History
th
7 Class
(700 -1750)
Chapter 1 Tracing changes through a thousand years
[Period between 700 – 1750]
-Inventions during this period:
1. spinning wheel in weaving
2. irrigation wheel in irrigation
3. firearms in combat
New food & beverages:
Potatoes, corn, chillies, tea & coffee
People brought these inventions along with them.
This period was a period of economic, cultural, political n social changes
This was a period of great mobility as groups travelled long distances in search of opportunity
Rajputs (Name derived from Rajaputra – the son of a ruler) became important during this period.
From 8th - 14th centuries: [700 – 1400]
Rajput meant - body of warriors who claimed Kshatriya status.
A chivalric code of conduct
Gradual clearing of forests and extension of agriculture during this period
-forest dwellers migrated
-Ppl started tilling lands n Peasant groups arose
-A differentiated society arose
-ppl grpd into jatis
-jatis enforced their own rules thru jati panchayats (Assembly of elders)
Religious Beliefs altered during this period
-Imp changes in Hinduism
-worship of new deities, construction of temples by royalty
-growing influence of brahmanas as dominant groups in society
-emergence of Bhakti
New religions arrived:
Merchants & migrants first brought the teachings of holy Quran to India in 7th Century[600-700]
Chapter 2: New Kings and Kingdoms
Chapter 3, Chapter 4 [Notes made in Hard copy]
Chapter 5: Rulers and Buildings
From 8th till 18th century 2 kinds of structures were built by kings and their officers:
1).Forts, palaces, tombs
2).Temples, mosques, tanks, wells, caravan serais, bazaars
-Rulers hoped to win praise of people by building these structures for them.

Monuments provide an insight into the skills and technology used for construction
Between 7th n 10th centuries architects started adding more rooms, doors n windows.
Trabeate or corbelled style: A horizontal beam is placed across two vertical columns.
Trabeate was used between 8th n 13th centuries to construct temples, mosques, tombs, baolis
(large stepped wells)
Temple construction in Early 11th century [1000-1100]:
Kandariya temple: dedicated to Shiva
-built by king Dhangadeva of Chandela dynasty in 999
Rajarajeshwara temple: At Thanjavur, By King Rajarajadeva to worship god Rajarajeshwaram
-2 technological stylistic developments noticeable from 12th century: 1).Arcuate form was sometimes used wherein a keystone carried the weight of the superstructure
above
2).Limestone cement began to be used increasingly.
-Muslim rulers & padshahs didnot claim to be the incarnations of god but Persian court chronicles
describe sultan as 'shadow of god'.
-Why Kings built temples: Kings wanted to emphasise their moral right to be rulers so they
constructed temples to proclaim their close relationship with god.
-Why temples were destroyed: In Middle Ages Kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to
God and their power and wealth so most enemy rulers displayed their political might and military
success by attacking n looting the places of worship of defeated rulers.
-Hauj-i sultani or king's reservoir by illtutmish
Mughal Architecture:
Babur was interested in planning n laying of gardens placed within rectangular walled enclosures n
divided into four quarters by artificial channels. These were called Chahar Bagh
Architectural innovations during akbar's reign:
Central towering dome n tall gateway (pishtaq) became imp aspects of Mughal Architecture, first
visible in Humayun's tomb.
-Tombs were built in a eight paradise tradition or hasht bihisht where a central hall was surrounded
by 8 rooms.
-Tombs inspired by Central Asian ancestor timur
-During Shah jahan's reign different elements of Mughal arct were fused together.

Huge construction activity in Agra and Delhi
Diwan-i khas or am (ceremonial hall of public and private audience): described as Chihil sutun or
forty pillared halls, placed within a large courtyard.
-Audience halls resembled a mosque
-His throne was placed on a pedestal known as Qibla
-Behind Shah Jahan's throne were a series of pietra dura that depicted Greek god Orpheus playing
lute.
-Shah Jahan adapted the river-front garden (in which the dwelling was not in the middle of chahar
bagh but at the edge close to the bank of the river) in the layout of Taj Mahal
The river front garden form was developed to control access to the water. Only select few nobles
cud construct in this way rest had to do build houses away from the river.
Cross fertilization of art forms:
In Vrindavan near Mathura the temples were constructed in architectural styles similar to Mughal
Palaces of Fatehpur sikri.
Chapter 6: Towns, traders & Craftspersons
Temple towns grew near the famous temples.
Kings gave these temples land grants through which they maintained their specialist workers.
Temple authorities used their wealth for financing and in banking. Gradually, artisans, workers,
traders etc settled near the temples to cater to its needs and to those of pilgrims. Thus grew temple
towns.
Emergence of small towns from 8th century[700-800]:
They emerged from large villages. They had their mandapika (mandi) to which nearby villagers
brought their produce to sell. They had street markets (haats) too.
-Usually samantas or zamindars fortified such towns and levied taxes on artisans, traders &
sometimes donated the right to collect taxes to local temples.
Guild - a formal association of people with similar interests. Traders formed guilds to protect their
interests. There were many such guilds in South during 8th century. The most famous being,
1).Manigramam
2).Nanadesi
Bidri: Inlay work by craftperson of bidar.
Panchalas or Vishvakarma community: Blacksmiths, goldsmiths etc
Saliyar or Kaikkolars: Weavers
Hampi:
Nucleus of Vijaynagara empire which was founded in 1336.
Well fortified city .No mortar used .Interlocking was done. Hampi fell to ruin after defeat of
Vijaynagara in 1565 by Deccani Sultans
Surat:
It was the Gateway for trade with West Asia through Gulf of Ormuz.
-Cosmopolitan city where people of all castes lived together.
- Textiles of Surat were famous for Zari
-Surat Hundis were honoured in far-off markets of Cairo (Egypt), Basra (Iraq) and Antwerp (Belgium)
Hundi is a note recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in
another place by presenting the record of the deposit.
It has also been called as gate to Mecca as many pilgrim ships set sail from here. Surat declined
towards end of the 17th century due to loss of markets & productivity due to decline of Mughal
Empire
-control of sea routes by Portuguese
-Competition from Bombay where English East India company shifted its headquarters in 17th
century in 1668.
Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam :
Lies on the delta of krishna river. It became most imp port on andhra coast.
The fort at masulipatnam was built by Dutch. This town declined as company traders moved to
Bombay, Calcutta and madras.
In the 16th and 17th centuries:
Independence of craftpersons declined. They lost the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving
their own patterns. They now worked on system of advances and had to reproduce designs supplied
to them by European agents.
The 18th century saw,
-the rise of 3 towns namely, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Merchants and artisans were moved into
Black towns built by European companies within these cities.
Chapter 7: Tribes, Nomads and settled communities
Under Delhi sultans and Mughals the social hierarchy (Varna proposed by Brahmins in later Vedic
period) grew further with distinctions between poor and rich becoming more rigid then before.
Tribal Society:
Tribal people didn’t follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by brahmans.
-No class discrimination followed.
-Had rich customs and traditions
Punjab:
-Khokhar tribe was influential during 13th n 14th centuries.
-Gakkhars became important later
-Kamal khan Gakkhar their chief was a Mansabdar under Akbar
Multan and Sind:
Langahs & Arghuns dominated before Mughals subdued them.
Balochis: A Tribe in NW. It was divided into small clans.
Gaddis: Shepherd tribe lived in Himalayas
NE: Nagas, Ahoms
Orissa: Mundas
Santhals: Bengal
Chero chiefdoms emerged in 12th century in Bihar & Jharkhand areas and were defeated by Raja
Man Singh in 1591.
Maharashtra, Areas of Gujarat - Kolis
K'tka - Berads
Large tribe spread across Central n Western India: Bhils
Present day Chhattisgarh, MP, Maharashtra and AP: Gonds
Nomadic pastoralists moved long distances with their animals. They lived on milk & other pastoral
products.
-Exchanged wool, ghee with settled agriculturists for utensils, cloth & other products.
Banjaras were most imp trader nomads. Their caravan was called Tanda
New castes & Hierarchies:
As economy grew and people with new skills were required so smaller castes emerged within
Varnas.
Many tribal n social groups were given status of jatis. Spl artisans like smiths, carpenters and masons
were now recognised by jatis.
Jati rather than Varna now became the basis for organising society.
Many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and the North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early.
They continued to reject the caste system.
closer look:
A Closer
-Gonds:











Lived in vast forested region called Gondwana
Practiced shifting cultivation
Gond clan divided into smaller clans with each having its raja or rai.
Administration became centralised with kingdom divided into 'garhs".
Each garh was controlled by particular Gond clan.
Garh was further divided into units (of 84 villages) called Chaurasi.
Chaurasi was further divided into units called barhots which were made up of 12 villages
each.
Emergence of large states changed the Gond society and it gradually got divided into
unequal social classes.
Brahmans received grants from Gond rajas and became influential.
Garha katanga's Gond king assumed the title of Sangram Shah.
Gonds raised resources by trapping and exporting elephants to other kingdoms.
Ahoms:









Migrated to Brahmaputra valley from Myanmar in 13th century.
Suppresed Bhuyians(landlords) and created a new system
they used firearms as early as 1530s
Ahom state depended upon forced labour
Paiks - those forced to work for the state
Ahom society divided into Clans or Khels. Khel controlled several villages.
even king couldn’t take away the land given to a peasant by the village community.
In reign of Sib Singh (1714-44) Hinduism became important.
Buranjis: historical works written in Ahom and then in Assamese.
Tribes of Eastern India
Chapter 8: Devotional Paths to the Divine
Bhakti & Sufi movements evolved from the 8th century.
-Beliefs in cycle of birth & idea that all human beings are not equal gained hold during this period.
People turned to Jainism n Buddhism as according to them it was possible to overcome social
differences & break the cycle of rebirth through personal effort.
-Bhakti could deliver from such cycle.
-ideas of Bhakti became popular & even Jainas n Buddhists adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India:
[7th - 9th century]


Nayanars (saints devoted to shiva)
Alvars (saints devoted to vishnu) emerged.



They had members from all castes n untouchables too like Pulaiyar & Panars.
Criticised Buddhists & Jainas n preached that ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu was the path for
salvation.
drew inspiration from Sangam literature n blended its ideals with values of Bhakti.
Tevaram,Tiruvacakam: compilation of songs of Nayanars
Divya Prabandham: Compilation of songs by Alvars
In 10th century (900-1000) Chola & Pandya kings built temples
Hagiographies = Biographies of Nayanars n Alvars
Philosophy and Bhakti
Shankara:




philosopher was born in Kerala in 8th century
Advocate of Advaita or doctrine of Oneness of the individual soul & the supreme god which
is the ultimate reality
Brahma the only or ultimate reality was formless
World as Maya & illusion
Ramanuja:




born in Tamilnadu in 11th Century
Influenced by Alvars
Path to salvation through devotion to Vishnu
Doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or Qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with
supreme god remains distinct
Virashaiva movement




It began in Karnataka in mid 12th century(around 1150s)
against the casteism n treatment of women n believed in equality of human beings
against ritual n idol worship
Inititated by Basavanna , Allama Prabhu & akkamahadevi
Saints of Maharashtra
-13th till 17th centuries
 From 13th till 17th centuries there were many saint-poets.
 janeshwar,
-many
saint-poets.Namdev, Eknath, tukaram
 women like Sakkubai n family of chokhamela belonged to untouchable Mahar caste
-janeshwar,
 This regional tradition of Bhakti focused on Vithal temple in Pandharpur as well as
Namdev.Eknath,tukaram
personal god residing in the hearts of people.
 It rejected ritualsim, outward display of piety , social differences
-women like Sakkubai n
 Itofeven
rejected the idea of renunciation & preferred to live with their families
family
chokhamela

stressed
that bhakti lay in sharing others' pain
belongd to untouchable
 Abhang:
mahar
caste marathi devotional hymn
-This regional tradition
Nathpanthis,
Siddhas
of Bhakti focused
on& Yogis
Vithal temple in
as well as
 Pandharpur
Rejected ritualism
god
in of the formless reality and realisation of oneness with it.
 personal
Believed
in residing
meditation
hearts ofYogasanas
ppl.
 thePracticed

These groups became popular in lower castes
-rejected ritualsim,
outward display of piety
, social
Islam
anddifferences
Sufism
-even rejected the idea
 of Sufis
were Muslim mystics
renunciationn
 preferred
Rejectedtooutward
live withreligiosity n emphasised love n devotion to god n compassion to fellow
human
beings.
their
families
 Islam propagated Montheism or submission to one god.
lay
 -stressed
rejectedthat
idolbhakti
worship
in sahrinf others' pain
 Simplified rituals of worship into collective prayers
 -abhang:marathi
Sufis rejected the elaborate rituals & codes of behavior demanded by Muslim religious
scholars. hymn
devotional
 Famous sufis: Ghazzali, rumi n sadi.
 Like Siddhas & Nathpanthis & yogis they too believed that heart can be trained to look at the
world in a different way
 Developed training methods using zikr (chanting of a sacred formula), raqs (dancing)
 Silsilas - genealogy of Sufi teachers
 Large number of sufis settled in hindustan during 11th century and esp after Delhi sultanate
strengthened its establishment.
 Chishti Silsila was most influential
 Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar kaki of delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab,
Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi &
 Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga
Khanqahs or Hospices:
Sufi masters held their assemblies here. People believed in miraculous healing powers of Sufi saints
so Dargahs or tombs of Sufi saints became centres of pilgrimage gradually
Religious developments in North India
Period after 13th century saw Hinduism,
 Period after 13th century saw Hinduism, Islam, Sufism & various strands of Bhakti
islam , sufism , n various strands of
influencing each other.
Bhakti influencing each other.
 Tulsidas - Ramcharitmanas in awadhi (language in east UP)
 Surdas
- krishna: sursagara,
surasaravali and sahitya lahari
-tulsidas
- ramcharitmanas
in awadhi
 Shankaradeva
(language
in east UP)of Assam - devotion to Vishnu: He started the practice of setting up
Namghars or houses of recitation n prayer
-surdas
- krishnaRajput
:sursagara,
surasaravali
 Mirabai:
princess
of Mewar in 16th century: She became a disciple of Ravidas (who
and sahitya
lahari
was from an untouchable caste). Her songs challenged the norms of upper caste & became
popular inofRajasthan
& Gujarat
-shankaradeva
Assam - devotion
to
vishnu
He started the practice of setting up
namghars or houses of recitation n
prayer
-Mirabai:rajput princess of Mewar in
16th century
she became a disciple of ravidas who
was from an untouchable caste.
-her songs challenged norms of upper
caste n became popular in rajasthan n
gujarat
Kabir
[15-16th century]



family of weavers in or near city of Benares
Sakhis & pads: collection of his verses
Gurugranth sahib, Panch Vani & Bijak contain some of his bhajans
Teachings:





rejected all major religious traditions
ridiculed all form of external worship
against caste system n pre-eminence of priestly class
Believed in formless supreme god
his verses were in a spoken form of Hindi or in a cryptic language
Guru Nanak
[1469-1539]
Born at talwandi, Nankana sahib in pakistan




estb a centre of worship on river Ravi
Followers despite of their caste ate in langar
dharmsal or gurudwara
appointed Lehna or Guru Angad as his successor
Teachings of Guru Nanak



Emphasised 1 god
caste, creed , gender irrelevant
His idea of liberation was active life with a sense of social commitment & not of internal
bliss.
He used following 3 words for essence of his teaching:



nam: right worship
dam: welfare of others
isnan: purity of conduct


Angad compiled Guru Nanak's compositions and he added his own to them too in gurmukhi
3 successors of Guru Angad wrote under the name of Nanak and all of their verses were
compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604.To this version was added the writing of other figures like
Shaikh farid, Sant kabir, Teg bahadur
-In 1706: The compilation was authenticated by Guru Arjan’s son and successor and it is now known
as Guru Granth Sahib

By the beginning of 17th century the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around
central Gurudwara called Harmandar sahib.
-Jahangir perceived Sikhs as a threat and ordered execution of Guru Arjan in 1606.
-The Sikh movement began to get politicized in 17th century and it culminated in 1699 by the estb of
Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh.
-The community of Sikhs called Khalsa Panth became a political entity.
Chapter 9: The Making of Regional Cultures
Cheras and development of Malyalam:




Chera kingdom was established in 9th century in SW part of Peninsula (part of present day
Kerala)
Malayalam was already spoken there and rulers introduced it into their inscriptions
the 1st literary works in 12th century in Malayalam are indebted to Sanskrit
Lilatilakam -14th century - grammar n poetics -composed in Manipravalam (diamonds n
corals)
Anantavarman:

Ruler of Ganga dynasty. He erected a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
Kathak





Derived from Katha, a word used in Sanskrit & other languages for 'story'.
Kathaks were originally storytellers in temples of North India, who embellished their
performances with gestures & songs.
Kathak evolved in to a distinct dance form in 15th n 16th centuries with the spread of Bhakti
Movement
Rasa lila combined folk dance with basic gestures of Kathak story tellers.
it was performed in Mughal courts & that is where it acquired its present features.
-Developed in 2 Gharanas or traditions
1).In Lucknow
2).Courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur)
Under Wajid Ali Shah it grew as a major art form. By 3rd quarter of 19th century Kathak was
entrenched as a dance form not only in above 2 regions but in the adjoining areas of Haryana,
Punjab, J&K, Bihar, MP
-it was recognised as one of the 6 classical dance forms after independence.
Tradition of Miniature Paintings






-small sized paintings
-done in water color on cloth or paper
-Earliest were on palm leaf or wood
-those found in West india illustrate jaina text
-Basohli : Himalayan foothills around the Himachal Pradesh by late 17th century had
developed a bold n intense style of miniature paintings.
-Bhanudatta's Rasamanjari.
-Invasion by Nadir Shah in 1739 forced these artists to flee to hills where they found ready patrons
and it led to the founding of Kangra School of Painting.



-Kangra school was inspired by Vaishnavite tradition.
-Soft colors (cool blue n greens)
-Lyrical treatment of themes
Early Bengali literature has 2 categories:
1).one indebted to Sanskrit



-includes translations of Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas (poems dealing with local deities)
Bhakti literature such as biographies of Chaitanyadeva , leader of Vaishnva Bhakti
Movement
It has been passed on in manuscripts
2).Independent of it




-Nath literature such as songs of Maynamati & gopichandra ; stories concerning the worship
of Dharma Thakur & fairy tales , folk tales & ballads
-circulated orally
-popular in Eastern Bengal where influence of Brahmanas was weak.
-Naths were ascetics who engaged in various yogic practices
Pirs: includes saints or Sufis & other religious personalities, daring colonisers & soldiers, various
Hindu & Buddhist deities & even animistic spirits
Animism: Attribution of living soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena.
Brihaddharma Purana - A 13th century text in Sanskrit from Bengal allowed local Brahmins to eat
varieties of fish.
Chapter 10: 18th Century Political
formations
Later Mughals:
A Crisis was faced by Mughals at the close of 17th century due to:
1).Depletion of army & financial resources by long wars in Deccan by Aurangzeb
2).Successors of Aurangzeb were administratively inefficient.
3).Powerful Mansabdars became difficult to control
4).Subadars (governors) controlled offices of revenue (diwani) & military(Faujdari) administration
which gave them extraordinary powers over vast region of Mughal Empire and gradually the
remission of revenue to the capital declined. The inefficient successors of Aurangzeb were
unsuccessful in curbing the growing influence of provincial governors.
5).Peasant & zamindari rebeliions in North & West compounded the problems.
6).Attacks by Nadir Shah on Delhi in 1739 and frequent invasions of Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali
left Delhi in tatters.
8).Competition between different group of Nobles of Irani and Turani (turkish descent) factions.
Emergence of new States [1700-1800]
Through 18th century the Mughal Empire crumbled into number of Independent regional States
which can be divided into 3 overlapping groups:
1).States that were old Mughal Provinces like Awadh (founded by Sa'adat Khan), Bengal (founded by
Murshid Quli Khan) and Hyderabad(Asaf jah).They didn’t broke their ties with Mughal Emperor.
2).States that had enjoyed a considerable degree of independence under Mughal rulers as watan
Jagirs eg: several Rajput principalities (territories ruled by Prince)
3).States under control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like Jats.
Hyderabad:


Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf jah the founder of Hyderabad was one of the most powerful members
at the court of Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
Hyderabad was engaged with Marathas to the West & with independent Telugu warriors
(Nayakas) in the plateau
Awadh:





Sa'adat Khan became its Subadar in 1722
Awadh controlled the trade route between North India and Bengal.
controlled rich alluvial Ganga plain
Ijaradars - revenue farmers - paid the state a fixed sum of money
Now moneylenders and bankers influenced the management of state's revenue system.
Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as Naib to the governor i.e. deputy
3 common features of Awadh, Hyderabad and Bengal:
1).All the Nobles were highly suspicious of the admin system they had inherited esp. Jagirdari system
2).Method of tax collection was different. All 3 contracted revenue farmers rather than relying on
the officers of the state.
3).Emerging relationship with rich Bankers and Merchants. They lent money to revenue farmers,
received land as security and collected taxes from these lands through their agents.
The Watan Jagirs of Rajputs
Rajput families of amber & Jodhpur claimed Subadaris of rich provinces of Malwa and Gujarat resp.
-Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur - governor of Gujarat
-Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber - governor of Malwa
-they also tried & annexed imperial territories to Watans like nagaur by Jodhpur & large parts of
Bundi by Amber
-Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded his new capital in Jaipur & was given subadari of Agra in 1722.
Seizing Independence: Sikhs
Organisation of Sikhs into a political community in 17th century helped in regional state building in
Punjab.
-Guru Gobind Singh fought against Rajput & Mughal rulers both before & after institution of Khalsa
in 1699.
-Under Banda Bahadur's leadership khalsa rose in revolt against Mughal authority; declared their
sovereignity by striking coins in the name ofGuru Nanak & Guru Gobind Singh & estb their own
administration between Sutlej & Jamuna .
-Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 & executed in 1716.
Sikhs organised themsleves into number of bands in 18th century known as jathas & later on misls
-Combined forces of different bands of Sikhs = dal khalsa


used to meet at Amritsar at Baisakhi & Diwali to take collective decisions known as
'Resolutions of the Guru (gurmatas)"
Rakhi - system under which protection to cultivators on the payment of 20% of produce was
given.
-Khalsa declared their sovereign rule in 1765.
Marathas
Shivaji (1627-1680):


carved out stable kingdoms with the help of warrior families known as Deshmukhs
Kunbis or highly mobile pastoralists provided backbone of maratha army
-After his death the power was wielded by Chitpavan Brahamanas who served Shivaji's successors
as Peshwa(or principal minister)
-Maratha Empire expanded between 1720 & 1761
-Malwa & Gujarat was seized by 1720 from Mughals.
-By 1730s, Maratha king was recognised as overlord of entire Deccan peninsula
-He possessed the right to levy Chauth (25% of the land revenue claimed by zamindars) and
Sardeshmukhi (9-10% of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in Deccan)
-After raiding Delhi in 1737 the frontiers of Maratha Empire expanded into,



Rajasthan & Punjab in North
Bengal & Orissa in the east
Karnataka & Tamil & Telugu countries in the south.
- Marathas established a sound admin system too.
Jats







Consolidated their power during late 17th and 18th century
Under Churaman they acquired control over cities West to Delhi
By 1680s they had control over region between imperial cities of Delhi & Agra
Jats were agriculturists
Panipat & Ballabhgarh - trading centres in areas dominated by them
Suraj Mal –Under him Bharatpur emerged as a strong state.
At Dig Jats built an elaborate garden palace influenced by architectural form prevalent under
Shah Jahan.
British Territories in Mid-18th Century