Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in
a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
INTRODUCTION
Algae, everyone knows it. It's green, slimy and
when you are swimming in the sea it tickles
your toes. Already, several projects have
demonstrated that algae are also convenient;
they can be used as food additives: thickening
agents, but they could also be a possible
solution for the rising global fuel prices and the
global warming issue. Even with a necessary
input of energy for the production process of
algae. The usage of algae’s is a carbon
dioxide neutral process, because of their
process of photosynthesis, which they use for
their growth. Further, they are also an
important sustainable source of biomass for
biogas production as well as lipid for biodiesel
production, with several advantages over the
current biomass sources such as rapeseed.
This article, will tell you more about the
cultivation of algae, the production of bio-fuels,
the Advantages and disadvantages and the
genetic engineering of algae to obtain a higher
yield of both oil to biomass. Want to know
more about it?
Authors:, Benjamin Maris, Jonatan Wauthier
Elke Knoops, Serpil Dirikan, Christophe Lisbe,
Mouna Tajeddine and Pieter Sas
Date: 2010-2011
Project leader: Lic. Bart Cornelis
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
Contents
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................... 1
1.
What is renewable energy ? ............................................................................................................ 1
2.
What is Bio-fuel and how can it be produced? ............................................................................... 1
3.
What are algae’s and their composition? ....................................................................................... 2
4.
Advantages and disadvantages of using algae. ............................................................................... 3
5.
Cultivation methods of algae’s ........................................................................................................ 3
6.
How does the production process of bio-fuel with algae’s occurs? ............................................... 4
7.
Positioning of the algae research: ................................................................................................... 6
8.
Manipulation of algae to obtain a higher profitability .................................................................... 6
9.
Applications within the bio-energy field ......................................................................................... 7
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 8
10.
References ................................................................................................................................... 9
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a
closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
SUMMARY
Renewable bio-fuels are needed to displace the current used fuels, which contribute to global
warming and are of limited availability. A possible answer will be discussed in this article, it is about
using “algae production coupled to an anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system” for bio-fuel
production”. At first we discussed what renewable energy and the different generations of it. What
bio-fuel is/are and how it can be produced. Then the article go’s about the algae’s what they are and
what the advantages and disadvantages are by the use of algae. Followed about the discussion
about the different cultivation methods of the algae such as a closed system called photobioreactors
or a open race pond. Further we will also position the research about optimization the production /
cultivation and manipulation of algae’s . At last there are a few applications explained about the use
of algae to produce bio-energy, such as using algae for biogas production or the usage of algae in
for bio-fuel production. Followed by a small interview with a company in the Netherlands that is
already using algae’s for bio-fuel production.
1. What is renewable
energy ?
Renewable energy is energy
from inexhaustible (re-) sources.
This
hydropower,
wind,
geothermal, biomass and all
forms of solar energy are a
example of an inexhaustible
source. Using renewable energy
is better for the environment and
makes us less dependent on
fossil fuels which are exhaustive
and highly polluting. Besides
renewable energy there is also
durable energy, often knew as
synonyms. This is incorrect,
durable energy has been a
broader term than renewable
energy. It is the energy that
mankind
has
indefinitely,
extracted from an inexhaustible
source, and whose use is not
detrimental to our environment
as well as for the economy
In other words, durable energy is
always a renewable energy, but
renewable energy is not always
a durable energy. As recently
reported in the media is bio-fuel
from rapeseed not a durable
source of energy, if for the
growth of these rapeseed fields
forests has to be cut down.
Further the EU leaders decided
on December 2008, to adapt a
comprehensive
package
of
measures to reduce emissions.
Under this plan, the share of
renewable energy increased to
20%.
But
also
to
the
consumption of fossil fuels for
transport by 10% be replaced by
bio fuels, electricity or hydrogen.
(Biofields-Renewable&Sustainable
Energy
2009;Bond Beter Leefmilieu 2010;De
portaalsite van de Europese Unie
2010;E.Cornelis et al. 2009;Ghent Bioenergy
Valley-vzw.
2010;Milieu
Centraal
2010;Organisatie
Duurzame
Energie
2010;Wout Boerjan 2010)
2. What is Bio-fuel and
how
can
it
be
produced?
Bio-fuels are fuels obtained from
biomass or from components
(from any biological origin), such
as plants. They replace the fossil
fuels such as gasoline or diesel,
with the advantage that bio-fuels
emit less particulate matter and
carbon
dioxide.
There are several distinct types
of bio-fuels such as bio-ethanol
(made from sugar beet and sugar
cane) and biodiesel (made from
rape, maize and soybean) for
cars.(Arno van 't Hoog, Marian van Opstal,
Arthur van Zuylen, Gerart Stout, &
Prof.Dr.Ir.Bert Weckhuysen 2008;Norbert
Cuiper
2010;Technische
Universiteit
Eindhoven 2010). The raw materials
for producing the bio-fuels can be
divided into three generations:
The first generation of bio-fuels
made from food crops (such as
cereals, maize and soybeans)
are processed by conventional
fermentation
or
chemical
processes
into
fuels.
The
downside of this generation of
bio-fuels is that the precious food
crops are used for energy while
there is a food shortage in the
world. One consequence is the
emergence of second generation
bio-fuels, which are bio-fuels
produced from crop residues
(waste) such as wheat straw and
other 'low quality' biomass, such
as trimmings. In other words, the
second generation of bio-fuels
does not need to compete with
available
agriculture
land.
cooking oil, willow, wood and
garden waste. Like after the first
generation of bio-fuels there is a
second generation, but also this
one is followed by a third
generation of bio-fuel. This
generation
includes
new
developments
(+
genetic
modifications). Below means
including the use of algae to
produce bio-fuel. This biomass
has the advantage that it does
not compete with food crops or
other, but also that this
method/development can be
used on soils that are not usable
as farmland. (Arno van 't Hoog, Marian
van Opstal, Arthur van Zuylen, Gerart Stout,
& Prof.Dr.Ir.Bert Weckhuysen 2008;BiofieldsRenewable&Sustainable Energy 2009;Bond
1
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
3. What are algae’s and
their composition?
(Micro-)algae are eukaryotic
photosynthetic organisms, which
occur in aquatic environments.
They are classified under the
separate kingdom Protista and
can be unicellular (microalgae)
and
multicellular
organisms.
Algae’s are in the possess of
chlorophyll(s), so they can do on
photosynthesis. In other words
they use sunlight as an energy
source for building their biomass
such as sugar and lipids. For this
they
need
the
necessary
nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorus in a ratio of 16N:1P.
(Micro-) algae’s are remarkably
efficient biological factories which
are
capable
of
taking
up/assimilate a waste form of
carbon (CO2) and converting it
into a high density liquid form of
energy (natural oil). The four
most abundant classes of micro
algae
are
diatoms
(Bacillariophyceae), green algae
(Chlorophyceae),
blue-green
algae
(Cyanophyceae),
and
golden algae (Chrysophyceae).
There is a huge diversity of
microalgae. it is estimated that
there are approximately 500,000
species exist of which only
35,000 would consist of known /
described species. So selecting
the (micro) algae species which
is best used for bio-fuel
production isn’t simple. For biofuel production we seek a type of
algae that is rich in oil
components and has a high
primary production of oil(specially
for producing biodiesel), mainly
saturated fatty acids. But also
algae’s
that
grow
rapidly
(specially for biogas production).
Most
common
microalgae
(Botryococcus, Chlamydomonas,
Chlorella, Dunaliella, Neochloris,
What is BIOMASS?
Everything that grows and flourishes is biomass. There are two
main streams of biomass, crops grown specifically for energy
production and organic waste (waste). This stream of biomass can
vary from animal waste (including manure), biodegradable waste
from industrial, agricultural crops and even forest products (fruit -,
vegetables and garden waste (GFT).
Besides using biomass for energy production, biomass is also
interesting for production of products, namely biomass is full of
useful components. For example soy, palm oil and rapeseed oil
are useful for biodiesel, while corn and sugar beet supply the raw
material for bio-ethanol. Currently 90% of the biomass currently
used for bio-fuel production: biodiesel, bio-ethanol and even
methane gas that is obtained by fermentation of the biomass (see
"6. How does the production process of bio-fuel with algae's
occure?"). The European commission made the following target in
the first European directive (2003/30/EC) in 2005 to 2% of all fuel
consumption in Europe will be covered by bio-fuels. This figure
rises gradually to a minimum rate of 5.75% for 2010.
In the graph below you can notice that biomass, over the years
has gained more importance. Thus, biomass energy is responsible
for 1183 gigawatt hour (GWh) in 2008. Compared with other
renewable energy sources, this is more than 3 times the energy
production. (Arno van 't Hoog et al. 2008;Bond Beter Leefmilieu 2010;Freya
Van Den Bossche 2010;Ghent Bioenergy Valley-vzw. 2010;Milieu Centraal 2010)
Evolution of the production from renewable
energy sources
1200
Gigawatt Hour (GWh)
Beter Leefmilieu 2010;De portaalsite van de
Europese Unie 2010;E.Cornelis, K.Aernouts,
N.Renders, S.Vangee, & K.Jespers 2009;Freya
Van Den Bossche 2010;Milieu Centraal
2010;Norbert
Cuiper
2010;Organisatie
Duurzame Energie 2010;U.S.Department of
Energy's (NREL) 2010;Wageningen University
2010;Wout Boerjan 2010)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1995
1997
1999
2001
Year
Waste
Biomass
Hydropower
etc.) have oil levels between 20
and 75% by weight of dry
biomass. They are all potential
sources for biodiesel production.
Though we should note that a
lower oil content of algae grow
faster than micro algae with high
oil content. Thus, micro-algae
with a 30% oil content grow 30
2003
2005
2007
Biogas
Windenergy
Solar energy
times faster than microalgae with
an oil content of 80%. (Anon
2009;Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial
Engineering and Biotechnology IGB 2010;Nick
Sazdanoff
2006;Simon
Tanner
2009;Wageningen University 2010)
We may not forget that oil from
micro-algae are composed of
unsaturated fatty acids such as
2
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
linolenic acid, may influence the
bio-fuel for example: biodiesel
with
a
high
content
of
unsaturated sources will oxidizes
rapidly than the conventional
diesel, causing problems with the
diesel engine. This
composition of the algae’s can be
controlled by changing the
growing conditions. This also
means that the desired products
can be obtained by changing
environmental factors (growing
conditions) / creating a stress
environment: temperature, light,
pH, CO2 concentration, salinity
and nutrients present. For
example by restricting the
nitrogen concentration, the oil
content
of
Neochloris
oleoabundans will increase. (
2009;Simon Tanner 2009). This is (all)
possible in a closed system and
limited in open systems. these
two systems will be discussed
further in this article. But in other
words, while selecting a algae
species we should look at
various parameters in selecting a
type of algae: among others on
fat content, growth rate, fatty acid
composition
and
culture
conditions ( determined the
formation of final products and
the location of the culture plant).
The composition of the algae’s
can you see in “table 1: useful
components from algae”. Next to
(micro) algae’s there are also
macro-algae’s; which are known
Useful components from algae
Polyunsaturated
Docosahexaenoic
fatty acids
acid
(DHA),
Eicosapentaenoic
acid
(EPA),
palmitolleic
acid,
oleic acid, α-Linolenic
acid
and
triacylglycerol
Antioxidants
catalases,
superoxide,
polyphenols.
and
Pigments
lutein,
chlorophyll,
fucoxanthin and …
Vitamins
Vitamins A, B1, B6,
B12, C, E, Biotin,
nicotinic acid, folic
acid and riboflavin.
Other
proteins,
amino
acids,
sterols,
antifugal,
antimicrobial
and
antiviral agents.
Table 1 useful components from algae
as seaweed. These can also be
used for bio-fuel production, but
there mainly use is for production
of
agar,
alginates
and
carrageenans. Further macroalgae’s are grown in natural
environments and microalgae
mainly in open (cheap) and
closed systems on land.(Rene
Wijffels 2010). They also have also
the disadvantage that additional
steps must be taken to process
such as grinding. ( 2009;A.B.M.Sharif
Hossain et al. 2008;Biocycle Energy 2009;Jeff
Tester and Brian Neltner 2008;John Ferrell
and Valerie Sarisky-Reed 2008;Nick Sazdanoff
2006;Simon Tanner 2009;Stephen Mayfield
2010;U.S.Department of Energy's (NREL)
2010;Wageningen University 2010;Yusuf
Chisti 2010)
4.
Advantages
and
disadvantages of using
algae.
The use of algae has several
advantages namely they can be
harvested in all seasons. They
are rich in fats that can be used
for biodiesel production. This
application does have the
disadvantage that the costs for
separating the oil from the algae
can be high (expensive) and may
be polluting because of the use
of solvents such as hexane for
extraction of the oil content. A
answer for this disadvantages, to
decrease the use of solvents is
the
usage
of
“Ultrasonic
extraction” (see cadre “Ultrasonic
extraction”). ( 2009;Hielscher Ultrasound
Technology 2009). Further they grow
very fast (20 to 30 times faster
than crops) and the cultivation
plants can be placed on land not
suitable for agriculture, so they
will not compete with food crops.
Algae’s are also CO2 neutral
processes because of their
photosynthesis, in which they
accumulate
carbon
dioxide
during their growth and this CO2
is back released into the
atmosphere during consumption
of bio-fuels based on algae. A
disadvantage of this used
process is that the production
and growth of algae depends on
the amount of sunlight the
algae’s get. This depends on the
geographic location of the algae
Plant source
Biodiesel
(Liter/Ha/y
ear)
soybean
446
Sunflower
Rapeseed
952
1.190
Oil palm
Algae
5.950
12.000
(30%
Triacylglycerids)
Algae
(50%
Triacylglycerids)
98.500
Table 2 Feedstock's
culture. For example the growth
of a algae culture near in Spain
will be greater than the growth of
a algae culture in Norway.
Another disadvantage is that the
algae cultures need carbon
dioxide and other nutrients
needed for growth and they
should be kept in an aqueous
environment.
But
this
disadvantage is associated with
another advantage. Algae’s can
be used for improving the quality
of waste water; that is rich on
nutrients
(high
BOD
=
Biochemical oxygen demand
values).
(Biocycle
Energy
2009)
Besides all these advantages,
the use of algae has a major
advantage
over
traditional
biodiesel feedstock's. From 1
hectare of algae, you could
produce more bio-fuels, than
from 1 hectare farm crops. see
"Table 2: feedstock's”. (Abayobi
O.Alabi and Martin Tambier 2009;Biocycle
Energy 2009;Fraunhofer Institute for
Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB
2010;John Ferrell & Valerie Sarisky-Reed
2008;Lindsay McGraw 2009;Nick Sazdanoff
2006;Simon Tanner 2009;U.S.Department of
Energy's (NREL) 2010;Wageningen University
2010;Yusuf Chisti 2010)
5. Cultivation methods
of algae’s
The
"Photoautotrophic
cultivation" of algae's can happen
in two ways, namely as an open
or closed system. The open
system is currently the most
widely used system for the
production of algae, which are
commercially available. This
system is usually constructed as
shallow
(+/12cm
depth)
channels called race ways,
3
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
(which are +/- 500m²) in which
the water flows at a low flow rate.
of land on which these columns
are placed. ( 2009;Biocycle Energy
2009;John Ferrell & Valerie Sarisky-Reed
2008;Nick Sazdanoff 2006;Simon Tanner
2009;Wageningen University 2010). This
Figure 1 open system: race ways
This is necessary to prevent that
the algae would not settle,
making them less able to
continue
photosynthesis
(because of reduced light). This
system is called open because it
is in contact with the atmosphere,
with the disadvantage that
evaporation of the water and this
water
needs
to
be
complemented!
A
possible
answer for this could be waste
water, coupled to the advantage
that
they
immediately
deliver/have a concentration of
nutrients:
nitrogen
and
phosphate for example (see “3.
What are algae’s”). But further
the disadvantages; there is often
no stable temperature (by night
and day difference) and unknown
micro-organism can contaminate
the algae culture. Another
drawback is that only a limited
number of algae species raises
such as can be grown for
example Chlorella and Spirulina,
Other species are grown in
closed
systems.
These
disadvantages are not present in
the closed system, or more
specifically
"Photobioreactors”
(see picture 3). These are tubes
with a diameter of 38-cm
diameter made of transparent
material (glass or plastic), which
in most cases are horizontal
pipes
stacked
as
vertical
columns. They could also be flat
panels (which are also used for
the commercial scale production)
or
bubble
columns.
The
preparation
of
these
photobioreactors
as
vertical
columns has the advantage that
they obtain a larger contact area
for the algae’s per square meter
closed system as previously
mentioned has the advantage
that there is no contamination of
the algae culture, no evaporation
of
water
and
a
stable
temperature. Another advantage
of this system is that the algae’s
obtain a higher biomass and
more efficient accumulation of
carbon dioxide (because of no
gas exchange can happen to the
atmosphere). But this system
also has its drawbacks, for
example these systems are more
expensive than open systems
(lower biomass production than
closed systems), there needs to
be a CO2 injection (this CO2 can
be waste of a power plant for
example and the formed O2
needs to be disposed. If the
formed O2 is not been disposed,
the photosynthesis process and
the growth of biomass will been
inhibited. Although this carbon
dioxide for injection can be
obtained from a power plant. For
this reason it is very convenient
that the breeding ground for
algae is placed next to a power
plant.
Next
to
the
"Photoautotrophic
Cultivation"
where the algae need sunlight for
their growth. There is a method,
where the algae's such as
Chlorella
pyrenoidosa
and
Scenedesmus obliquus use a
carbon source (for example
sugar and acetate) to generate
new biomass instead using
sunlight . This method is called
"heterotrophic
cultivation.
(
2009;70centsagallon 2010;Biocycle Energy
2009;Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial
Engineering and Biotechnology IGB 2010;Jeff
Tester & Brian Neltner 2008;John Ferrell &
Figure 2 Photobioreactor
Valerie Sarisky-Reed 2008;Nick Sazdanoff
2006;Simon Tanner 2009;T.J Lundquist et al.
2010;U.S.Department of Energy's (NREL)
2010;Wageningen University 2010;Yusuf
Chisti 2010)
6. How
does
the
production process
of
bio-fuel
with
algae’s occurs?
General
preparation:
The first thing that has to be
done after the cultivation of
microalgae is the harvesting of
micro algae. This is done by
precipitating and/or flocculation
of the microalgae. This can be
achieved by adding additives
such as alum, lime, salt and ...
which will bind to the algae. In
addition, the algae can also have
biological flocculation using a co
- culture of other organisms
which
promote
precipitation.
Besides
sedimentation
and
precipitation, you can also collect
the algae’s by using filtration
and/or
centrifugation.
After
having collected the algae, they
are getting dried, by heating
using an oven or by drying in the
sun to obtain a high biomass
concentration to which the
released water and nutrients are
recycled for another culture.
Note: macroalgae must first be
washed, then crushed and finally
drying.
Further processing to bio-fuel:
A) production of biogas.
The production of biogas can be
further divided into four biological
and chemical steps, namely
hydrolysis,
acidogenesis,
acetogenesis
and
methanogenesis.
The remaining biomass consists
mainly of long polymers and thus
must first be broken down into
smaller chains by hydrolysis,
allowing the bacteria to reach the
energy-rich areas. Thus, proteins
are broken down into amino
acids and polysaccharides into
simple
sugars.
After
the
hydrolysis
step
occurs
acidogenesis with the remaining
components are fermented /
4
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
degraded by acidogenic bacteria,
into CO2, H2S, ammonia and
volatie fatty acids.
The
next
step
is
then
acetogenesis in which the
components formed
in the
acidogenesis
step
further
processed into acetic acid, CO2
and H2 by the acetogens
bacteria.
Finally, we arrive at the final step
of “Anaerobic Digestion” namely
methanogenesis. Here in the
molded
products
such
as
acetate, hydrogen, ammonia,
water and CO2, are converted
into methane gas by the bacteria
"methane-forming
archaea
(methanogens).
The
CO2
released from the use of the
methane gas is/will be recycled
back into the system of
cultivating a new culture
photosynthetic
algae.
For this reason it is very
useful to place algae
culture plant next to a power
plant sites which produced
carbon dioxide from energy
production, which can be
used
for
algae
production.(Anon
2007;A.B.M.Sharif Hossain, Aishah
Salleh, Amru Nasrulhaq Boyce, Partha
chowdhury, & Mohd Naqiuddin 2008;John
Ferrell & Valerie Sarisky-Reed 2008;Nick
Sazdanoff 2006)
B) production of biodiesel.
Biodiesel can be produced
through three basic routes for
biodiesel production from oils
and
fats.
“Base
catalyzed
transesterification of the oil”
which is the most used method
these days, because of the high
yields conversion (98%) with
minimal side reaction, low
temperature, short reaction time
and because of the direct
conversion into biodiesel. Next to
this method there is “Direct acid
catalyzed transesterification of
the oil” and “Conversion of the oil
to its fatty acids and then to
biodiesel”.
The biodiesel production process
from
algae’s
(is
called
Ultrasonic extraction: In ultrasonic extraction, there are sound
waves (successive low and high pressure cycles) generated in a
liquid media. During the low pressure cycle, there will exist a high
intensity of air bubbles followed by the high pressure cycle which
causes them to implode. Once these bubbles reach a certain size,
they will implode (This is called Cavitation) creating a high
pressure and speed force. These forces will causes the cell
structure to break, followed by the release of the cell contents.
Also a facilitate of these ultrasound waves, is that they make it
easier to solve the lipids in the solvents, so the volume of solvent
is limited. (Hielscher Ultrasound Technology 2009)
transesterfication) occurs by the
following steps: First they need to
extract the oil from the algae’s,
this is done by drying the algae
during 20 minutes at 80°C for
releasing water followed by
mixing hexane with the algae
paste (hexane removes the oil
from the algae). After this the
hexane must be distillated from
the mixture, leaving pure algae
Figure 3 Biodiesel based on algae cycle
oil and the evaporated hexane
will be recycled for another batch
of oil extraction. After this step
the oil will be mixed with catalyst
(KOH) and alcohol (methanol or
ethanol) in a closed system to
prevent losses of the alcohol.
This reaction mix is kept warm to
speed up the reaction, this
reaction time variants from 1 to 8
hours. During this time the
following reaction will occur:
Once the reaction is complete,
two major products exist: glycerol
and biodiesel. The glycerin
phase is much more dense than
the biodiesel phase and the two
can be gravity separated with
glycerol simply drawn off the
bottom of the settling vessel. This
settling can take +/- 16 hours.
In some cases, a centrifuge is
used to separate the two
materials faster. Once
the
two
phases
/
products
are
separated,
the
excess alcohol in
each
phase
is
removed
by
distillation.
This alcohol
will be recoverd
in most cases and be re –
used in the next batch.
The glycerol by-product
contains unused catalyst and
soaps that are neutralized with
an acid and sent to storage as
crude glycerol.
Once the glycerol is separated
from the biodiesel, the glycerol
would be send to storage as
crude glycerol. The biodiesel
sometimes needs to be purified
by washing gently with warm
water
to
remove
residual
catalyst, dried, and send to
storage as biodiesel. This
biodiesel
is
ready
for
consumption. ( 2009;70centsagallon
2010;A.B.M.Sharif Hossain, Aishah Salleh,
Amru Nasrulhaq Boyce, Partha chowdhury, &
Mohd Naqiuddin 2008;Biocycle Energy
2009;Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial
Engineering and Biotechnology IGB 2010;Jeff
Tester & Brian Neltner 2008;John Ferrell &
Valerie Sarisky-Reed 2008;Nick Sazdanoff
2006;Simon Tanner 2009;T.J Lundquist,
N.W.T.Quinn,
&
J.R.Benemann
2010;U.S.Department of Energy's (NREL)
5
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
2010;Wageningen
Chisti 2010)
University
2010;Yusuf
7. Positioning of the
algae research:
At October 2010 a report was
released with the latest research
related to the production of algae
for bio-fuel. It is about a realistic
technology
and
engineering
assessment of algae biofuel
production. The first small
industry for the cultivation and
industrial scale production of
microalgae came about 1953.
Two
closed
bag-type
photobioreactors (PBRs) set-up
on the rooftop of a building. The
microalgae were used for food
Figure 4 First algae mass culture
experiments on a rooftop at MIT
(Burlew,1953)
production
for
human
consumption. Algae production
for lipids was revived when the
US “Department of Energy”
(DOE) Solar Energy Research
Institute (SERI, now NREL,
“National Renewable Energy
Laboratory”) initiated the “Aquatic
Species Program” (ASP) in 1980.
It continued until 1996 with the
goal to conduct research on
microalgae oil production for biofuels. At 1981 the ASP focused
on a closed photobioreactor
design and an algae oil
production process that claimed
productivities of over 125 mt
(metric ton) dry biomass/ha-year,
with a high oil content. An
independent analysis at 1982
from the DOE, found no basis for
such claims and an economic
cost study demonstrated that
PBR’s had no merit for biofuels
production. John Benemann
carried out a more detailed
techno-economic analysis of an
open raceway pond process for
algae oil production, based on an
assumed
algae
biomass
productivity of 82 mt/ha-yr and an
oil content of 40%. Achieving the
projected productivities and oil
content became an important
purpose of the ASP. The ASP
was finally closed in 1996.
Over the past five years there
has been an intrest in microalgae
for biofuel production. Especially
algae
oil
production.
The
attention was due to the
increasingly search for an
inexpensive, secure an plentiful
replacement for oil and by fears
of
global
warming.
Earlier this year, the DOE
founded a $44 million (33 million
euros) three-year program. The
Department of Defense funded
two algae projects to develop
technology capable of producing
algae oil for less than $3/gallon
(3,79
liters)
by
2012.
Unfortunatly, much of the current
interest in algae oilproduction is
based on a misunderstanding of
the scientific underpinnings of
this technology. For example,
although some algae strains can
accumulate large quantities of
algae oil as triglycerides under
certain conditions, They do so
only in low numbers and
productivity. This would have no
practical
application.
“Thus,
development of this technology is
not likely to be a sprint to the
finish line, but, rather, a long and
difficult march, with high risks
and uncertain outcomes.”
8. Manipulation of algae
to obtain a higher
profitability
Algae’s
could
be
genetic
modified for obtaining a higher
yield of biomass or lipid content.
For obtaining a higher biomass,
they will use a algae species that
grows at a high rate. This
AlgaePARC
(Algae
Production And Research
Centre)
AlgaePARC is an initiative of
Wageningen UR (University
and Research centre) in the
Netherlands. It is a facility for
research into sustainable and
profitable
micro-algae
cultivation systems and to
obtain practical experience.
Working on test scale is an
ideal transition from basic
research on lab scale to
industrial production of algae.
They use seven systems, a
horizontal tubular reactor, a
vertical tubular reactor, a flat
panel and an open pond
which will serve as control.
The other three systems are
photobioreactors
(PBRs),
which are chosen to study the
most fundamental aspects of
a PBR (oxygen, accumulation
an light intensity). Besides
these three major systems
there are 4 to 8 smaller units
(2,5m²)
installed
to
experiment with algae to
develop the best strains, test
different feedstocks, new
ideas and reactor concepts.
When a good result is
obtained, it can be tested on
a larger scale of 25m.
manipulation is specific for
making biogas out of the algae’s.
The lipids will be specific
modified for obtaining more
lipids, so they could produce
more bio-diesel from this algae
culture. They can do this by
increasing
the
number
of
chloroplasts in the algae by
genetic engineering, or modify
the metabolism (manipulation of
the production of enzymes for
lipid production) which would
increase
the
efficiency
of
6
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
photosynthesis or less sensitive
to oxygen concentration causing
no inhibition of photosynthesis
occurs. We can also potentially
increase
the
growth
rate.
Most
of
the
work
to
improve/increase in yield is
mainly studied by selecting
species (strain improvement) and
adjusting
the
cultivation
techniques. Genetic engineering
gets more attention only recently
begun to manipulate algae. The
use
of
genetic
modified
organisms is only accepted in a
closed system by the European
union so there will be no junction
with non manipulated organisms
in the environment. The public
opinion
is
against
the
manipulation
of
organisms
because they don’t trust it so
much.
As already mentioned, we can
increase
the
efficiency
of
photosynthesis. However, the
damage
can-Excessive
light
photo systems and to trigger cell
was
photo-protective
Mechanisms That must or
radiated energy is captured as
heat or fluorescence. In the
interest of engineering a strain
microalgae to effectively capture
light energy, researches focused
on Reducing the number of lightharvesting antenna complexes
(LHCs) Which capture sunlight
and transfer the derived energy
to
drive
photosynthesis
(process).
For example Mussgnug et al
(2007) Reported that they
successful
reduced
the
regulation
of
LHCs
in
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The
photosynthetic efficiency and
light penetration improved in
liquid culture. The LHC mutation
offers
a
higher
efficiently
conversion of solar energy to
biomass. Currently they only
modified the genes of the algae
to create better lipids for the
biofuel production, they don’t
introduced new genes in the
algae yet to make the algae
better for bio fuel production. The
introducing of new genes would
have a very low possibility of
doing anything bad to the
environment. ( 2009;John Ferrell &
Valerie Sarisky-Reed 2008;T.J Lundquist,
N.W.T.Quinn,
&
J.R.Benemann
2010;Wageningen University 2010)
9. Applications within
the bio-energy field
Figure 5 Logo Algae Food&Fuel
Algae Food&Fuel is a company
that has just been booted from
the initiative of the company’s
BioSoil, Tendris and Solarix. The
company is located in Hallum,
this is a village in the province of
Friesland in the Netherlands.
They are specialized in the
enabling of industrial production
of microalgae for food and fuel.
Bio-fuel companies, can rely on
Algae Food&Fuel’s technology
for the production of algae
feedstock with high triglyceride
contents, yet with minimal water
processing. We asked about their
opinion of the production of algae
and its future in an interview with
Arthur Kroon.
 Has the development of
the
algae
industry
already progressed far
Mr. Kroon?
Yes and no: algae are a mature
industry
Alginate: Used
as
you
in food industry
look
at
as a thickener or
health
in dentistry for
foods
printing of the
made of
teeth.
Spirulina
and
Chlorella, or specialty products
like alginate or agar-agar. But the
primary production of algae is
small. In tons, the algae industry
is a dwarf. The annual production
is about 3000 tons of Spirulina
and 2000 tons of Chlorella. 3 little
farmers with 100 Hectares of
maize and potatoes make
Are algae profitable?
Nowadays, the production of
algae isn’t profitable because
the investment cost for growth
installations are high, these
reactors
consume
much
energy and algae are grow
diluted stretch conditions. It
means that more than 1000l of
water is needed to grow 1kg
of algae. This makes the costs
of harvesting algae very high.
already more biomass. For
reference: An average soybean
plantation is 1000 hectares and
the largest are 50 000 hectares.
 Are there still new
developments?
Yes, this field is developing very
fast the last 3 years. that is
because of rising fuel prices,
growing global population and
the knowledge that fossil fuels
and phosphate are consumed
faster than is produced.
 What do you think of
genetic modification on
algae
for
biofuel
production?
It is inevitable that GMA will be
used in the future. We use none
of that now, we keep our first
engaged
in
farming
and
downstream processing. GMA
making is a time consuming
process that only specialized
laboratories can perform. We
don’t have laboratories like that.
Figure 6 continues systems
of the company
7
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
 Is the cultivation of algae
for biofuel production
profitable?
No, at this time investment costs
are not to recover in a
reasonable depreciation period
on fuel sales alone. A cheap and
scalable biorefinery model with
multiple revenue streams must
be found. For example, oil is so
profitable because there is an
application from the first to the
last drop. asphalt as the lowest
value,
jet
fuel,
chemical
substances and fine chemicals
as the highest value.
 Is it for example as
profitable
as
the
production of rapeseed
oil for biofuel?
Biodiesel from rapeseed is not
profitable. Biodiesel plants are
almost all closed in Europe due
to the high fee charged by the
U.S. to biodiesel producers. They
sold their products well in
Europe.
 Are
there
many
companies
who
purchase algae to biofuel
co-produce?
No, companies do not buy much
algae witch grow on sunlight.
Solazyme and saphire in the U.S.
for example, sell research
quantities of oil from algae fed
with sugars on defense. but for
the
military
the
"normal"
economic laws does not count
Solazyme
Solazyme is a company
founded in 2003 and situated
in South San Francisco. They
produce oils and biomaterials
from
algae
in
standard
fermentation facilities.
CONCLUSION
Algae’s in the desert ?
Algae can be grown well in
desert regions. In the desert
there is plenty of sunshine,
needed for the
photosynthesis, and access
to water unusable for
drinking, for instance
seawater. This means that
unproductive lands can be
useful.
 Is there already an
significant use of biofuels
produced by algae?
No, there isn’t.
 How long does it take
before
a
batch
is
finished?
We grow in chemo state and
turbid state, or continuous
systems. At this time we harvest
about 50 kg dry matter/day/ha. It
is November now, The water is
three degrees and still we
harvest algae. In the summer, it
obviously goes better.
When you read all the different
literature about bio-fuel production
from algae; everything seems so
easy and perfect. But nothing is
further from the truth. The
production of algae fuel is applied
but in some cases it seems to be not
profitable. But some countries like
the U.S., Belgium(SBAE) and the
Netherlands(Algae Food&Fuel) still
have
applied
the
technology/cultivation with success
to make a profitable living. In the
cases they also invest in research so
this businesses can grow. For those
companies that supported I do see a
future. Other companies will have
difficulties, because not enough
people realize what's happening in
the world. We think the common
man is not quite ready for the use of
bio-fuel. To be profitable the
companies need to produce algae
for other purposes such as food or
feed.
In our viewpoint, we say “Yes to
application of algae cultivation to
produce bio-fuels and other
products!”.
 How many algae are
grown each year ?
This is the first season that I
have operate this system.
after one year, I know more
about it. But I estimate that
between 10 and 20 tones of dry
seaweed per hectare per year
can be grown. The percentage of
lipids can be increased but not as
easy as the literature prescribes.
8
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
10. References
References
Biodiesel Production and Quality. 26-5-2007. America, National Biodiesel Board.
Ref Type: Online Source
Microalgae: A promising feedstock for biodiesel. Microalgae: A promising feedstock for biodiesel , 1. 2009.
African Journal of Microbiology Research.
Ref Type: Journal (Full)
70centsagallon 2010, Algae Photo Bioreactors, Biofuel Technologies, Sarasota,Florida.
A.B.M.Sharif Hossain, Aishah Salleh, Amru Nasrulhaq Boyce, Partha chowdhury, & Mohd Naqiuddin. Biodiesel
fuel Production from Algae us Renewable Energy. American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology , 250254. 2008. University of Malaya,Maleysia, 2008 Science Publications.
Ref Type: Journal (Full)
Abayobi O.Alabi & Martin Tambier. Microalgae technologies and processes for biofuelsbioenergy production in
Britisch Columbia. 1-88. 14-1-2009. Columbia, University of Manitoba.
Ref Type: Online Source
Arno van 't Hoog, Marian van Opstal, Arthur van Zuylen, Gerart Stout, & Prof.Dr.Ir.Bert Weckhuysen. Biomassa.
Chemische feitelijkheden . 2008. Chemische Feitelijkheden.
Ref Type: Magazine Article
Biocycle Energy 2009, Cultivating Algae in Wastewater for Biofuel, Biocycle Energy.
Biofields-Renewable&Sustainable Energy. 3rd Generation Energy. Biofields Renewable and Sustainable Energy .
2009. Mexico, Biofields.
Ref Type: Online Source
Bond Beter Leefmilieu. Hernieuwbare Energie. 2010. Bond Beter Leefmilieu.
Ref Type: Online Source
De portaalsite van de Europese Unie 2010, Milieu (patent).
E.Cornelis, K.Aernouts, N.Renders, S.Vangee, & K.Jespers 2009, Inventaris Duurzame Energie in Vlaanderen in
2008, www.emis.vito.be, 1.
Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB 2010, Microalgae-A Sustainable Resource
for Valuable Compounds and Energy, Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB,
Germany.
Freya Van Den Bossche 2010, Beleidsnota Energie 2009-2014, Vlaams Minister van Energie,Wonen,Steden en
Sociale Economie.
Ghent Bioenergy Valley-vzw. 2010, Ghent-Bioenergy Valley (patent).
Hielscher Ultrasound Technology. Biodiesel uit algen met behulp van ultrasone trillingen. 2009. Hielscher GmbH
Ultrasonic.
Ref Type: Online Source
Jeff Tester & Brian Neltner 2008, Algae Based Biodiesel.
John Ferrell and Valerie Sarisky-Reed, 2008. National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap, U.S.: Department of
Energy ,Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,Office of the Biomass Program.
Lindsay McGraw. The Ethics of Adaptation and Development of Alage-based Biofuels. 1-83. 14-12-2009.
Ref Type: Case
Milieu Centraal. Duurzame energiebronnen. 2010.
Ref Type: Online Source
1
Production of algae coupled to anaerobic digestion in a closed vessel system for bio-fuel production.
Nick Sazdanoff 2006, Modeling and Simulation of the Algae to Biodiesel Fuel Cycle, The College of Engineering
Honors Commitee,College of Engineering,The Ohio State University, Departement of Mechanical Engineering
The College of Engineering Honors Committee
College of Engineering
122 Hitchcock Hall
The Ohio State University.
Norbert Cuiper. Biobrandstoffen:Beter af met groene brandstof. Chemische feitelijkheden . 2010. Chemische
feitelijkheden.
Ref Type: Magazine Article
Organisatie Duurzame Energie. Bio energie. 2010. 0DE(Organisatie Duurzame Energie-Vlaanderen.
Ref Type: Online Source
Rene Wijffels. Facts on algae - micro and macro algae.
http://www.algae.wur.nl/UK/factsonalgae/difference_micro_macroalgae/ . 2010.
Ref Type: Online Source
Simon Tanner 2009, Biofuels of the Third Generation-Do Microalgae Solve the Energy Problem? Germany.
Stephen Mayfield. Genetic Engineering of Algae for Biofuel Production. 1-44. 2010. The Scripps Research
Institute, Department of Cell Biology and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology
The Scripps Research Institute.
Ref Type: Online Source
T.J Lundquist, I. C. W., N.W.T.Quinn, & J.R.Benemann 2010, A Realistic Technology and Engineering
Assessment of Algae Biofuel Production, Energy Biosciences Institute,University of California,Berkeley,
California, 1.
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven. Chemische Conversie-Biomassa. 2010. Eindhoven,Nederland, Technische
Universiteit Eindhoven.
Ref Type: Online Source
U.S.Department of Energy's (NREL). Aquatic Species Program: Biodiesel from Algae. 2010.
Ref Type: Online Source
Wageningen University. Facts on Algae. 2010. Wageningen University.
Ref Type: Online Source
Wout Boerjan. Biobrandstoffen. UGent . 2010. VIB.
Ref Type: Online Source
Yusuf Chisti 2010, Biodiesel from microalgae beatsbioethanol, School of Engineering, Massey University, Private
Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand, School of Engineering, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222,
Palmerston North, New Zealand.
10