, and rescue operations, to the extent possible.
Safety precautions should include Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA), life lines, and safety watch workers stationed outside the confined space, with rescue and first aid equipment readily available
Prepare an emergency preparedness and response plan that considers the role of communities and community infrastructure as appropriate
Responsibility
Operator
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8 MONITORING
Impact and compliance monitoring should be practiced during the construction and operation phases of the proposed project. Monitoring should be conducted to verify the predicted impacts, examine the implementation and effectiveness of mitigation measures, respond to unanticipated environmental impacts, and improve environmental controls. Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following monitoring and record-keeping procedures and using properly calibrated and maintained equipment. Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the operating standards so that any necessary corrective actions can be taken. Note that the scale/nature of the project dictates that the level of the proposed monitoring plan, whereby small projects favor monitoring that is limited to visual observations and photographic documentation while large scale projects require quantitative assessment of several environmental parameters in addition to visual
monitoring. The following tables (Table 8-1 - Table 8-6) present typical
parameters that should be monitored along with monitoring means, frequency, and phase. The EPA, or an independent consultant hired by the EPA, will be responsible for the implementation of the monitoring. It should be stressed that the developed monitoring plan should be updated to reflect the specificities of each project (scale, location, etc.) and should also incorporate an estimate of the total monitoring costs involved.
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Table 8-1: Summary of monitoring activities during general construction and/or rehabilitation activities
Parameter
Air quality
Noise levels
Wastes and disposal
Surface water
Soil and groundwater
Flora and fauna
Traffic
Project scale
Small-scale
Location Monitoring means
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION AND/OR REHABILITATION ACTIVITIES
Construction site
Inspection and measurement of PM level upon complaints
Large-scale
Construction site and selected receptors
Inspection and measurement of PM level at selected receptors
Small-scale Construction site
Inspection and measurement of noise level upon complaints
Large-scale
Construction site and selected receptors
Inspection and measurement of noise level (Leq) at selected receptors
Small-scale
Large-scale
Construction site
Disposal site
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Small scale
Large scale
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small-scale
At nearby surface water body
At nearby surface water body
At construction site
At construction site
Nearest water wells
Project site and surrounding areas
Visual inspection
Water quality (Turbidity, suspended solids, total coliforms, fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen)
Visual inspection
Visual inspection
Water quality (total coliforms, oil and grease)
Presence of key species
Large-scale
Project site and surrounding areas
Occurrence of key species at start of the project and initiate annual follow-up
Large-scale
Construction site and nearby road
Inspection
Frequency
NA
Monthly
Upon complaints
NA
Monthly and upon complaints
Monthly
Continuous
Monthly
Phase
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Quarterly
Monthly
Quarterly
Quarterly
Before project execution
Before project execution and annual follow-up
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Operation
Upon complaints Construction
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Parameter Project scale
Health and safety Small & large scale
Small-scale
Location network
Project site
Project site and surrounding areas
Socio-economic
Large-scale
Project site and surrounding areas
Monitoring means
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Jobs created for local people
Landscape and visual intrusions
Small & large-scale At site boundaries
Physical cultural resources
Small-scale
Large-scale
All vulnerable sites adjacent to project and all unknown remains unearthed during construction
Jobs created for local people
The effectiveness of acquisition procedure and of compensation disbursement
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Disturbance of known sites
Document chance findings
Disturbance of known sites
Document chance findings
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Frequency
Monthly
Biannually
Biannually
Continuous
Monthly
Annually
Biannually
Phase
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
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Table 8-2: Summary of monitoring activities during operation of a micro-hydropower station
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Parameter Project scale Phase
Air and noise quality
Traffic
Surface water
(quality and quantity)
Soil quality
Biological environment
(terrestrial and aquatic)
Landscape and visual intrusion
Health and safety
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small-scale
Small-scale
Small-scale
Small-scale
Small-scale
Location
At reservoir/ or
Downstream of diversion
Monitoring means
OPERATION OF A MICRO-HYDROPOWER STATION
At the plant site
At sensitive
Inspection and measurement of noise level (Leq) receptors
Construction site and nearby road network
Inspection
Water depth
Water quality (total coliforms, dissolved oxygen, phosphates and/or nitrates)
Agricultural lands surrounding project
Inspection
Frequency
Quarterly
Upon complaint
Upon complaints
Biannually
Biannually
Project site and surrounding areas
Downstream flow measurement
Presence of key species
Biannually
Annually
At site boundaries
Project site
Project site
Project site and surrounding areas
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
The sustainability of landscape planting
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Inspection and drilling emergency response plan
Surveys of disease outbreaks related to water vectors
Monthly
Annually
Monthly
Annually
Annual
Operation
Construction
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
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Parameter Project scale
Socio-economics Small-scale
Location
Project site and surrounding areas
Monitoring means
The effectiveness of acquisition procedure and of compensation disbursement
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Frequency
Continuous
Phase
Construction & Operation
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Table 8-3: Summary of monitoring activities during operation of a fossil-fuel and biomass-fired power plant
Phase Parameter
Air quality
Noise levels
Wastes and disposal
Surface water quality
Groundwater
Flora and fauna
Project scale Location Monitoring means
Small-scale
OPERATION OF A FOSSIL-FUEL AND BIOMASS FIRED POWER PLANT
Plant site and selected sensitive receptors
Inspection and measurement of ground level PM,
NOx, CO, and SO
2
concentrations
Large-scale
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small and largescale
Small and large scale
Large-scale
Plant site and selected sensitive receptors
Inspection and measurement of emission concentrations of PM, NOx, CO, and SO
2 concentrations
Measurement of ground level PM, NOx, CO, and
SO
2
concentrations
Plant site and selected receptors
Plant site and selected receptors
Plant site
Disposal site
Samples from surface water body at the point of effluent discharge and at several locations downstream from the effluent discharge
Well used to extract water for cooling
Project site and
Inspection and measurement of noise level upon complaints
Inspection and measurement of noise level (Leq) at selected receptors
Visual inspection and photographic documentation pH, Temperature, TSS, Oil and grease, Total residual chlorine, Heavy metals,
Pump test
Annual follow-up on occurrence of key species
Frequency
Quarterly
Continuous
Quarterly
NA
Quarterly and upon complaints
Monthly
Continuous
Quarterly
Monthly
Annually
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
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Environmental Monitoring Plan surrounding areas
Health and safety
Small-scale
Large-scale
Project site
Small-scale
Project site and surrounding areas
Socio-economic
Large-scale
Project site and surrounding areas
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Jobs created for local people
Increased production in sectors from project implementation
Landscape and visual intrusions
Small-scale
Large-scale
At site boundaries Visual inspection and photographic documentation
At site boundaries
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
The sustainability of landscape planting
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Monthly
Biannually
Annually
Monthly
Monthly
Biannually
Operation
Construction
Operation
Operation
Operation
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Table 8-4: Summary of monitoring activities for power transmission and distribution activities
Parameter Project scale Frequency Phase
Land resources
Noise levels
Fauna and flora
Surface water
Community health and safety
Occupational health and safety
Avian traffic
Socio-economic
Small and large scale
Small and large scale
Small and large scale
Small and large scale
Small and large scale
Small and large scale
Large-scale
Small-scale
Large-scale
Location Monitoring means
POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Visual inspection
Along the constructed line
Constructed line
Project site and surrounding areas
Inspection and measurement of noise level upon complaints
Presence of key species
Nearby surface water bodies
Project site and surrounding areas
Water quality (Herbicide residues)
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Project site
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Constructed lines Inspection
Project site and Jobs created for local people surrounding areas
Project site and surrounding areas
Jobs created for local people
Increased production in sectors from project implementation
The effectiveness of acquisition procedure and of compensation disbursement
As the line is being constructed
Annually
NA
Before project execution and annual follow-up
Construction
Operation
Operation
Construction
Operation
Operation 1
Biannually
Continuous
Biannually
Biannually
Biannually
Annually
Continuous
Operation
Construction
Operation
Operation
Construction
Operation
Construction
Operation
Construction
& Operation
1 If herbicides are being used for ROW clearing
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Table 8-5: Summary of monitoring activities for the operation of fuel oil storage terminals
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Parameter Project scale Phase
Air quality
Solid waste
Water quality
Spills and leakages
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small-scale
Large-scale
Small and large scale
Location Monitoring means
OPERATION OF FUEL OIL STORAGE TERMINALS
Storage terminal
Inspection and measurement of VOC level upon complaints
Storage terminal and selected receptors
Inspection and measurement of VOC level at selected receptors
Storage terminal
Disposal site
At receiving water body
At receiving water body
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Process effluent discharge quality (parameters to be tested are site specific)
Process effluent discharge quality (parameters to be tested are site specific)
Frequency
NA
Monthly
Upon complaints
Monthly
Continuous
Quarterly
Monthly
At storage terminals and transfer sites
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Inspection and drilling on oil spill response plan
Continuous
Annually
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Operation
Small-scale Project site Visual inspection and photographic documentation Monthly
Constructio n
Operation
Occupational health and safety
Community health and safety
Large-scale
Small and large scale
Project site
Project site and surrounding area
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Inspection and drilling emergency evacuation plan
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Inspection and drilling emergency response plan
Monthly
Annually
Monthly
Monthly
Annually
Operation
Operation
Operation
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Table 8-6: Summary of monitoring activities for the operation of fuel oil storage terminals
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Parameter Frequency Phase
Space requirement
Water quality
Hazardous waste
(Cadmium contamination)
Project scale
Large-scale
Location Monitoring means
OPERATION OF OFF-GRID-SOLAR POWER GENERATION SYSTEMS
Project site
The effectiveness of acquisition procedure and of compensation disbursement
Small and large scale
Nearby water body
Inspection and water quality testing (glycol, nitrates, nitrites, chromates, sulfites, and sulfates)
Small and large scale
At project site
Visual inspection and photographic documentation
Continuous
Quarterly
Monthly and at decommissioning
Operation
Operation
Operation
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9 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT & FRAMEWORK
In order for the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) to be effectively implemented, the presence of proper environmental management at the national level is helpful. Historically, environmental management in many developing countries has not been accorded the attention its evident importance merits leading to high economic costs in terms of adverse impacts on human health, productive resources, and ecosystems. Although environmental regulations have been evolving in the country, the main problem remains that of monitoring and enforcement, which is in turn related to the country’s institutional and technical capacity for environmental management. There are many organizations involved in
energy-related and activities at the national level (Table 9-1). However, the main
institutions with key responsibilities for environmental and social management in the energy sector are the EPA, the MLME, the RREA, and the LEC. The role of the
MLME is the general coordination among development partners and oversight of the various proposed energy projects, ensuring they comply with the components of the recently developed National Energy Policy (NEP) and supportive legislation, which calls for universal and sustainable access to affordable and reliable energy supplies in order to foster the economic, political, and social development of Liberia.
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Table 9-1: Governmental organizations involved in energy-related activities in Liberia.
National Oil Corporation of Liberia
(NOCAL)
Organization
Liberia Electricity Corporation (LEC) Planning, generation, transmission, distribution and sale of public electricity
Liberia Petroleum Refining Company
(LPRC)
Importation, storage, transportation and sale of petroleum products
Forestry Development Authority
(FDA)
Role
Regulation of biomass energy production
Research and development of biomass technology
Domestic petroleum exploration and development
Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy
(MLME)
Ministry of Transport (MOT)
Ministry of Planning and Economic
Affairs (MPEA)
Rural Electrification and Renewable
Energy Agency (RREA)
Coordination and supervision of energy sector activities
Monitoring, among other things, of GHG emissions and pollution by transport vehicles and equipment
Coordination of planning activities in the energy and other sectors
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA)
Electrifying the rural households of nearly 2 million people using off‐grid stand alone supply, while giving priority for hydro power
Monitoring and evaluation of impacts of economic activities in the energy and other sectors on human health and the environment
The RREA, which has a massive role to play in bringing up the decentralized power systems and off-grid electric systems while meeting the demands of energy using sources like biomass, solar photovoltaic cells (PV) and wind power, in addition to the hydro power, will have an environmental and social management unit. This unit will be responsible for screening of projects to identify the nature and magnitude of projects’ potential environmental and social impacts and determine accordingly the category to which such projects belong (A, B, or C). Accordingly, the required level of environmental impact assessment study will be assessed. There are usually three possible outcomes of the screening processes, namely, (1) No request for additional environmental investigation; (2) Need for a limited environmental study; and (3)
Necessity of an EIA to determine the extent and magnitude of a range of significant adverse impacts and to propose appropriate mitigation, monitoring and
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Resettlement Action Plan may also be required in accordance with OP 4.12, in the case of involuntary resettlement and/or the disturbance of indigenous peoples. The different types of energy related subprojects within each category and the associated
environmental and social assessments required are presented in Table 9-2; a checklist
for screening is presented in Annex E.
Table 9-2: Screening of World Bank projects
Projects
Dams and reservoirs
Electrical transmission
(large scale)
Industrial plants (large scale) and industrial estates
Land clearance and leveling
Mineral development
(including oil and gas)
Pipelines (oil, gas, and water)
Reclamation and new land development
Resettlement
Thermal and hydropower development
Projects which pose serious accident risks
Electrical transmission
(small scale)
Industries (small scale)
Mini hydro-power
Renewable energy
Rural electrification
Institutional development
Technical assistance
Environmental screening category
Category A- (Normally require environmental assessment (EA))
Carry out a project specific EA study
Develop subproject specific EMPs and (Resettlement Action Plan) RAPs in the case of involuntary resettlement
Apply environmental conditions in contract agreements
Other requirements
An Environmental Audit is required if the subproject involves rehabilitation of an existing site.
An Environmental Audit is required if PCB handling is involved.
Category B (Require limited environmental analysis)
Develop and implement a subproject specific EMP
Apply environmental conditions in contract agreements
Category C (Environmental analysis normally unnecessary)
Develop generic mitigation and monitoring measures for subproject sectors
Apply environmental conditions in contract agreements
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The RREA will approve of the rural energy sub-projects proposed by the operators only following clearance of the ESMP/ ESIA by the EPA. Once properly staffed, the environmental and social management unit at the RREA will assist the EPA in overseeing the environmental monitoring of the proposed projects. More details on project screening are provided in Annex E.
Similarly, the LEC, which restricts itself to serve the grid connected consumers, mainly confining to Monrovia and other major townships, will have an environmental and social unit. This unit will also be responsible for screening of the projects related to electricity generation and grid transmission in Monrovia and for approving these projects following clearance of the ESMP/ ESIA by the EPA. The environmental and social unit at the LEC will assist the EPA in overseeing the environmental monitoring of the proposed projects.
As for the EPA, it will perform two critically important and significant roles, including:
(1) Review, Clearance and Approval of the operators ESIA/ESMP process for energy sub projects. The EPA will be responsible for receiving, reviewing and commenting on, requiring revisions where necessary, and clearing of operators’ completed ESIA's prior to issuance of the license from the regulator, thus ensuring that contractors and operators comply with Liberia’s environmental laws and requirements, and that of the World Bank's triggered
Safeguard Policies
(2) Monitoring oversight of ESMF implementation, thus performing direct monitoring, or reviewing and compiling monitoring reports and issuing directives based on monitoring and evaluation reports to the operators.
Once the environmental and social units in the RREA and the LEC are well established and staffed with properly trained individuals, these units would be
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9.1
I NSTITUTIONAL S TRENGTHENING & C APACITY B UILDING
Capacity building is an essential component towards sustainable environmental management. The RREA and LEC, as implementing agencies of energy projects, will both need to establish environmental and social management units within their respective organizations, and train the individuals hired to populate these units. In the near term, it is likely that the units will consist only of one or two individuals, and capacity building of those individuals will be key. In addition, though the EPA currently performs functions related to the ESMF roles mentioned above, the EPA staff is also in need of training and further capacity building.
The objective of the training program is to ensure appropriate environmental awareness, knowledge and skills for the implementation of environmental management plans as well as environmental and process monitoring. In an effort to strengthen institutional capacity and environmental awareness, training sessions will be opened for individuals from the EPA, MLME, RREA, LEC, and other concerned ministries and governmental authorities. Appraisal will be conducted following a training session for feedback towards improving the training program.
The typical scope of the training sessions will encompass:
Defining relevant environmental laws, regulations, and standards for each of the targeted institutions based on their responsibilities as well as current and prospective projects in the energy sector.
Reviewing and discussing the World Bank’s Safeguard Policies.
Conducting bid tenders where appropriate while ensuring that the World Bank’s
Safeguard Policies and the applicable GoL laws are respected.
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Conducting Environmental Impact Assessments (at both the project and strategic levels) and environmental sampling and monitoring (air, noise, water, etc.) at the time that sub-projects are defined.
Introducing mitigation measures aiming at minimizing adverse environmental impacts associated with the construction and operation of energy-related projects with special emphasis on low technology, affordable and sustainable measures.
Introducing the fundamentals of occupational health and safety procedures with emphasis on the risks associated with electricity production.
Presenting case study EMPs of relevant projects (hydroelectric projects, thermoelectric projects, solar power energy production (such as thermal power generation, hydroelectric power generation, solar power generation, etc.))
Conducting an open dialogue with the targeted audience, whereby individuals will be asked to share their experiences (success stories and shortcomings) in implementing EMPs and the main technical problems faced in the field.
The training program is to consist of technical assistance, likely by individual consultants, and will be targeted at individuals within primarily the RREA, LEC,
EPA, and MLME, whose main responsibilities currently encompass or will in future encompass environmental and social safeguards. It is proposed that the training program be implemented at least twice a year within each of these main GoL entities over a period of two years—roughly the period of the two current Bank projects.
Staff of operators of sub-projects may also be targeted as appropriate. A budget estimate is given below and includes capacity building of the target entities. The
Total Training Budget is estimated at around US$150,000 (Table 9-3). This is only an
indicative budget; actual capacity building needs must be assessed once the safeguards units are established with the RREA and LEC, so the training budget may be less than or greater than the proposed.
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2010
Table 9-3: Estimated budget for the two-year training program
Category Description
Technical assistance to RREA safeguards staff (general and project specific as required)
Technical assistance to LEC safeguards staff (general and project specific as required)
Technical assistance to EPA staff (general and project specific as required)
Technical assistance to MLME staff (general and project specific as required)
Total Budget (USD)
Cost (USD)
50,000
50,000
25,000
25,000
~150,000
9.2
B UDGETING F UTURE S AFEGUARDS M EASURES
The above budget refers only to the safeguards training program proposed for staff of the RREA, LEC, EPA, and MLME, as at present it is not possible to estimate the required budget for safeguards measures for specific sub-projects that are yet to be defined. The cost of such assessment and mitigation activities would be assessed as part of the rehabilitation or construction works to be conducted by the contractor under the specific project. The bidding documents of the contractor would be reviewed to ensure that the recommendations set forth herein are reflected and their implementation adequately included in the overall price of the works. As the future works become clear, the measures and their cost shall be reflected either in an updated ESMF or in specific Environmental Assessments and/or Environmental
Management Plans, as well as the relevant bidding documents.
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2010
10 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
The ESMF is an instrument of environmental policy defined as a study to assess and set environmental guidelines of planned activities as well as a tool for decision making about the perceived feasibility of the planned activities. The purpose of
ESMF should not be just to assess impacts, set guidelines and management framework and complete an environmental impact statement (EIS); it is to improve the quality of decisions and to inform the public of the projects objectives and components and potential impacts.
Public involvement and consultations are important components in projects related to the energy and electricity sectors in order to ensure information is properly conveyed and that cooperation and acceptance from the public is secured. Public participation should also aim to increase general environmental awareness among the public and various stakeholders in regards to the proposed project and thereby addressing their concerns. Additional reasons for involving the public include:
Public participation is regarded as proper and fair conduct in public decisionmaking activities.
Public participation is widely accepted as a way to ensure that projects meet the stakeholders’ needs and are suitable to the affected public.
The project carries more legitimacy, and less hostility, if potentially affected parties can influence the decision-making process.
The final decision is ‘better’ when local knowledge and values are included and when expert knowledge is publicly examined.
The effectiveness of public participation is measured by the degree of communication, the intensity of contact and the degree of influence for decision making.
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2010
Table 10-1 represents some example of effective public participation techniques that
can be utilized by the contractor.
Technique
Public
Displays
Public
Meetings
Focus Group
/ Discussion
Objective(s)
To inform about the project
To identify issues and to solicit feedback
Table 10-1: Examples of effective public participation techniques.
To identify issues and to solicit feedback
To get ideas for environmental management
Scope
Informative
Consultative
Informative
Consultative
Environmental
Management
Participants
Affected people and other relevant interests
Affected people consisting of village officials, informal leaders and local people
Affected people
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References
References
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
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World Bank. 2007d. Environmental, health, and safety guidelines for electric power transmission and distribution. International Finance Corporation of the World Bank
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World Bank. 2009. Catalyzing new renewable energy in rural Liberia, Yandohun micro hydro power project. Prepared by the World Bank Mission.
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Annexes
Annex A: Precipitation Graphs
National Iron Ore Company
600,0
528,2
548,5
500,0
400,0
356,5
422,8
379,1
300,0
269,6
200,0
177,0
195,1
100,0
14,2 40,4
64,8
0,0
48,7
Goodrich
700,0
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
22,6 41,0
76,6
146,7
225,0
385,2
561,3
660,2
634,5
369,9
137,2
38,2
From Year: 1956-1980
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
Bong Mines
14,7
53,0
90,6
180,2
414,0
260,3
307,7
304,8
494,7
285,9
149,1
33,0
From Year: 1961-1980
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Voinjama
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
12,7
38,4
163,2
108,4
212,0
296,4
349,2
426,6
353,8
261,6
168,1
53,0
From Year: 1952-1973
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
Bomi Hills
551,4
589,1
117,0
172,0
272,9
18,4
53,3
391,3
434,8
337,9
161,1
61,8
From Year: 1952-1977
Monrovia
889,3 887,8 900,0
800,0
700,0
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
386,1
36,8 57,3
121,5
154,6
583,7
702,5
625,3
229,8
121,8
From Year: 1951-1973
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
Annexes
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
Firestone Harbel
584,6 575,6
391,5
431,6
258,1
119,6
160,5
34,0 55,3
363,7
165,6
68,6
From Year: 1936-1980
450,0
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
Salala Rubber Corporation
392,4
418,1
15,8
52,7
112,3
189,8
242,7
306,6
272,0
293,2
137,9
40,9
From Year: 1961-1980
LAMCO Buchanan
800,0
700,0
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
174,4
27,0
60,8
100,3
333,2
596,2 592,5
478,0
770,9
535,4
288,7
101,3
From Year: 1959-1980
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Robersfield
700,0
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
291,9
30,9
53,8
93,8
137,0
570,0
654,6
586,9
679,1
409,0
172,5
60,9
From Year: 1949-1980
Cocopa
400,0
385,8
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
21,0
56,7
164,9
180,6
276,8
218,0
261,5
116,7
246,1
89,2
35,2
From Year: 1950-1979
Ganta
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
397,5
20,2
56,4
129,9
150,3
219,4
280,6
250,8
300,5
250,8
135,0
34,8
From Year: 1934-1973
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
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LAC
500,0
450,0
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
27,5
57,4
118,4
200,2
273,9
359,3
281,8
376,7
489,5
374,0
182,5
54,1
From Year: 1961-1979
Firestone Cavalla
450,0
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
80,4
112,8
163,1
180,6
340,8
403,3
137,5
119,1
294,9
308,1
229,5
199,9
From Year: 1928-1981
400,0
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
59,6
118,3
Pyne Town
396,4
342,6
359,2
216,9
240,0
284,6
192,0
194,3
183,6
99,8
From Year: 1952-1973
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
Tapeta
18,1
58,4
107,3
155,7
231,9
278,9
207,1
172,2
324,8
237,2
99,3
22,9
From Year: 1952-1973
Zwedru
349,0 350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
271,2
21,2
62,7
118,2
183,3
203,5
186,2
160,2
281,8
125,5
60,3
From Year: 1952-1973
Greenville
800,0
700,0
600,0
500,0
400,0
300,0
200,0
100,0
0,0
433,8
153,1
93,9 115,1
212,5
758,0
365,5
271,5
626,8
622,1
559,0
231,0
From Year: 1952-1973
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
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1000,0
Robertsports
990,8
800,0
600,0
400,0
352,9
200,0
23,8 33,7 76,5
143,8
0,0
796,1
687,2
761,3
458,3
175,9
80,3
From Year: 1952-1973
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
Ziah Town
350,0
300,0
250,0
200,0
150,0
100,0
50,0
0,0
40,8
86,1
154,3
280,4 277,9
209,7
126,1
111,1
321,1
288,0
140,4
100,1
From Year: 1952-1961
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Environmental & Social Management Framework
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Annex B: EIA Flow Chart
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2010
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Annex C: Summary of the World Bank’s Safeguard Policies
OP 4.01:
Environmental
Assessment
OP 4.04
Natural
Habitats
OP 4.12:
Involuntary
Resettlement
The objective of this policy is to ensure that
Bank-financed projects are environmentally sound and sustainable, and that decisionmaking is improved through appropriate analysis of actions and of their likely environmental impacts. This policy is triggered if a project is likely to have potential
(adverse) environmental risks and impacts on its area of influence. OP 4.01 covers impacts on the natural environment (air, water and land); human health and safety; physical cultural resources; and trans boundary and global environment concerns.
Depending on the project, and nature of impacts a range of instruments can be used: EIA, environmental audit, hazard or risk assessment and environmental management plan
(EMP). When a project is likely to have sectoral or regional impacts, sectoral or regional EA is required. The Borrower is responsible for carrying out the EA.
This policy recognizes that the conservation of natural habitats is essential to safeguard their unique biodiversity and to maintain environmental services and products for human society and for long-term sustainable development. The Bank therefore supports the protection, management, and restoration of natural habitats in its project financing, as well as policy dialogue and economic and sector work. The Bank supports, and expects borrowers to apply, a precautionary approach to natural resource management to ensure opportunities for environmentally sustainable development. Natural habitats are land and water areas where most of the original native plant and animal species are still present. Natural habitats comprise many types of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal, and marine ecosystems. They include areas lightly modified by human activities, but retaining their ecological functions and most native species.
The objective of this policy is to (i) avoid or minimize involuntary resettlement where feasible, exploring all viable alternative project designs; (ii) assist displaced persons in improving their former living standards, income earning capacity, and production levels, or at least in restoring them; (iii) encourage community participation in planning and implementing resettlement; and
(iv) provide assistance to affected people regardless of the legality of land tenure.
This policy is triggered by any project
(including any sub-project under a sector investment or financial intermediary) with the potential to cause significant conversion (loss) or degradation of natural habitats, whether directly (through construction) or indirectly (through human activities induced by the project). The proposed operation will not fund any activities that would negatively affect natural habitats.
This policy covers not only physical relocation, but any loss of land or other assets resulting in: (i) relocation or loss of shelter; (ii) loss of assets or access to assets; (iii) loss of income sources or means of livelihood, whether or not the affected people must move to another location. This policy also applies to the involuntary restriction of access to legally designated parks and protected areas resulting in adverse impacts on the livelihoods of the displaced persons. The proposed operation has a
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OP 4.37:
Safety of
Dams
OP 7.50:
Projects on
International
Waters
OP 4.11:
Physical
Cultural
Resources
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
The objectives of this policy are as follows:
For new dams, to ensure that experienced and competent professionals design and supervise construction; the borrower adopts and implements dam safety measures for the dam and associated works. For existing dams, to ensure that any dam that can influence the performance of the project is identified, a dam safety assessment is carried out, and necessary additional dam safety measures and remedial work are implemented.
Notification of Riparian Countries The objective of this policy is to ensure that Bankfinanced projects affecting international waterways would not affect: (i) relations between the Bank and its borrowers and between states (whether members of the Bank or not); and (ii) the efficient utilization and protection of international waterways. The policy applies to the following types of projects: (a) Hydroelectric, irrigation, flood control, navigation, drainage, water and sewerage, industrial and similar projects that involve the use or potential pollution of international waterways; and (b) Detailed design and engineering studies of projects under (a) above, include those carried out by the Bank as executing agency or in any other capacity.
The objective of this policy is to assist countries to avoid or mitigate adverse impacts of development projects on physical cultural resources. For purposes of this policy, “physical cultural resources” are defined as movable or immovable objects, sites, structures, groups of structures, natural features and landscapes that have archaeological, paleontological, historical, architectural, religious, aesthetic, or other cultural significance. Physical cultural resources may be located in urban or rural settings, and may be above ground, underground, or underwater. The cultural interest may be at the local, provincial or national level, or within the international community.
RPF which will serve as a guide in preparing RAPs as necessary.
This policy is triggered when the Bank finances: (i) a project involving construction of a large dam (15 m or higher) or a high hazard dam; and (ii) a project which is dependent on an existing dam. For small dams, generic dam safety measures designed by qualified engineers are usually adequate.
This policy is triggered if (a) any river, canal, lake or similar body of water that forms a boundary between, or any river or body of surface water that flows through two or more states, whether Bank members or not; (b) any tributary or other body of surface water that is a component of any waterway described under (a); and (c) any bay, gulf strait, or channel bounded by two or more states, or if within one state recognized as a necessary channel of communication between the open sea and other states, and any river flowing into such waters..
This policy applies to all projects requiring a Category A or B
Environmental Assessment under OP
4.01, projects located in, or in the vicinity of, recognized cultural heritage sites, and projects designed to support the management or conservation of physical cultural resources. The proposed operation will not fund any investments that have negative impacts on physical cultural resources.
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2010
Annex D: Example of environmental contract clauses
Adequate selection of project site and right of way and appropriate project design can have a significant influence on the magnitude of the associated environmental impacts and the proper environmental management of energy and electricity distribution projects in Liberia. As such, the EA for projects involving any new construction, or any rehabilitation or reconstruction for existing projects, should provide information on screening criteria for site selection and design, including the following:
Site selection
Sites should be chosen based on community needs for additional projects, with specific lots chosen based on geographic and topographic characteristics. The site selection process involves site visits and studies to analyze:
(3) The site’s urban, suburban, or rural characteristics;
(4) National, state, or municipal regulations affecting the proposed lot;
(5) Accessibility and distance from inhabited areas;
(6) Land ownership, including verification of absence of squatters and/or other potential legal problems with land acquisition;
(7) Determination of site vulnerability to natural hazards (i.e., intensity and frequency of floods, earthquakes, landslides, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions);
(8) Suitability of soils and subsoils for construction;
(9) Site contamination by lead or other pollutants;
(10) Flora and fauna characteristics;
(11) Presence or absence of natural habitats (as defined by OP 4.04) and/or ecologically important habitats on site or in vicinity (e.g., forests, wetlands, coral reefs, rare or endangered species); and
(12) Historic and community characteristics.
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After choosing an appropriate site and design, the contractor needs to prepare his own EMP including health and safety at construction site, a traffic management plan, a waste management plan, chance-find procedures for physical cultural resources, etc. The EMP needs to be approved by the EPA and the World Bank. The contractor is responsible for the implementation of the EMP and is supervised by an independent consultant.
As construction activities could cause significant impacts on and nuisances to surrounding areas, careful planning of construction activities is critical. These are generally consistent for all power generation activities due to the similarity of the works involved. The following rules (including specific prohibitions and construction management measures) should be incorporated into all relevant bidding documents, contracts, and work orders.
Note that an extensive, but not exhaustive, list of mitigation measures is provided in Table 7.2 of the report, and should be used as a guideline for the selection of applicable rules and their inclusion in the contractor’s contract. More energyrelated project-specific rules can be extracted from Tables 7.2 to 7.5.
Prohibitions:
The following activities are prohibited on or near the project site:
(13) Cutting of trees for any reason outside the approved construction area;
(14) Hunting, fishing, wildlife capture, or plant collection;
(15) Use of unapproved toxic materials, including lead-based paints and asbestos;
(16) Disturbance to anything with architectural or historical value;
(17) Building of fires;
(18) Use of firearms (except authorized security guards); and
(19) Use of alcohol by workers.
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Construction management measures:
Dust and other air pollution emissions:
(20) Watering of surfaces and/or chemical stabilization
(21) Reduction of surface wind speed with windbreaks or source enclosures
(22) Covering the road surface with a new material of lower silt content
(23) Grading of gravel roads
(24) Proper site enclosure through appropriate hoarding and screening;
(25) Maintaining minimal traffic speed on-site and on access roads to the site;
(26) Covering all vehicles hauling materials likely to give off excessive dust emissions;
(27) Ensuring adequate maintenance and repair of construction machinery and vehicles;
(28) Avoiding burning of material resulting from site clearance;
(29) Covering any excavated dusty materials or stockpile of dusty materials entirely by impervious sheeting;
(30) The provision of water troughs at entry and exit points to prevent the carryover of dust emissions, beyond the construction site
(31) Proper truck maintenance
(32) Turning off equipment when not in use
Noise:
(33) Enclosing the site with barriers/fencing
(34) Effectively utilizing material stockpiles and other structures to reduce noise from on-site construction activities
(35) Choosing inherently quiet equipment
(36) Operating only well-maintained mechanical equipment on-site
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(37) Maintaining all construction-related traffic at or below 15 mph on streets within 200 m of the site.
(38) Maintaining all on-site vehicle speeds at or below 10 mph.
(39) To the extent possible, maintaining noise levels associated with all machinery and equipment at or below 90 db.
(40) Keeping equipment speed as low as possible
(41) Shutting down or throttling down to a minimum equipment that may be intermittent in use
(42) Utilizing and properly maintaining silencers or mufflers that reduce vibration on construction equipment
(43) Restricting access to the site for truck traffic outside of normal construction hours
(44) Proper site logistics and planning
(45) Limiting site working hours if possible
(46) Scheduling noisy activities during the morning hours
(47) Informing the locals when noisy activities are planned
Solid waste management:
(48) Use of generated construction debris materials for reclamation purposes whenever applicable, after ensuring the absence of contamination and the adequacy of the physical and chemical properties of such material
(49) Minimization of construction and demolition wastes through careful planning during the design stage, whereby reducing or eliminating over-ordering of construction materials
(50) Sorting of construction and demolition wastes into various categories and adopting re-use/recycle on site whenever deemed feasible.
(51) Segregating chemical wastes and properly storing and disposing of it as hazardous waste.
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(52) Storing chemical wastes in a separate area that has an impermeable floor, adequate ventilation and a roof to prevent rainfall from seeping
(53) Clearly labeling all chemical waste in English and Liberian, storing it in corrosion resistant containers and arranging so that incompatible materials are adequately separated
(54) Securing a prior agreement with the EPA for the disposal of hazardous waste generated on-site
(55) Drafting an agreement with the solid waste collector in the county where the project is being implemented to identify collection sites and schedule the removal to minimize odor, pest infestation and litter buildup
(56) Prohibiting the burning of refuse on the construction site
(57) Promoting recycling and reuse of general refuse.
Wastewater management
(58) Provide channels, earth bunds or sand bag barriers to properly direct storm water to silt removal facilities
(59) Use adequately designed sand/silt removal facilities such as sand traps, silt traps and sediment basins before discharge into the surrounding waters
(60) Maintain silt removal facilities by regularly removing deposited silt and grit
(61) Discharge rainwater pumped out from trenches or foundation excavations into storm drains via silt removal facilities and not directly to the aquatic environment
(62) Cover open stockpiles of construction materials on site with tarpaulin or similar fabric during rainstorm events to prevent the washing away of construction materials
(63) Compact earthworks as soon as the final surfaces are formed to prevent erosion especially during the wet season
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(64) Collect and connect water used in vehicle and plant servicing areas to foul sewers via an oil/grease trap. Oil leakage or spillage should be contained and cleaned up immediately
(65) Collect spent oil and lubricants and store them for recycling or proper disposal
(66) Prepare guidelines and procedures for immediate clean-up actions following any spillages of oil, fuel or chemicals.
(67) Contain sewage from toilets, kitchens and similar facilities in sanitary cesspools before being transported by trucks to a nearby wastewater treatment plant
Health and safety
(68) Restriction of access to the construction site by proper fencing
(69) Establishment of buffering areas around the site
(70) Provision of guards on entrances and exits to the site
(71) Installation of warning signs at the entrance of the site to prohibit public access
(72) Provision of training about the fundamentals of occupational health and safety procedures
(73) Provision of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) (impermeable latex gloves, working overalls, safety boots, safety helmets, hearing protecting devices for workers exposed to noise levels exceeding 90 dBA8, and lifesaving vests for construction sites near water bodies)
(74) Ensuring that workers can swim and that lifesaving rings are available at the worksite, near water
(75) Ensuring that the protective material is being used wherever it is required
8 The maximum allowable 8-hour occupational noise standard set by OSHA
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(76) Ensuring that especially sensitive or dangerous areas (like areas exposed to high noise levels, areas for especially hazardous work etc.) are clearly designated
(77) Ensuring that all maintenance work necessary for keeping machines and other equipment in a good state will be regularly carried out.
(78) Ensuring that the workers are qualified, well trained and instructed in handling their equipment, including health protection equipment.
(79) Provision of adequate loading and off-loading space
(80) Development of an emergency response plan
(81) Provision of on-site medical facility/first aid
(82) Provision of appropriate lighting during night-time works
(83) Implementation of speed limits for trucks entering and exiting the site
(84) Ensuring that hazardous substances are being kept in suitable, safe, adequately marked and locked storing places
(85) Ensuring that containers of hazardous substances are clearly marked, and that material safety data sheets are available
(86) Ensuring that all workers dealing with hazardous substances are adequately informed about the risks, trained in handling those materials, and trained in first aid measures to be taken in the case of an accident
(87) Designating an area where contaminated materials and hazardous waste can be stored for proper disposal according to environmental guidelines
(88) The adoption of good housekeeping practices for ensuring hygiene on site
(89) The elimination of pools of stagnant water, which could serve as breeding places for mosquitoes
(90) The provision of bednets for workers living on site.
(91) The appropriate elimination of waste of all types, including wastewater
(92) The provision of a safety specialist responsible for the preparation, implementation and maintenance of a comprehensive safety program
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(93) For the rehabilitation and/or construction of fuel supply facilities, provision of fire-fighting equipment such as dry powder extinguishers
(94) Conducting fire fighting and leak checks training drills for the construction staff
(95) Prohibition of smoking as well as litter or weed build up in the area as these may pose fire risks
Environmental Supervision during Construction
The bidding documents should indicate how compliance with environmental rules and design specifications would be supervised, along with penalties for noncompliance by contractors or workers. Construction supervision requires oversight of compliance with the manual and environmental specifications by the contractor or his designated environmental supervisor. Contractors are also required to comply with national and municipal regulations governing the environment, public health, and safety.
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ANNEX E. Screening Checklist Guide
Energy & Electricity Distribution in Liberia
2010
1.
Site Selection
Rate the sensitivity of the proposed project site in the following table according to the given criteria. High ratings indicate that more substantial environmental and/or social planning may be required to adequately avoid, mitigate, and manage potential effects.
Issues
Natural habitats
Low
No natural habitats present of any kind
Site sensitivity
Medium
No critical natural habitats; other natural habitats occur
High
Critical natural habitats present
Water quality and water resource availability and use
Water flows exceed any existing demand; low intensity of water use; potential water use conflicts expected to be low; no potential water quality issues
Medium intensity of water use; multiple water users; water quality issues are important
Intensive water use; multiple water users; potential for conflicts is high; water quality issues are important
Natural hazards vulnerability, floods, soil stability/ erosion
Flat terrain; no potential stability/erosion problems; no known volcanic/seismic/ flood risks
Physical Cultural property
No known or suspected physical cultural heritage sites
Medium slopes; some erosion potential; medium risks from volcanic/seismic/ flood/ hurricanes
Suspected cultural heritage sites; known heritage sites in broader area of influence
Involuntary resettlement
Indigenous peoples
Low population density; dispersed population; legal tenure is welldefined; welldefined water rights
No indigenous population
Mountainous terrain; steep slopes; unstable soils; high erosion potential; volcanic, seismic, or flood risks
Known heritage sites in project area
Medium population density; mixed ownership and land tenure; well-defined water rights
Dispersed and mixed indigenous populations; highly acculturated indigenous populations
High population density; major towns and villages; low-income families and/or illegal ownership of land; communal properties; unclear water rights
Indigenous territories, reserves and/or lands; vulnerable indigenous populations
Ratings
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2.
Checklist questions
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Parameter
Physical data
Site area in ha
Rehabilitation of existing site
Plans for new construction
Preliminary environmental information
Source of information available at this stage
Has there been litigation or complaints of any environmental nature directed against the proponent or sub-project?
Likely environmental impacts
What are likely environmental impacts, opportunities, risks, and liabilities associated with the sub-project?
Determine which category the sub-project falls under based on the environmental categories A, B, and C
Mitigation of potential pollution
Does the sub-project have the potential to pollute the environment or contravene any environmental laws and regulations
Does the sub-project involve PCBs?
Does the design adequately detail mitigation measures?
Does the proposal require, under national or local laws, the public to be informed consulted, or involved?
Has consultation been completed?
Yes/No answers and bullet lists
Land and resettlement
What is the likelihood of land purchasing for the subproject?
How will land be purchased?
What level or type of compensation is planned?
Who will monitor actual payments?
3.
Recommendations: a) Requires an EIA and/or RAP:. b) Requires EMP c) Requires an Environmental Audit
Does not require further environmental studies
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