A List of Fallacies (from Browne and Keeley, Chapter 7)
This is a list of the “tricks” an author or speaker might use while trying to persuade you. These are the
most common fallacies (and have all been taken from your textbook). More complete lists, if you find
yourself interested in learning about fallacies, are available on the websites listed in your textbook on
page 85.
1. Ad Hominem – An attack, or an insult, on the person, rather than directly addressing the person’s
reasons. “Obama is stupid if he thinks raising taxes will help fix the economy.”
2. Slippery Slope – Making the assumption that a proposed step will set off an uncontrollable chain
of undesirable events, when procedures exist to prevent such an event. “If we provide condoms
in our schools, then the number of teenage pregnancies will increase, along with the number of
abortions.”
3. Searching for Perfect Solution – Falsely assuming that because part of a problem would remaing
after a solution is tried, the solution should not be adopted. “Since cap and trade legislation won’t
deal with our current energy problems, then we should try something else.”
4. Equivocation – A key word or phrase is used with two or more meanings in an argument such
that the argument fails to make sense once the shifts in meaning are recognized.
5. Appeal to Popularity (Ad Populum) – An attempt to justify a claim by appealing to sentiments
that large groups of people having in common; falsely assumes that anything favored by large
groups is desirable. “We must pass more stringent anti-immigration laws because most people
agree that we should.”
6. Appeal to Questionable Authority – Supporting a conclusion by citing an authority who lacks
special expertise on the issue at hand. “NORML reports that smoking marijuana is not as harmful
to the lungs as cigarettes.”
7. Appeals to Emotion – The use of emotionally charged language to distract readers and listeners
from relevant reasons and evidence. Common emotions appealed to are fear, hope, patriotism,
pity, and sympathy. “If the Israelis do not stop building settlements in the West Bank, the
Palestinians will resume their missile attacks on Israel.”
8. Straw Person – Distorting our opponents view so that it is easy to attack; thus we attack a point
of view that does not truly exist. “Obama wants to raise taxes on the middle-class and small
businesses, and you should never do this during a recession” (when in actuality, the only taxes to
be “raised” are those for the top 2% of the income ladder).
9. Either/Or (the false dilemma) – Assuming only two alternatives, when there are more than two.
“Person A: I wish we weren’t in a war in Afghanistan. Person B: Oh, so you don’t support the
troops?”
10. Wishful Thinking – Making the assumption that because we wish X were true or false, then X is
indeed true or false. “If I weren’t so fat, I could eat as much Lucky Charms as I want!”
11. Explaining by naming – Falsely assuming that because you have provided a name for some event
or behavior, you have also adequately explained the event. “Why did some individuals fly planes
into the WTC on 9/11? Because they are terrorists.”
12. Glittering Generality – The use of vague emotionally appealing virtue words that dispose us to
approve something without closely examining the reasons. “Your professor is the smarted,
kindest, nicest person you will ever meet.”
13. Red Herring – An irrelevant topic is presented to divert attention from the original issue and help
to “win” an argument by shifting attention away from the argument and to another issue. The
fallacy sequence in this instance is as follows: (a) Topic A is being discussed; (b) Topic B is
introduced as though it is relevant to Topic A, but it is not; and (c) Topic A is abandoned.
a. Politicians do this all the time. From Meet the Press this past Sunday (9/26) – David
Gregory is the Moderator for NBC, and he’s talking to Representative Mike Pence (R),
Indiana, who is chair of the House Republican Caucus.
MR. GREGORY: As well as extending the tax cuts. How do you answer
the charge from Democrats, from the president as well, that you don't have
a way to pay for extending the tax cuts, and yet you're committed to deficit
reduction?
REP. PENCE: Well, look, in the Pledge to America, which I look forward
to chatting about, we say, look, we've got to do something to get this
economy moving again. We give real and meaningful proposals to begin
the process of reining in runaway federal spending by both political
parties...
MR. GREGORY: But, but how do you pay for the tax cuts is the
question.
REP. PENCE: ...and reforming the government.
Look, job one needs to be to create jobs. The American people know the
last thing you want to do in the worst economy in 25 years is raise taxes
on small business owners and family farmers. We have to vote before
Congress adjourns for the political season, the fall elections, on an up or
down vote. More than 30 Democrats support extending all the current tax
relief. And, and we're calling on Speaker Pelosi and leaders like Chris,
give us an up or down vote, let the Congress work its will and give the
American people certainty...
14. Begging the Question – An argument in which the conclusion is assumed in the reasoning. “We
really work on the need to reduce underage drinking because it will help the country by lowering
the number of children who drink alcohol on a regular basis.”