STEAM WP 6, Literature review
Jari Lavonen, Kalle Juuti, and Minkee Kim
(University of Helsinki)
Contents
Background ................................................................................................................................... 2
Motivation ................................................................................................................................. 2
Interest ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Inquiry for changing motivation and interest ........................................................................... 4
Professional development of science teachers in Finland ............................................................ 5
Perceptions of scientific inquiry in Finland ................................................................................... 7
Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Appendix 1: Three optimal aspects of professional development in Finland ............................. 11
Aspects of empowerment ....................................................................................................... 12
Aspects of communication ...................................................................................................... 13
Aspects of context ................................................................................................................... 13
11
Background
Students’ low motivation and interest in science and technology (S&T) have been intensively
cautioned since the 1960s. In students’ general perspective, science is important for students,
but most of them, especially girls, do not find school science or careers and occupations in
those fields interesting (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003). Furthermore, such dichotomous
motivation and interest in S&T—science is important, but not for students themselves—is the
most critical factor that accounts for students’ better understanding in science (Kim & Song,
2009). In pursue of enhancing student motivation, the inquiry activities have been found to
demonstrate relevance of science education, when these activities are linked to everyday
problems or to constructions and manufacturing products.
Motivation
Many concepts have been used to describe motivational aspects of science teaching and
learning. Here we base our analysis on Self Determination Theory (SDT) and theory of Interest.
According to Ryan and Deci (2002), a student’s way of thinking has an important role in the
process of motivation. Motivated behaviour may be (i) self-determined or (ii) controlled and
they involve different reasons for behaving. Self-determined or autonomous behaviour is
behaviour which arises freely from one's self. Controlled behaviour, in contrast, means that
the behaviour is controlled by some interpersonal or intrapsychic force, like a curriculum or a
task. The motivation styles in SDT are: (i) amotivation, (ii) extrinsic motivation and (iii) intrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation has positive effects on learning, in particular, to the quality of
learning. Intrinsically motivated behaviours are based on the need to feel competent and selfdetermined. Extrinsically motivated behaviour is instrumental in nature. Such action is
performed for the sake of some expected outcome or extrinsic reward or in order to comply
with a demand.
As students generate their motivation, it can be instructed in school. In practice, a science
teacher can offer optimal challenges and rich sources of motivating stimulations through
choosing the learning activities. Therefore, in addition, to previously discussed features of selfdetermined and controlled behaviour of a learner, it is appropriate to analyse also features of
a learning activity which could increase motivation of a learner. This is because selfdetermined learning occurs when learning activity itself is considered as interesting, enjoyable
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or personally important by a learner. From the point of view of the SDT, the motivational
features of the learning activity could be classified in five categories:
-
autonomy-supporting activities/teacher, through
-
choose of student-centred learning methods like “open ended” inquiry (Wellington,
1998) and other tasks where students have some choices how to plan or study,
-
collaborative learning activities which support feeling of autonomy,
-
co-planning of the learning activities,
-
use of ICT where students have choices, possibilities for planning and evaluating ones
own activities and
-
support to the feeling of effectiveness and importance of working;
support to students’ feeling of competency, through
-
choose of inquiry and other tasks, which are possible for the student to solve;
-
choose and use of constructive evaluation methods, like self assessment, portfolio
evaluation, informal discussions, which help students to recognise that they are good
at an activity or do the activity well and
-
support to the feeling that the activity has some value or use for the student.
support to students’ social relatedness, through
-
choose of tasks, collaborative learning activities, co-planning and ICT use which help
students to feel close to peers and
-
support to the feeling that the student can trust each other and feel themselves close
to each other.
-
support to interest and enjoyment, through
-
waking up of curiosity by choose of surprise-evoking inquiry and other activities or
tasks,
-
enjoyable, fun and interesting activities, like through choose of interesting web pages
or simulations,
-
choosing activity which hold attention;
science content (new materials or new knowledge in science) and context (human being,
occupations, technology or history).
Interest
Interest is seen as a content-specific motivational variable (Krapp, 2007). Interest is
approached from two major points of view. One is interest as a characteristic of a person
(personal interest) and the other is interest as a psychological state aroused by specific
characteristics of the learning environment (situational interest). Personal interest is topic
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specific, persists over time, develops slowly and tends to have long-lasting effects on a
person’s knowledge and values (Hidi, 1990). Pre-existing knowledge, personal experiences and
emotions are the basis of personal interest (Schiefele, 1991). Situational interest is
spontaneous, fleeting, and shared among individuals. It is an emotional state that is evoked by
something in the immediate environment and it may have only a short-term effect on an
individual’s knowledge and values. Situational interest is aroused as a function of the
interestingness of the topic or an event and is also changeable and partially under the control
of teachers (Schraw & Lehman, 2001).
According to Hoffman (2002) an appropriate context where certain science content or topics
are met or teaching and learning activity might have an influence on the quality of emotional
experience, which is importance for the development of situational interest. Juuti, Lavonen,
Uitto, Byman, and Meisalo (2004) surveyed Finnish 9th grade students’ interests in physics in
certain contexts. The most interesting things (especially for girls) were connected with human
being. Therefore, it is important to approach issues through the activities of human beings.
Students’ out-of-school experiences are different. Boys’ experiences are more relevant to
physics and technical topics whereas those of girls are more closely related to everyday life
and health (Uitto, Juuti, Lavonen & Meisalo, 2006). Therefore, science related experiences
during the science lessons are important especially for girls.
The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Theory of Interest are relative theories. Especially
from the point of view of ICT use, similar conclusions can be done based on both theories. For
example, it is important to support student autonomy and curiosity for increasing his or her
interest or motivation to learn. Both, autonomy and curiosity are possible to support by
choosing the activities in a versatile way. ICT use as such can support both feelings. For
example, Dori, Barak and Adir (2003) found that ICT-enhanced learning motivate and engaged
students on learning.
Inquiry for changing motivation and interest
In a psychological perspective, Koballa (1992) argued that persuasion of students’ attitude
(motivation and interest) toward science should be carried out using the proper educational
channel of instruction (‘formation of beliefs that are held “evidentially”’) that helps students to
decide which attitude is reasonable for them, while freed from any external reinforcement or
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biases (p. 72). When formal science education is arranged in a restricted manner, with a
textbook and school experiments by a science teacher, students may not be provided with the
abundant or balanced information so as to garner a positive attitude toward elective science
courses or careers in S&T. In science education, Woolnough (1996) investigated also students’
opinions as to why some of them choose a science and technology related occupation and
others not. He used open questions and received the responses of 654 students in six UK
comprehensive schools (11-16 year old students). According to his empirical study, a decision
not to choose a science and technology related occupation was not a decision against them
but due to the pursuit of an occupation in another field.
Through the literature, it stands to reason that the inquiry activities in this module (text based
inquiry, narrative as a personalized inquiry, inquiry in a school laboratory, and industry site
visit) will provide students with balanced information and with motivation.
Professional development of science teachers in Finland
In Finland, there is not any systematic in-service training for science teachers. In-service
training is not compulsory nor does it have any effect on salary. However, several institutions
organise in-service training for science teachers supported, for example, by The National Board
of Education. For example The National Centre for Mathematics and Natural Sciences
organises in-service teacher education courses (see
http://www.helsinki.fi/luma/english/index.shtml). Thus, there is a lot of in-service training for
teachers free of charge.. In Finland, teachers are considered to be professionals who actively
develop their own skills and knowledge. Thus, they are assumed to participate in professional
development courses, seminars, and projects
In fact, several problems have emerged in Finland, in bridging the gap between educational
research and praxes. Teachers tend to express opposition to the innovations suggested by
researchers. In the context of the versatile use of ICT by science teachers, Lavonen, Juuti,
Aksela, and Meisalo (2006) emphasise that regardless of their formal training, teachers have
difficulty in integrating educational innovations into the classroom. Organising effective
professional programmes for the development of education is not an easy task. How to offer
55
adequate guidance or in-service training or facilitate the professional development of teachers
are still unsolved problems in Finland and in most of other countries
Based on their experiences, on a 3-year professional development project for increasing
versatile ICT use in science classrooms, Lavonen, et al. concluded that when planning a
professional development (PD) project for science teachers, facilitators should consider
empowerment, (co-planning, shared purpose and internalisation of goals, shared expertise
and dissemination, appropriate resources, authentic evaluation); communication, (face-toface, mediated and mediated quasi-interaction, reflection in small groups, optimal pace,
diversity on district, gender, work experience, ethnicity etc., and a creative atmosphere); and
finally context (innovation should be integrated into several aspects of teaching practice,
teachers initial understanding of the innovation should be taken into account when goals are
set and activities are planned) (See Appendix 1).
One of the key ideas in developing the use of ICT together with teachers was to emphasise the
importance of analysing the objectives of science education as a starting point for planning
teaching activities. The development of student skills needed in the acquisition and analysis of
data was particularly emphasised in planning. In practice, this orientation led to the selection
of appropriate contents, contexts and teaching or learning method(s) and particularly a use of
ICT suitable for reaching these goals. When a teacher has internalised the objectives in the
curriculum and knows the advantages of ICT in science education, he/she can integrate ICT
into selected teaching methods (cf. McFarlane & Sakellariou, 2002). On a more general level,
teachers are professionals with autonomy in their work. This must also be remembered in PD
projects when the goal of such a project is to help teachers to integrate ICT into the most
important teaching methods in science education. As a summary, science teachers can be
guided towards the integration of ICT into science teaching through the development of
teaching methods based on the existing goals of science education.
Later, Juuti and Lavonen (2006) revealed that in the field of science education research, the
research based knowledge diffusion and adoption of innovation had seldom been taken into
consideration. They addressed the factors having an impact on the acceptance or adoption of
educational innovations or design solutions. These factors are: (a) the properties and usability
of an artefact, (b) the local characteristics which are the teacher’s pedagogical knowledge,
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skills, and beliefs, and the administrative leadership and support available to teachers, and (c)
the external factors influencing the adoption of the innovation such as educational policies,
national strategies, curriculum, and different kinds of national networking as well as public
hype of certain innovation. They proposed that one approach to answer critiques aimed at
science education is to focus on, not only, the process of pupils’ learning and the properties of
the artefact to be designed, but also on teachers’ knowledge and on authentic teaching and
learning settings.
Tobin, et al. (1994) summarise the relationships between teachers’ beliefs and reform efforts:
“Many of the reform attempts of the past have ignored the role of the beliefs of teachers in
sustaining the status quo. The studies ... suggest that teachers’ beliefs are a critical ingredient
in the factors that determine what happens in classrooms.” In order to make such demanding
reform among teachers in Finland, Juuti, Lavonen, Aksela, and Meisalo (2009) propose that
informal discussion in small groups during the coffee breakes and industrial visits were seen
important by participating teachers. It can be concluded that in PD projects, there should be
plenty of room for informal communication between teachers. This could be one possibility to
influence on teachers' beliefs concerning teaching and learning science.
Perceptions of scientific inquiry in Finland
Inquiry-oriented science instruction has been examined to as facilitating self-directed learning
with explorative “hands-on” activities and reconstruction of mental framework (Haury, 1993).
The first feature functions as the learners’ science activity satisfies their curiosity in nature.
The second occurs as learners’ meaning making in a science class interacts with their previous
knowledge of natural phenomena. However, there has been little research on learning
activities and communication in Finnish science classrooms. Experts from the UK (Norris,
Asplund, MacDonald, Schostack, & Zamorski, 1996), who evaluated and developed the Finnish
science education program, observed science lessons and interviewed headmasters, teachers,
and students in 50 lower and upper secondary schools. They concluded that Finnish teachers
were pedagogically conservative, and teaching and learning were traditional, involving mainly
lecturing in front of the whole group of students. Furthermore, finnish teachers have been
known to be pedagogically conservative and to be apt to adhere to traditional instruction.
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Finnish students as well prefer teacher-delivered teaching where teachers present contents on
blackboards (Lavonen, Juuti, Byman, Uitto, & Meisalo, 2004). They surveyed 3,626 ninth-year
pupils about their opinions concerning how physics and chemistry are taught at
comprehensive school and how they would like it to be taught. The most popular teaching
methods in physics and chemistry were teacher-delivered or directed instruction or
presentation–recitation teaching where the teacher presents new material or solves problems
on the blackboard. Demonstrations and practical work were the next most popular group of
teaching methods.
A recent regression analysis explaining the PISA 2006 science reveals noticeable findings. The
study employed the inquiry items from the PISA 2006 questionnaire asking whether students
are allowed to design their own science questions, experiments, and investigations. The mean
of the items in Finland are responded less frequent than the OECD average and the median
value, which implies that teaching science through inquiry is in evidence very little in Finnish
school science. Another statistically significant finding is that the sum factor of these items on
inquiry has a negative influence to predict students’ high achievement in PISA 2006 science by
-1.58. On the other hand, the highest competence in science among Finnish students is
attributed mostly to how frequent their science education is taught through teachers’
demonstrations (0.37), practical work (0.26), and students’ authority for making conclusions
(0.26). In summary, Finnish teachers help Finnish students to acquire PISA competencies
through traditional practical work activities where students conduct experiments according to
instructions given by a teacher or a laboratory manual. This consistent perception of the
traditional school science in Finland is prevalent, in that science teachers are seen as
professionals who motivate students’ meaningful understanding by means of asking question
and practical works (Simola, 2005).
Finnish students are scarcely asked to play an active role to design the scientific activities at
the early stage in each science class. Rather, they are provided with structured practical work
by teachers. Regarding these consistent findings on inquiry in Finland, it is reasonable to
broaden the interpretation of inquiry activities in school science. Gengarelly and Abrams
(2009) suggest us a relevant classification of the inquiry in school science as follows: open
inquiry where students are engaged in the active search for knowledge with few instructions,
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either structured inquiry where they are guided to do practical work with questions or
structured inquiry where students are provided with questions and methods, and confirmative
inquiry where they are engaged in using heuristic devices in science with question, methods,
and solutions (see Table 1). According to this interpretation, it stands to reason that in Finland
general inquiry is defined to be the guided and structured type of inquiry carried by
professional teachers.
Table 1. 4-level of inquiry employed from Gengarelly & Abrams (c.f., McFarlane & Sakellariou,
2002)
Although, Simola (2005) explains traditional teacher behaviour is supported through social
trust and teachers’ high professional academic status in Finland, teachers can obviously
support students to create meaningful and understandable knowledge through asking
questions, and supporting students in explaining and reasoning and organizing practical work.
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Appendix 1: Three optimal aspects of professional development
in Finland
These aspects are suggested by a national study in Finland (Lavonen et al., 2006).
Aspects of empowerment

Co-planning, shared purpose and internalisation of goals. Teachers’ beliefs, current
practices during the project (teaching or learning methods used) and problems regarding
the use of ICT should be identified and discussed. Meetings should be planned
cooperatively.

Shared expertise and dissemination. Teachers should be guided in their planning and
evaluation of small teaching experiments, which are then implemented in their schools
together with the assistance of other teachers. When their ICT competence increases,
teachers should take (and should be given) the responsibility for preparing short
presentations (on their own teaching experiments) autonomously and for publishing
reports. Local training sessions and workshops, training sessions and workshops in
conferences, and written articles for teachers’ journals should all be agreed on in good
time.

Appropriate resources. Resources for new equipment and software as well as travel-ling
expenses and time for development work should be available and allocated directly to
schools. Purchase and use of new equipment must be planned together and this plan
must be properly implemented.

Authentic evaluation. Evaluation data should be continually collected by discussions in
small and big groups, questionnaires, interviews, observations, teacher evaluation reports
and project reports, in order to follow up how participating teachers have adopted ICT,
and how their ICT competence increases. All face-to-face and virtual meetings should be
cooperatively evaluated and new goals set based on these evaluations.
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Aspects of communication

Ensure versatile communication. There should be opportunities to use different types of
communication: face-to-face communication (plenary discussions, lectures, formal, and
informal small-group activities), mediated communication (newsgroup discussions,
personal email and course management systems) and mediated quasi-interaction (email
lists, web-based instruction materials and publications).

Ensure reflection in small groups. Teachers must believe that they can learn from each
other and therefore they should be encouraged to participate in small-group discussions
regarding their classroom practices and their knowledge of how ICT can be used in science
education. Teachers should be encouraged to be active in concrete development projects,
including teaching experiments, instead of formal in-service training by lecturing and
exercises.

Optimal pace. Facilitators should be sensitive to the progress of the project. An optimal
combination of lectures and formal and informal small-group activities should be found.
Time should be allocated for maturation of ideas.

Optimal diversity. There should be about two to four teachers from each school, and
altogether about 15 to 25 teachers teaching each subject. It is an advantage if
participating teachers have different backgrounds (district, gender, work experience, ICT
competence, and ethnicity) to ensure divergent viewpoints.

Creative atmosphere. New ideas about ICT in science education, and a lack of prior
information, cause uncertainty. This uncertainty increases the number of possible
alternatives for the development of ICT in science education. There must be room for free
idea forming and positive feedback to all ideas and an understanding of the nature of
creative problem solving processes. This kind of open environment helps teachers to take
risks and allows failures in teaching experiments.
Aspects of context

The importance of context. ICT in science education should be integrated into several
aspects of teaching practice: (1) teaching methods, e.g. practical work, learning by reading
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and writing, working in small groups; (2) content, e.g. the structure of matter, energy
resources; and (3) contexts, e.g. science in society, development of technology, its
relationship to human beings. These approaches easily allow discussion about extensive
goals that can be reached through the integration of ICT into science teaching. PD
programmes should correspond to the environments of the present and future, hence site
visits are instructive to help demonstrate how ICT is used in the workplace and in real life.

Cumulative development of teachers’ ICT competencies starting where they are. The
competence of teachers in ICT should be evaluated at the beginning. Their initial
competence should be taken into account when goals are set and activities are planned.
The development of teacher competence should be a regular topic of discussion. This
information should be used when new phases are designed.
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