CHAPTER 5: LEARNING (TEXT p. 176)
5.1
What does the term learning really mean? (text p. 176)
o Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by
experience or practice, and is different from maturation that is controlled by the
genes
o LINK to Chapter Six, Memory, p. 228
5.2 How was classical conditioning first studied, and what are the important elements and
characteristics of classical conditioning? (text p. 177)
AP* VI.1 Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and observational learning
AP* VI.2 Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
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Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs
o Important concepts/terminology: reflex - involuntary response and stimulus - any
object, event, or experience that causes response (reaction of an organism)
o Pavlov accidentally discovered the phenomenon in which one stimulus can,
through pairing with another stimulus, come to produce a similar response. He
called this classical conditioning.
o LINK to Chapter One, The Science of Psychology, pp. 6-10
Elements of Classical Conditioning
o The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the stimulus that is naturally occurring and
produces the reflex, or involuntary unconditioned response (UCR). Both are
called “unconditioned” because they are not learned.
o The conditioned stimulus (CS) begins as a neutral stimulus (NS), but when paired
with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually begins to elicit the reflex on its own.
The reflex response to the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response
(CR), and both stimulus and response are learned.
Putting It All Together: Pavlov’s Canine Classic, or Ding, Dong, Bell
o Pavlov paired a sound with the presentation of food to dogs and discovered
several principles for classical conditioning: the neutral stimulus and UCS must
be paired several times and the CS must precede the UCS by only a few (ideally
no more than five) seconds.
o Stimulus generalization: stimuli similar to UCS will evoke CR but to a lesser
degree
o Stimulus discrimination: presentation of a stimulus similar to CS without UCS
leads to this stimulus not producing a conditioned response (CR)
o Extinction: weakening of and eventual disappearance of the CR following the
removal of UCS
o Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of CR after extinction has occurred
AP* VI.5 Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments
o Higher-order conditioning - occurs when a strong CS is paired with a neutral
stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus
 Conditioned Emotional Responses: Rats!
5.3 What is a conditioned emotional response, and how do cognitive psychologists explain
classical conditioning? (text p. 183)
AP* VI.8 Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious
behavior, and learned helplessness.
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
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o Watson was able to demonstrate that an emotional disorder called a phobia could
be learned through classical conditioning by exposing a baby to a white rat and a
loud noise, producing conditioned fear of the rat in the baby.
o Vicarious conditioning - classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by
watching the reaction of another person
Other Conditioned Responses in Humans
o Conditioned taste aversions occur when an organism becomes nauseated some
time after eating a certain food, which then becomes aversive to the organism.
o Some kinds of conditioned responses are more easily learned because of
biological preparedness, which may cause humans to associate certain stimuli
with danger to survival.
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
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Why does Classical Conditioning Work?
o Stimulus substitution - Pavlov believed that the CS became a substitute for the
UCS by being paired closed together in time.
o The cognitive perspective asserts that the CS has to provide some kind of
information or expectancy about the coming of the UCS in order for conditioning
to occur. This explains why presenting the CS after the UCS does not result in
conditioning.
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
5.4 How does operant conditioning occur, and what were the contributions of Thorndike and
Skinner? (text p. 186)
AP* VI.1 Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and observational learning
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
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Frustrating Cats: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box and the Law of Effect
o Thorndike developed the Law of Effect: a response followed by a pleasurable
consequence will tend to be repeated, but a response followed by an unpleasant
consequence will tend not be repeated.
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
 B. F. Skinner: The Behaviorist’s Behaviorist
o B. F. Skinner named the learning of voluntary responses operant conditioning,
because voluntary responses are what we use to operate on the world around us.
o Focuses on the effects of consequences on behavior.
AP* VI.5 Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments.
 The Concept of Reinforcement
5.5 What are the important concepts in operant conditioning? (text p. 188)
AP* VI.3 Predict the effects of operant conditioning
o Skinner developed the concept of reinforcement, the process of strengthening a
response by following it with a pleasurable, rewarding consequence.
 A primary reinforcer is something like food or water that satisfies a basic,
natural drive.
 A secondary reinforcer is something that becomes reinforcing only after
being paired with a primary reinforcer.
o In positive reinforcement, a response is followed by the presentation of a
pleasurable stimulus.
o In negative reinforcement, a response is followed by the removal or avoidance of
an unpleasant stimulus.
 Two Kinds of Punishment
o Punishment is any event or stimulus, which when following a response, makes
that response less likely to happen again.
 In punishment by application, a response is followed by the application or
experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus, such as a spanking.
 In punishment by removal, a response is followed by the removal of some
pleasurable stimulus, such as taking away a child’s toy for misbehavior.
 Problems with Punishment
5.6 What are some of the problems with using punishment? (text p. 191)
o A person who uses aggressive punishment, such as spanking, can act as a model
for aggressive behavior. This will increase aggressive behavior in the one being
punished, an undesirable response.
o Punishment of both kinds normally has only a temporary effect on behavior.
o Punishment can be made more effective by making it immediate, consistent, and
by pairing punishment of the undesirable behavior with reinforcement of the
desirable one.
 More Concepts in Operant Conditioning
o Shaping is the reinforcement of successive approximations (small steps) to some
final goal, allowing behavior to be molded from simple behavior already present
in the organism.
o Extinction - removal of reinforcement to decrease/stop behavior:
o Generalization - responding to similar stimuli with expectation of reward
o Discrimination - learning (discriminative stimulus) - specific stimulus that
provides cue for making response
o Spontaneous recovery - recurrence of conditioned response after extinction
AP* VI.8 Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious
behavior, and learned helplessness
 The Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is So Seductive
5.6 What are the schedules of reinforcement? (text p. 196)
AP* VI.4 Predict how practice, schedules of reinforcement, and motivation will influence quality of
learning.
AP* VI.5 Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments.
o Continuous reinforcement occurs when each and every correct response is
followed by a reinforcer.
o Partial reinforcement, in which only some correct responses are followed by
reinforcement, is much more resistant to extinction. This is called the partial
reinforcement effect.
 In a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement, a certain number of responses
are required before reinforcement is given.
 In a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement, a varying number of
responses is required to obtain reinforcement.
 In a fixed interval schedule of reinforcement, reinforcement is contingent
upon the passage of a fixed amount of time.
 In a variable interval schedule of reinforcement, reinforcement follows a
varying interval of time.
 Stimulus Control: Slow Down, It’s the Cops
5.8 How do operant stimuli control behavior, and what kind of behavior is resistant to
operant conditioning? (text p. 199)
o Discriminative stimuli are cues, such as a flashing light on a police car or a sign
on a door that says “Open,” that provide information about what response to make
in order to obtain reinforcement.
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning
AP* VI.6 Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions.
o Instinctive behavior in animals is resistant to conditioning or modification.
o Although an animal may change its behavior at first through conditioning, the
behavior will revert to the instinctual pattern in a process called instinctive drift
 Applying Operant Conditioning: Behavior Modification
5.9 What is behavior modification, and how can behavioral techniques be used to modify
involuntary biological responses? (text p. 201)
AP* VI. 9 Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can
be used to address behavioral problems
o Operant conditioning can be used in many settings on both animals and people to
change, or modify, behavior. This use is termed behavior modification and
includes the use of reinforcement and shaping to alter behavior.
o Token economies are a type of behavior modification in which secondary
reinforcers, or tokens, are used.
o LINK to Chapter Thirteen, Psychological Therapies, p. 527
o Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the modern version of behavior modification
and makes use of shaping by breaking desired behavior down into discrete steps.
o LINK to Chapter Ten, Development Across the Life Span, p. 401
o Neurofeedback and Treatment of various disorders and conditions
 Biofeedback - use of feedback about biological conditions to bring
involuntary responses such as blood pressure under control
 Neurofeedback is a modified version of biofeedback in which the person
is connected to an electroencephalograph, a machine that records the
brain’s electrical activity.
 Can be integrated into video-game-style programs in order to increase
awareness of own brain activity
5.10 How do latent learning, learned helplessness, and insight relate to cognitive learning
theory? (text p. 204)
AP* VI.7 Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social
learning
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
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o Cognitive learning theory states that learning requires cognition, or the influence
of an organism’s thought processes.
o LINK to Chapter One, The Science of Psychology, pp. 8-9
Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning
o Tolman found that rats that were allowed to wander in a maze but were not
reinforced still showed evidence of having learned the maze once reinforcement
becomes possible. He termed this hidden learning latent learning, a form of
cognitive learning.
AP* VI.5 Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments.
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Kohler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning
o Kohler found evidence of insight, the sudden perception of the relationships
among elements of a problem, in chimpanzees.
o LINK to Chapter Seven, Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language, p. 268
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
AP* VI.8 Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious
behavior, and learned helplessness.
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Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness
o Seligman found that dogs who had been placed in an inescapable situation failed
to try to escape when it became possible to do so, remaining in the painful
situation as if helpless to leave. Seligman called this phenomenon learned
helplessness and found parallels between learned helplessness and depression.
o LINK to Chapter Eight, Motivation and Emotion, pp. 338-339
5.11 What occurs in observational learning, including findings from Bandura’s classic Bobo
doll study and the four elements of observational learning? (text p. 207)
AP* VI.1 Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and observational learning
AP* VI.10 Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning
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o Observational learning is learning through watching others perform, or model,
certain actions.
Bandura and the Bobo Doll
o Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that young children will
imitate the aggressive actions of a model even when there is no reinforcement for
doing so.
o Learning/performance distinction - learning can take place without actual
performance ( a kind of latent learning)
o LINK to Chapter One, The Science of Psychology, pp. 26-28
The Four Elements of Observational Learning
AP* VI.7 Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social
learning
o Bandura determined that four elements needed to be present for observational
learning to occur:
 Attention - learner must first pay attention to the model
 Memory - learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done
 Imitation - learner must be capable of imitating the actions of the model
 LINK to Chapter Two, The Biological Perspective, pp 82
 Motivation - the learner must have the desire to perform the action
 LINK to Introduction, pp. I-11, I-13
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5.12 What is a real-world example of the use of conditioning (text p. 210)
o Can You Really Toilet-Train Your Cat?
 Writer Karawynn Long used shaping, reinforcement, and classical
conditioning to train her cat to use the toilet instead of a litter box.