Visit guide for
primary teachers
The BP exhibition
Ming
50 years that
changed China
18 September 2014 –
5 January 2015
Cloisonné jar, decorated
with dragons and imperial
mark. China, Ming dynasty,
Xuande mark and period,
1426–1435.
Supported by BP
Art Exhibitions China –
principal Chinese contributor
Contents
About the exhibition
Planning your visit
Activity sheet 1: the Palace Designer
Activity sheet 2: Emperor’s Image abroad
Activity sheet 3: Emperor as soldier and scholar
Briefing sheet for adult helpers
Exhibition image bank
Further resources
Visit guide for primary teachers
The BP exhibition Ming: 50 years that changed China
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About the exhibition
The exhibition focuses on a crucial 50 year period in the Ming Dynasty (13681644) beginning at the start of the 15th century. The 3rd Emperor, Yongle, has
seized the throne from his nephew and and rules over China, an area the size of
Europe with a population of around 85 million. The four emperors who ruled during
the 50 year period controlled this vast country through a highly developed civil and
military bureaucracy. Of great importance in maintaining the emperor’s authority
was the network of imperial and princely courts in the far-flung provinces. In
addition, China at this time was far from isolated, and had cultural and commercial
contacts spanning South and Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa.
The layout of the exhibition is as follows:
1. Introduction - setting the scene
2. Courts – the imperial court in Beijing and the princely courts in the
provinces
3. The Arts of War - weapons and the importance of military training
4. The Arts of Peace – the cultural and artistic life of the emperor and his
courts
5. Beliefs – the many different belief systems in Ming China existed together
peacefully
6. Trade and Diplomacy – the great voyages of admiral Zheng He and the
expansion of trade and diplomatic contacts
Using the exhibition
In advance
Decide on a focus for the visit and a follow-up activity and go through these with
the students. Some examples of possible ‘big question’ focuses are given on
page 4.
If you are using activity sheets, go through them with the students in advance.
Use the ideas in Pre-visit preparation below (see page 5) and the exhibition image
bank (see page 21) to provide general background and to familiarise students with
some of the content of the exhibition.
On the day
Divide the class into small groups, with an adult assigned to each group.
Give each adult a free exhibition guide, available at the exhibition entrance.
Give each adult a copy of any activity sheets the students are using and a briefing
sheet (see pages 7-13). Explain what you want the students to do in the exhibition.
Encourage adults to allow students to linger at objects which interest them, to
discuss what they see and share things they find out as they go round.
Remind students to behave calmly and politely.
Photography is not allowed within the exhibition, but students may take photos of
relevant objects in the Museum’s permanent galleries.
Afterwards
Discuss the students’ thoughts and responses to the exhibition.
Use what the students have gathered in the exhibition for the follow-up activity.
Re-visit the exhibition image bank, if relevant.
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Planning your visit
We recommend the following three guidelines in planning your students’
visit to the exhibition:
 provide a focus that students should keep in mind as they explore the exhibition
and which you can follow up afterwards
 do some preparatory work in school to develop the focus of the visit and
familiarise students with the content of the exhibition
 allow students some scope to explore to find objects that interest them
Curriculum links
The exhibition offers opportunities in the following curriculum areas and for crosscurricular work:
History
archaeology and how evidence is found, types of evidence, finding out about the
lives of men, women and children in the past
English
The long hand scrolls in particular and many of the other paintings are telling visual
stories which offer great potential for a wide range of writing and oral work,
including poetry and drama
Science
Materials and their properties, organic and non-organic material, weathering
Art and design
Sculpture, jewellery and decorative objects, patterns, animal and plant motifs
PSHE and Citizenship
Emperors and empire
Structuring the visit
It is often a good idea to have a general ‘big question’ for the students to
keep in mind during their visit. Here are some possible examples:
 What was the most interesting object in the exhibition?
 What did I learn about the China that I did not know before?
 What sources of evidence does the exhibition include?
 How useful did I find these for learning about life in Ming Dynasty China?
 What have I learned about the Chinese emperors from the objects in the
exhibition?
 What else would I put in the exhibition to make it interesting/informative?
This guide includes a number of activity sheets which you can use or adapt to help
focus the students as they go round the exhibition – see pages 7-13.
If you want students to do any drawing, we recommend that they draw one thing
carefully rather than doing lots of drawings.
Encourage the students to enjoy looking at objects they find interesting as well as
completing their focused work.
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Pre-visit preparation
Here are a few suggestions of things to do before your visit to
prepare students.
Here are a few suggestions of things to do before your visit to prepare students.
Use maps to identify the location of China and the individual countries.
Use some of the resources listed on pages to help students begin to explore
the Ming world.
Look through the exhibition image bank (see page ) to introduce students to the
kinds of objects they will see and to familiarise them with some objects they will
subsequently see ‘for real’.
Choose one of the objects in the image bank and explore in detail what information
a single item can provide about life in the Ming period.
Look at Chinese objects in the Explore section of britishmuseum.org
Look at the Online tour about Imperial China on Explore at
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/cultures/asia/imperial_china.aspx
Explore the British Museum website www.earlyimperialchina.co.uk
The Chinese title which we translate as “emperor”, 皇帝 huang di was first used
by Qinshi Huang, known as the First Emperor of China, and the man who odered
the construction of the Terracotta Army. From then on, all Chinese rulers called
themselves “emperor” and they and their descendants founded “dynasties”, like
our royal houses (Plantagenet, Tudor, Stuart etc). Make a timeline of Chinese
history showing the Chinese dynasties and compare them to European history.
The Yongle Emperor was responsible for the building or re-building of two great
projects which are still known all over the world as symbols of China: the
Forbidden City and the Great Wall. Either or both can be used for extended
research projects about their location, history and significance. Forbidden City
tour: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPfYrmcfvYE A Google image search
of Forbidden City map will bring up many versions
National geographic Documentary on Great Wall:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyHJCWfQYwo A Google image search of
Great Wall of China maps will bring up many versions
You will see a lot of Chinese writing in the exhibition in books, on paintings and
even on porcelain. The Chinese writing system is very different from ours, and is
based on symbols called characters. Carry out some investigations into Chinese
characters – there is a good introductory video here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s0h18Rdhb44 Practice writing some for
明
yourselves – you could start with the one for Ming:
tools.com/learn/characters/character/26126.html and
Chinese character Ming
http://www.chinese-
The Grand Admiral Zheng He led some of the greatest sea voyages in history.
Find out more about him and where he sailed. Investigate the size of his ships and
how they compare to the ones used by great European explorers like Christopher
Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan and Vasco da Gama. Was Zheng He an explorer?
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Activities inside the exhibition
Grand Admiral Zheng He played many different roles for the Emperor Yongle: he
was Superintendent in charge of Palace staff as the Forbidden City started being
built; he was admiral in charge of the huge expeditions across the seas to glorify
the emperor; and he was a favourite general in charge of campaigns against the
emperor’s enemies. Choose from the following three activity sheets each of which
focus on finding objects Zheng He might have chosen to represent the glory and
might of the Chinese Emperor in these different roles.
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Exhibition activity sheets
Palace Interior Designer
郑
和
You are one of the teams of interior designers working on
making the new Forbidden City the most magnificent
imperial palace in the world. Your boss, Palace
Superintendent Zheng He has ordered you to bring him a
list of objects for his consideration as he draws up his
plans. Choose 5 objects from throughout the exhibition, it
doesn’t have to be one from each section, that you think
would most please the Emperor.
When making your choices, think about the following:




different types of object – porcelain, paintings, jewellery
etc
where they might go in the palace
what is it about the object that will please Zheng He and
the Emperor?
how will it best be displayed?
Make a clear note of the description of the object. You may wish
to sketch it in the box below, or you can make notes about it –
or both!
Use the box below for your top choice, and the boxes on the
next sheet/other side for you other four.
Visit guide for primary teachers
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Visit guide for primary teachers
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Treasure Ship Captain
郑
和
You are one of the captains of the great treasure ships of
Admiral Zheng He’s fleet. He will shortly be leading you
across the seas and oceans to visit all the countries the
Emperor believes he rules over as well as China. The
Admiral wants to take with him treasures both as gifts to
the kings and rulers of these countries, and as things to
impress them with the unequalled power and wealth of
China. Zheng He has asked for your recommendations.
Choose five objects from anywhere in the exhibition to
show him.
When making your choices, think about the following:




different types of object – porcelain, paintings, jewellery,
weapons etc
what will they show the foreign kings about China?
what will they show them about the Emperor?
why will they impress the foreign kings?
Make a clear note of the description of the object. You may wish
to sketch it in the box below, or you can make notes about it –
or both!
Use the box below for your top choice, and the boxes on the
next sheet/other side for the other four.
Visit guide for primary teachers
The BP exhibition Ming: 50 years that changed China
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Visit guide for primary teachers
The BP exhibition Ming: 50 years that changed China
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Frontier general
郑
和
You are one of the generals under the command of Zheng
He on the northern border of China around the Great
Wall. Your job is to protect the Emperor from invasion by
China’s enemies the Mongols who are jealous of China’s
wealth. You must keep them away either by fighting or by
making treaties with them and offering them gifts. From
anywhere in the exhibition, choose 5 objects that will
convince these enemies of China’s military power, and the
Emperor’s generosity.
When making your choices, think about the following:



different types of object – porcelain, paintings, jewellery,
weapons etc
are you trying to make friends with or frighten the Mongol
chieftains?
what image of China and the emperor are you presenting?
Make a clear note of the description of the object. You may wish
to sketch it in the box below, or you can make notes about it –
or both!
Use the box below for your top choice, and the boxes on the
next sheet/other side for the other four.
Visit guide for primary teachers
The BP exhibition Ming: 50 years that changed China
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Visit guide for primary teachers
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Briefing sheet for adult helpers
Please:
 help students find their way around the exhibition
 encourage students to share ideas and observations
 keep them focused on the work their teacher has set
 use the object labels to explain things to students
 draw students’ attention to things they may have missed
The exhibition is arranged into the following sections:
1. Introduction - setting the scene
2. Courts – the imperial court in Beijing and the princely courts in the
provinces
3. The Arts of War - weapons and the importance of military training
4. The Arts of Peace – the cultural and artistic life of the emperor and his
courts
5. Beliefs – the many different belief systems in Ming China existed together
peacefully
6. Trade and Diplomacy – the great voyages of admiral Zheng He and the
expansion of trade and diplomatic contacts
Key themes:
You may find it useful to encourage the students to think about a number of key
themes of the Ming Dynasty. As the students move around the exhibition they can
consider how the objects, images and text in the exhibition helps us to understand
the Ming as:
rulers: how did the Ming emperors control such a huge empire? What clothes and
jewellery did they wear to show their rank?
soldiers: who were the enemies of the Ming? What kind of soldiers and weapons
did the emperor have?
scholars and artists: what were the arts prized by the Ming courts? How are they
different from European painting, poetry and other arts?
believers: what was the main religion of the Ming courts? What other belief
systems were there in China at the time?
travellers and traders: what different countries and cultures was China in contact
with at this time? How much of the world did china know about? How did the Ming
Emperor view himself in relation to the rest of the world? What did goods did China
trade in with other countries?
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Background information
Exhibition overview
The focus of this exhibition is a pivotal 50 year period from 1400 to 1450 in Ming
Dynasty (1368-1644) China. Under the rule of the Yongle Emperor (1403-1424)
(pronounced “Yong-le”), Ming China covered an area the size of Europe with a
population of around 85 million. Internally it was held together by a huge and
complex civil and military bureaucracy and by a network of imperial and princely
courts across the provinces. Externally, it had cultural and commercial contacts
spanning South, East and Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa. 1400 to 1450
was the period when the capital of China was permanently moved to Beijing and
when the Forbidden City was first built.
The years 1403-1449 saw five emperors on the throne in China. The exhibition
begins with Yongle who usurped the throne from his nephew Jianwen (1399-1402)
following a civil war. Yongle was succeeded by his son, the short-lived Hongxi
(1425), who was in turn succeeded by his son Xuande (1426-1435). The final
emperor of this period, Zhengtong (1436-1449), was captured by the Mongols in
1449 in a disastrous military expedition. The event signals a change in imperial
rulership in China and it is at this point that the exhibition ends.
Key message
Ming China between 1400 and 1450 was the largest state in the world, ruled
by a single family through a network of imperial and regional courts. This
was a period of unprecedented global contacts through trade and diplomacy.
During the Ming dynasty, the throne normally passed from father to eldest son. The
emperor sent his other sons to strategic locations across the empire where they
would set up regional courts. Early Ming princes were powerful figures who
controlled their own armies. The Yongle emperor was one of these princes before
he usurped the throne. Princes were also important cultural figures. The
significance of regional courts is represented in the exhibition by spectacular
archaeological finds from three tombs in Shandong, Hubei and Sichuan provinces,
spanning the northern, central and western parts of China respectively. These
exhibits give vivid insight into aspects of everyday and ceremonial life. They
include actual clothing and hats, jewellery and furniture, as well as models of
attendants and carriages.
1400 to 1450 covers a period when there was an unprecedented range of contacts
between China and the world, through embassies, an assertive military policy, and
court-sponsored maritime expeditions. The early Ming imperial court was closely
engaged with other Asian rulers: the Timurids in Iran and Central Asia; the
Ashikaga in Japan, Joseon Korea. Contacts extended to Bengal, Sri Lanka, Africa,
and even to Mecca at the heart of the Islamic world. The objects in this exhibition
showcase not only what China sent out to neighbouring lands, but also what China
adopted from these contacts.
Historical overview
The history of imperial China is often presented as a neat progression of dynasties;
Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han etc ending with the Ming and the Qing. This is followed
by the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 and the People’s Republic of
China in 1949. This is, of course, an extreme simplification, and masks the fact that
over millennia there were successive periods of unification, fragmentation and
invasion. This is well illustrated by the 350 years before the establishment of the
Ming dynasty in 1368. The golden age of the Tang dynasty came to an end in 907
and was followed by the social and political upheaval of the period known as the 5
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Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms. At this time parts of north China were ruled over by
Khitan Tartars, who established the Liao dynasty. China, apart from the Liao
territory, was reunited under the Song Dynasty in 960. In 1127, invaders from
Manchuria, the Jurchen, drove both the Song and the Liao out of north China and
established the Jin Dynasty north of the Yangtze River.
The Song fled south and re-established themselves as the Southern Song with
their capital at Hangzhou. In 1234, invading Mongols conquered the Jin, and by
1279 had also defeated the Southern Song, with Kublai Khan absorbing it into his
Yuan Dynasty established in 1271. As part of the vast Mongol empire that
stretched from the gates of Budapest to the shores of the South China Sea, the
Yuan ruled China until 1368. Thus, for almost 250 years preceding the Ming
Dynasty, part or all of China had been under foreign rule.
The founding of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
At the end of the Yuan dynasty, there were many uprisings against the Mongols.
One of the leaders of these uprisings was a man called Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-98)
who would become the founder of the Ming dynasty. The rise of Zhu was
extraordinary in many respects. The son of poor peasant farmers, he became a
novice Buddhist monk, and spent a period of three years as an itinerant beggar.
He joined rebel forces to fight the Mongols and he rose quickly through the ranks.
In 1356 an army led by Zhu occupied the city of Nanjing which from then on he
used as his base of operations. Fighting both against the Mongols and against
other Chinese warlords, Zhu gradually established supremacy, and in January
1368 declared himself emperor of a new dynasty named “Ming”, meaning “bright”,
with its capital in Nanjing. He gave himself the name of Hongwu, which means
“vastly martial” to reflect his military might. He led his army north and drove the
Mongols beyond the Great Wall in September 1368. The last Mongol stronghold in
Yunnan in the deep south-west of China was retaken in 1381.
Despite his uneducated peasant origins, Zhu was clearly a man of great
intelligence and a natural leader. He concentrated control in his own hands and
that of his sons who were each given their own principality. Hongwu’s first choice
for his heir was his eldest son, but he died prematurely in 1392. The throne was
then passed to his grandson who became the Jianwen emperor in 1398. Jianwen
took steps to curb the power of his uncles who controlled their own regional courts.
In response, one of his uncles, Zhu Di, rose up in rebellion. After a three-year civil
war, Zhu Di captured Nanjing and proclaimed himself the Yongle emperor.
The Second Founding of the Ming dynasty – the Yongle emperor (the
exhibition begins)
Zhu Di was proclaimed the Yongle emperor on 17th July 1402. His name means
“perpetual happiness”. He was very aware that he had seized the throne of China
from his nephew Jianwen and many of his actions throughout his reign were aimed
at legitimizing his reign and strengthening the image of Ming China under his rule.
He took measures to remove the Jianwen emperor from official records and
ordered a violent purge of scholars opposed to his seizing of the throne.
The reign of Yongle can be described as a second founding of the Ming dynasty.
He moved the capital to his power base in present-day Beijing and began a new
line of succession in the imperial family. Beijing was formerly the capital of the
Mongol Yuan Dynasty that preceded the Ming, who called it Khanbaliq (Dadu in
Chinese). Yongle would build his imperial palace on the site of the former Mongol
palace. He was a charismatic and ambitious ruler. Together with his grandson the
Xuande emperor, he established a golden age in China’s history when China was
outward-looking and internationally engaged, and when culture and the arts
flourished under courtly patronage.
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Exhibition structure
The exhibition is designed with an Introduction and 5 interconnecting sections,
which forms the basis for the suggested activities of your visit. The 5 sections are:
 Courts
 Wu – The Arts of War
 Wen – The Arts of Peace
 Beliefs
 Trade and Diplomacy
Section 1: introduction
The introduction will give visitors an immediate impression of the vast scale of Ming
China, the largest state in the world during the fifteenth century. The Ming Emperor
governed a state that was the size of a continent: Sichuan, a single province within
the empire, was comparable in scale to France. China already had a population of
about 85 million people between 1400 and 1450. England then had a population of
2.5 million. Chronologically the period covered by the exhibition began with a civil
war that ultimately brought to power the Yongle emperor, a ruler whose
achievements are regarded as a second founding of the Ming dynasty first
established in 1368 (and finally ending in 1644).
The fifty years following the Yongle Emperor’s accession saw numerous
developments that represent turning points that have helped shape modern China.
The capital, for example, was fixed in Beijing. The vast and diverse empire was held
together both by a huge bureaucracy and by a network of imperial and princely
courts and it is these courts that were responsible for some of the most
extraordinary achievements of the period. The economy that supported this network,
and the magnificent art produced for it, was based on agriculture-driven tax
collection and trade.
The capture of the reigning emperor by Mongols (known as the Tumu crisis) in 1449
marked the end of the time frame covered in the exhibition. The Tumu crisis marked
a huge change within China. Instead of the individual whims of the emperors
governing the state the role of the emperor was reduced. The courts were no longer
the only centres for cultural activity and trade ceased to be so tightly controlled by
the state.
Section 2: Courts:
Key section message: The Ming Empire was bound together by a network of
imperial and princely courts.
The court at work and at play
The emperor stood at the apex of the power structure that controlled Ming China.
The years between 1400-50 saw the rule of four emperors. The first, the Yongle
emperor (1402-24), was a powerful soldier and military strategist. His son was his
successor, the Hongxi emperor, and ruled for less than a year (r.1424-5). The
Xuande emperor (r. 1426-35) was again Hongxi’s son and is characterised as an
aesthete with good military skills and administrative ability. The Zhengtong emperor
(r.1436-49) came to power as a child. He was taken hostage by the Mongols in
1449 and was held for over a year before being released.
Rulership was personal and the individual preoccupations of these emperors were
reflected in their policies. The section will focus on the emperor’s role and the key
people who made up his court: advisors, generals, artist and scholars. It will
introduce the princely courts through key documents, costumes and objects from
the three princely tombs we have selected to focus on in Hubei, Sichuan and
Shandong. This is also an area of the exhibition where we can focus on the role of
women through figures like the Yongle emperor’s wife Empress Xu and Lady Wei,
Prince Zhuang of Liang’s wife.
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Beijing: A new imperial capital
In 1420 the Yongle emperor downgraded Nanjing and made Beijing the capital city,
a status it was to retain for the next 600 years. The movement of the capital
encouraged transnational contacts, encouraging movement from south to north.
The construction of the Forbidden City as a new imperial residence and centre of
government in Beijing as well as the imperial tombs and other buildings required
hundreds of thousands of workers. Rich furnishings from this palace, beautiful
textiles, cloisonné, lacquer, porcelain, gold and silver give a sense of life within the
imperial city and will feature in this section and elsewhere. This section will focus on
new research on the production of these objects some in imperial workshops some
influenced by imported goods and will provide new information on their contexts for
use.
Fine dining and entertaining
The exhibition includes goods from three princes’ tombs as well as from the imperial
courts. Courts led taste and commissioned objects were dispensed as part of
national and international diplomacy. The central imperial court was connected to
regional courts through patronage networks, marriages, and gift-exchange. Women
at the central courts presented gifts to others at regional courts. The use of gold
from Africa and gems from India in some of the objects featured in this section
highlight international contacts, a theme that runs throughout the exhibition.
Section 3: Wu (The Arts of War)
Key section message: War and preparation for conflict were central
preoccupations of the court.
Courts played a uniquely important military role throughout the period covered by
this exhibition and were directly engaged in warfare, reflecting a military culture
that was all pervading. The emperors led armies into battle and princes
commanded regional armies that protected and controlled key borders of the vast
empire in the beginning of these fifty years and by the end were a symbolic military
presence. The Mongols and the Vietnamese were key foreign adversaries for the
Ming rulers. The God of War is selected as the most important deity for the early
Ming emperors.
Hunting and military displays
This section will include a narrative on the hunt, an important means of practising
skills needed for war, and another area that illustrates contacts between cultures
through the importation of dogs and horses for hunting and the inclusion of
Mongols in the emperor’s hunting parties. Hunting played an extremely important
role in keeping the army fit and ready to fight. Military processions are
demonstrated through tomb figures from the Prince of Shu’s mausoleum. Horses,
horse trading and horse trappings will be introduced here.
Campaigns
Military campaigns were of great importance in this period and define the time
frame for the exhibition. The period of the exhibition begins with civil war in China
in which the Yongle emperor (r.1403-24) usurped the throne from his legitimately
ruling, nephew, the Jianwen emperor (r.1399-1402). In 1449 the Zhengtong
emperor was captured after an unsuccessful campaign against the Mongols. War
resulted in the mobilisation of large numbers of people, and although violence and
destruction were inevitable consequences, war also led to change to both court
and society. The period between these two events saw the dominance of military
culture supplanted by a civil scholarly culture.
The emperors were often engaged directly with warfare. The Yongle emperor
acted as his own general and died on the return journey from a military campaign.
His successor, Hongxi, was criticised as a poor rider and poor huntsman. Xuande
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Ming: 50 years that changed China
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was taken as imperial grandson on missions with his grandfather and successfully
led troops to put down an internal rebellion and to keep Mongol armies from
encroaching on Ming territory. The Zhengtong emperor unsuccessfully led his
forces into battle to try and protect the northern frontiers of his empire in 1449. The
Battle of the Tumu Fort saw large numbers of Ming commanders and troops die
and the emperor captured.
Military equipment (arms and armour)
The section will feature guns, and hand held cannon, invented in this period, as
well as swords, arms and armour. Military technology was both an area of
innovation and a key medium of exchange. Court contacts are seen through the
Central Asian influence on the Chinese bow or use of Japanese swords that were
imported in this period. Foreign military advisers were also employed by the court.
Key Objects
1. Lacquered iron helmet inscribed with the character for bravery in gold,
excavated at the tomb of Prince Zhuang of Liang ( d. 1441) (Hubei Museum)
2. Spectacular sword of the Yongle emperor with gold and silver inlay (Royal
Armouries Leeds)
3. Dramatic painting of the Xuande emperor and his courtiers hunting (Palace
Museum)
4. Large bronze painted sculpture of the god of war, Zhenwu, patron god of the
early Ming ( British Museum)
Section 4: Wen (The Arts of Peace)
Key section messages:
The imperial and regional courts were key centres for cultural patronage. The
emphasis shifts from the military to the bureaucrats between 1400-50.
Culture flourishes through the courts
The early fifteenth century saw some remarkable accomplishments in literature,
painting and music in China. This section will include some of the most beautiful
paintings and writings from this era. Over the fifty-year period covered by the
exhibition there was a shift in the balance of power between the military and the
civil. This was a period of relative stability thanks to a strong military that allowed
the arts to flourish. The nature of governing China changed by the end of the fifty
years. Unlike earlier and later periods in Chinese history, when culture flourished
independently of the court, in the period 1400-50 the court was the focal point for
literati culture. The central and regional courts were key centres for cultural life and
drew talented people to them from diverse areas. Culture flourished in areas such
as painting, calligraphy, chess, literature and music. The emperors were great
patrons, summoning painters to courts in Beijing and Nanjing for example, but they
also practised the arts themselves as did the regional princes. All four emperors
produced calligraphy and painting, and examples will be included here of the
Xuande emperor’s paintings (loans from the Palace Museum). Many of the princes
were also artists, writers and collectors of art.
Major cultural projects are undertaken
There were major compilation projects. The Yongle emperor commissioned the
encyclopaedia of all knowledge (known as the Yongle Dadian) between 1403 and
1408. The world’s largest encyclopaedia, it was worked on by an army of over two
thousand scholars and contained the whole corpus of extant classical literature.
Although no editions of the original 1408 work survive the British Library will lend 8
volumes of the 1522-73 editions which are the earliest in the world to survive.
These include topics as diverse as Feng Shui, funerals, medicine and recipes for
bean dishes. The production of this encyclopaedia of all knowledge also involved
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the destruction of non-approved texts. The courts produced standard models which
were then disseminated within China and beyond.
The courts shaped literature and scripts, creating models the influence of which is
still with us today. The characters on a modern Chinese computer are based on
Ming court script established during this period and used for the major compilation
projects. The courts were centres for printing, both for documents associated with
imperial power and literature intended for a wider audience. Cultural patronage in
book production, drama, calligraphy and painting also operated at regional levels.
Cultured Pastimes: Music, chess, painting and calligraphy
The Xuande emperor gave the privilege to princes to keep musicians to perform
sacrificial music, and princely courts developed as music centres. Some of this
ritual music can be heard today. The accomplished playing of the zither was a
mark of a well-educated man or woman. The exhibition includes a zither from the
tomb of the Prince of Lu as well as his chess set and fine porcelain jars from the
V&A and Shanghai which show men and women engaged in the cultured
pastimes.
Key Objects
1. After Xie Huan (c. 1370-c. 1450) ‘Elegant Gathering in the Apricot Garden’ c.
1437. Handscroll, ink and colour on silk. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
2. Folding fan painted by the Xuande Emperor dated 1426. (Palace Museum,
Beijing)
3. Zhu Tan zither excavated from Shandong province tomb (Shandong Museum)
4. Large blue and white porcelain jar showing women engaged in the four arts of
painting, calligraphy, playing the zither and playing chess ( Shanghai Museum)
Section 5: Beliefs
Key section message: There were many different belief systems in Ming China,
which co-existed peacefully.
Court patronage of religious institutions
The section begins with a series of paintings showing different groups of the
population: civil and military figures, actors and entertainers, women, merchants,
and slaves. There was great diversity of beliefs in religious traditions within the
Ming empire, including Daoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam and local and
national Chinese popular religion. The ability to assimilate diverse aspects of
different religions and apply them to daily life is a theme throughout Chinese
history but was particularly marked in this period. Through their patronage, the
central imperial and regional courts acted as nodes for dispersal of religious
practise across China and from outside. Religious ritual and informal religious
observance played an important role in daily court life. Major religious building
projects took place that had great political significance. The Yongle emperor, for
example, built a porcelain pagoda to honour his dead parents after usurping the
throne from his nephew shown through the tiles from the Da Baoen Temple in
Nanjing.
Court patronage of publishing and the role of the courts in promoting beliefs
Printing religious texts was a major way of supporting diverse aspects of different
belief systems. This section includes court-sponsored projects such as the Kanjur
made for presentation to Tibetan monasteries as well as the court-sponsored
collected Buddhist and Daoist canon. Printing outside the courts’ influence will be
discussed and the spread of imperial styles of book illustration examined.
Published works from this period include a Qu’ran made for a mosque in Beijing in
1401.
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Ritual and ritual equipment
Religious practise at court involved grand rituals that required grand equipment.
This section will explore the role of courts, including the role of the eunuchs, in the
development of structured and informal religious observance. As with the other
sections, cultural contacts will be highlighted. Exchange of religious iconography
through transnational and international contacts is explored. This section will
include porcelain for state ritual, textiles, gilt-bronze sculptures and a series of
paintings in the British Museum that highlight the exchange of religious ideas,
iconography and goods.
Key Objects
1. Six paintings made for the Baoning Temple, Youyu county c.1459 These
paintings, commissioned by the court, were part of the Buddhist shuilu rites.
(Shanxi Museum).
2. Gold, porcelain and stone reliquary - Hongjue temple commissioned by a court
eunuch Director of Imperial Accoutrements (Nanjing Museum)
3. Tiles from the Nanjing Porcelain Pagoda (Nanjing Municipal Museum)
4. Yongle period tangka (Metropolitan Museum of Art )
Section 6: Trade & Diplomacy
Key section message: China’s relationship to the world changes between 1400-50
through a new level of diplomacy, expanding trade networks by land and sea.
Court sponsored voyages and the tribute system
As we move through the exhibition from the world of the courts and the national
landscape we finish the exhibition with the extraordinary reach of the early Ming
empire. Ming China in the early 1400s enjoyed an incredible period of cultural and
mercantile exchange with countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Europe.
Court culture connected Ming China with the wider world through both trade and
diplomacy. In 1405, Zheng He (1371-1433), set sail on the first of seven voyages
to Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East and Africa. These voyages were
government-backed missions prompted by a desire to expand the political reach of
the Chinese emperors and their tributary system. The scale of exploration was
enormous with a vast fleet of ships holding almost 20,000 men (these figures are
hotly debated). The trade of goods brought gems from India and gold from Africa
back to China. China exported porcelain and silks and other luxury goods, woods
and spices. The voyages influenced Ming court fashions, with Middle Eastern
designs influencing court furnishings, for example, exotic foreign animals arriving in
China for use in the emperor’s parks and with other influences from Japan and
Korea. The court maintained control of international commerce, but towards the
end of the period there was a relaxation of this centralisation demonstrated by
shipwrecks of private vessels and local copies of Chinese goods, money and
artworks.
Middle Eastern and Central Asian relations
Astronomers of Middle Eastern descent were employed as advisors at the Ming
court. Middle Eastern diplomats and travellers wrote accounts of China for their
courts. Monks travelled between the Ming court and other Eurasian courts. Goods
were traded and the appearance of material goods was transformed in both courts
by this exchange.
South and Southeast Asia
Vietnamese labourers and architects were involved in the construction of the
Forbidden City and other Beijing buildings. Cargoes recovered from shipwrecks
demonstrate the tight control over exports in the early 1400s and the gradual
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relaxation of control as the fifteenth century moved on. Ming China annexed
Vietnam during the Yongle era and after Vietnam defeated the Ming army; this had
a profound effect on the development of Vietnam.
Japan and Korea
Cultural and diplomatic exchanges with courts in Japan and Korea are
documented by various texts and supported by surviving objects such as red
carved lacquer presented by the Yongle emperor to the Ashikaga court in Japan
(the V&A and British Museum preserve the finest collections of these early 15th
century lacquer wares outside China), paintings made by Korean and Japanese
artists in Chinese styles or the incredibly rare letters written by Chinese and
Korean diplomats.
Key Objects
1. Tribute Giraffe presented to the Ming court by King Saifu-’d-Din ruler of Bengal
in 1414. Hanging scroll ink and colours on silk. (Philadelphia Museum of Art)
2. Zheng He’s bronze bell weight 77kg . He offered this bell in Changle, Fujian in
1431 while waiting for the winter monsoon to pass on his 7th expedition. (National
Museum of China)
3. Large gem used as a hat ornament from the tomb of Prince Zhuang of Liang
(Hubei Museum)
4. Divan (collected poems) of Hafiz, Herat on gold flecked and gold painted multicoloured Chinese paper with Persian ink. Chinese paper made 1403-1435; Persian
calligraphy is dated 855 equivalent to 1451 (British Library)
5. Diplomatic correspondence between Korean and Chinese officials (National
Museum of Korea)
Exhibition image bank
You can download an image bank at
www.britishmuseum.org/whats_on/exhibitions/ming/schools.aspx
.
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Further resources
British Museum website
Explore is an online database of over 5,000 objects from the Museum’s collection.
Books for students
Harrison-Hall, Jessica, Pocket Timeline of China, British Museum Press
Sheldon, Ken, If I Were a Kid in Ancient China, Cricket Books
Steele, Philip, Hands on History! Ancient China:Step into the Time of the Chinese
Empire, Armadillo Books
Cotterell, Arthur, Ancient China (DK Eyewitness Books), DK Publishing
Books for teachers
Brook, Timothy, The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dyansties,
Harvard University Press
Other websites
There is an illustrated timeline of Chinese history here:
http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/chinatimeline/main.swf
There is an excellent 2 part documentary on the Ming Dynastyfrom CCTV 9
available on You Tube here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_DJkE3zh6RE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vnd9cOIGYiM
There are several resources on the Forbidden City here:
http://china.mrdonn.org/forbiddencity.html
There is an long documentary on the voyages of Zheng He here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ckdn18SAldg
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