LRA 2013
Dallas, Texas
Disconnected Youth: Perspectives on Literacy and Learning
Purpose and Research Questions
This study in progress examines the literacy experiences, from early childhood to adolescence, of
disconnected youth who have become disengaged from and have dropped out of school. Research
questions:
1. What were disconnected youths’ experiences with reading, from primary grades through adolescence?
2. How did disconnected youth see themselves as readers, and how did these perceptions shift over time?
3. What connections might be found between disconnected youths’ reading motivation and the process of
disengaging from school?
Theoretical Framework
Disengagement and Dropping Out
 Dropping out is conceptualized as a process that unfolds over time (Rumberger, 2011); antecedents
leading to dropping out are complex and intertwined, encompassing a range of factors including school,
peer group, family, and individual factors (Bridgeland et al., 2006; Flores-Gonzalez, 2002; Lee &
Burkam, 2003; National Research Council, 2004; Rumberger & Lin, 2008)
 School environment and practices influence student attitudes and behavior (Eccles et al., 1991;
Fredricks et al., 2004; Lee, 2001; Neild, 2009; Schmakel, 2008; Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).
 Interactions between school and student influence the intertwined concepts of engagement and
motivation, shaping the student’s identity as a learner (Dweck, 2000; Fredricks et al., 2004)
Motivation and Engagement
 Some definitions of engagement emphasize cognitive factors relating to student motivation, interest and
persistence at school, while others emphasize emotional reactions to learning or being in school
(National Center for School Engagement, 2006; Fredericks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004)
 Engagement encompasses cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions that align with principles of
motivation, including competence and belongingness (Bandura, 1997; Baumeister & Leary, 1995)
 The interplay between engagement and motivation to learn is informed by the relationship between
motivation, mindset, and performance (Dweck, 2000).
Reading Motivation and Engagement
 Motivation to read is a multidimensional construct (Baker & Wigfield, 1999) intertwined with the
larger set of motivation and engagement factors; research has documented a negative trend in reading
motivation from primary through middle grades (McKenna, Kear, & Ellsworth, 1995; Wigfield, Eccles,
& Rodriguez, 1998)
 Students who make positive associations with reading tend to read more frequently and with greater
engagement, while those who make negative associations tend to be disengaged and uncommitted
(Henk, Marinak, & Melnick, 2012)
 Adolescents’ reading motivation is challenged by the limited ability of middle-level and secondary
classrooms to respond to their needs as learners (Allington, 1994; Eccles & Roeser, 2009; Ivey &
Broaddus, 2001; O’Brien, 1998); adolescent students are expected to comprehend large amounts of
informational text without necessarily receiving reading instruction in subject-specific classes, resulting
in a separation between literacy development and learning that may cause students to struggle in school
(Draper, Smith, Hall, & Siebert, 2005; Irvin & Conners, 1989; Ogle & Blachowicz, 2002)
 Specific elements of reading comprehension such as background knowledge, specialized vocabulary,
complex text structures, and flexible strategy use factor into students’ potential struggles with reading
(Barton, Heidema, & Jordan, 2002; Kieffer & Lesaux, 2010; Reutzel, Camperell, & Smith, 2002)
Research Implementation and Methods
Design and Context
 This study uses a qualitative case-study approach (Yin, 2003), utilizing narrative inquiry to elicit
student voice, allowing a deeper understanding of people and events in context (Clandinin & Connelly,
Antony Smith, University of Washington Bothell ansmith@uwb.edu
Deborah Feldman and Barbara Waxman, Paragon Education Network
Washington Student Oral Histories Project: www.wsohp.org/
LRA 2013
Dallas, Texas
2000) and providing coherence to interpreting qualitative data (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, & Zilber,
1998)
 Participants included 53 youth, ages 16-22, who had dropped out of school; youth were located through
urban and rural alternative school and social service agencies
Data Sources and Analysis
 Screening survey
 Semi-structured interview protocol (Patton, 2002)
 School rating form (completed and discussed during the interview)
 Interview transcripts were analyzed using open coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to identify themes
within and across cases, leading to the development of theoretical propositions exploring these
emerging themes (Miles & Huberman, 1994)
 A 4-part report of general results relating to motivation, engagement, the disengagement process, and
drop-out initiating and tipping points may be found at www.wsohp.org
Emerging Results
Disengagement and Reading: A Long-Term Process
Youths’ stories suggest dropping out is not so much a well-defined event as a long-term process of
disengagement that may start as early as elementary school. Literacy experiences are interwoven with this
process.
 In primary grades, students appeared to enjoy most aspects of school despite learning challenges or
behavioral problems. Literacy experiences were remembered fondly, with teacher read-alouds and
independent reading involving student choice noted as highlights. Students most often considered
themselves ‘good readers’ in early grades, though this seemed to reference decoding skills rather than
comprehension. As one youth described, “I liked reading. We had reading time in the morning and I
always thought that was cool. And I liked seeing friends…In the beginning years, it was the teacher
[who]would read to us and like fourth, fifth and sixth grade we got to read ourselves
 Middle level years showed emerging elements of disengagement, with youth skipping first a few
classes and then moving to serious truancy early in high school. Some youth appeared to move quickly
into serious truancy while others experienced a slow dropping out process lasting years. During this
time, perceptions of literacy seemed to decay, particularly in terms of motivation. Faced with
challenging texts in ‘boring’ classes, many youth recalled giving up school reading, or worse, stopping
altogether. As one youth recalled, “I hate reading out loud ‘cause I’m not a good reader. That really
got me, too. So I would like – for me, it would be like I make jokes so I wouldn’t have to read out loud.
I would get myself in trouble so I wouldn’t have to do it and they would kick me out of my class, and I
would be in the office.”
From the stories youth told us, reading in middle grades (and beyond) was neither personal nor relational.
Instead, disengaged reading folded into the larger process of disconnecting from school, leading youth
down the pathway to dropping out of school. These experiences lead to the question: Could engaged
reading in middle and high school have helped divert youth from the pathway to dropping out? Perhaps not,
as multiple factors beyond school contributed to the process of dropping out. Academic mindset, the belief
that one is able to do work and has the intelligence necessary to succeed, appeared to be a powerful factor
influencing youths’ school failure. Perhaps academic mindset could be boosted by fostering engaged
reading through shifts in middle school curriculum and instruction. Shifts like these may help at-risk
students improve skills and see themselves as successful readers who are part of a larger reading
community (Ivey & Johnston, 2013). Engaged reading may make it possible for disconnected youth to
build confidence, persevere in completing reading and academic tasks, graduate on time, and ultimately
become lifelong readers who are motivated to learn.
Antony Smith, University of Washington Bothell ansmith@uwb.edu
Deborah Feldman and Barbara Waxman, Paragon Education Network
Washington Student Oral Histories Project: www.wsohp.org/