Running Head: LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
1
Not to be quoted without permission of the authors
Leadership Effectiveness and Motivation in Africa and the African Diaspora (LEAD): An
Introduction*
Terri Lituchy (corresponding author) terrilituchy@yahoo.com 246-417-4295
Betty Jane Punnett eureka@caribsurf.com 246-256-6434
Department of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados
Revised and ReSubmitted to: Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences
For LEAD Special Issue September 2014
This research was partially supported by grants from SHRM Foundation, SSHRC Canada,
Concordia University, an The University of the West Indies to Terri Lituchy
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
2
Leadership Effectiveness and Motivation in Africa and the African Diaspora (LEAD): An
Introduction*
Abstract
The LEAD research project was developed in response to calls from management scholars to broaden
research to areas such as Africa. The special issue brings together the early findings of the research
team. This paper provides a backdrop for the other papers. It reviews the literature, and discusses the
importance of understanding management in under-researched areas of the world. It explains the use of
both emic and etic research and describes the LEAD project and methodology in detail; including both
emic (Delphi Technique and focus groups) and etic (large scale survey) research stages. The paper
promotes the use of emic and etic research, and it also considers the practical realities of using such an
approach.
Keywords: leadership, motivation, emic & etic research, African management, African diaspora
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
3
Leadership Effectiveness and Motivation in Africa and
the African Diaspora (LEAD): An Introduction
The objective of this special issue is to bring together the early findings of the LEAD
(Leadership Effectiveness in Africa and the Diaspora) project team (Lituchy et al., 2011) in a form that
makes the collected findings easily accessible to academics and managers. This special issue discusses
the importance of understanding management in under-researched areas of the world, and the use of
both emic and etic research to examine management questions and it describes the LEAD project.
Specifically, we address the questions: (1) What three to five words best describe your ethnic or
cultural background? (2) What words/terms would you use to describe an effective leader? (3) What
does an effective leader do? (4) What motivates leaders to succeed? (5) What motivates people (other
than leaders) to work hard? (6) Name three to five people, men or women, whom you consider to be, or
to have been, effective leaders (they can be local, national or international), and why each is effective?
And, (7) How would you describe your culture?
This special issue was developed to help international business scholars and management
practitioners understand business and management issues in some under-researched areas and groups of
the world. This introductory paper provides a backdrop for the other papers. We discuss the need for
research in under-researched areas, and propose an emic-etic-emic approach for such research. We also
consider the practical realities of using such an approach. We describe the LEAD emic project and the
development of the etic large-scale survey instrument.
The LEAD project began with emic, or culture-specific, research and used results from this
approach to develop an etic large-scale survey. The emic and etic research measures effective
leadership, as well as motivation, in a variety of African countries, and among a select group of the
African diaspora. The three papers that make up this special issue present the results of the emic
research from Canada and the United States, two countries in the Caribbean, and five African countries.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
4
The emic research consisted of the Delphi Technique and focus groups. In this introductory paper we
describe the emic approaches used in the LEAD project and the development of the survey instrument
based on the results of the emic findings. The later papers in this issue present and discuss the findings
in detail. The final paper in the special issue draws the information from the three papers together,
considers the similarities and differences across countries and regions as well as comparing and
contrasting findings, and introduces the etic approach.
The Need to Understand Business and Management in Under-Researched Areas
A number of management scholars have pointed to the fact that management knowledge is
severely biased towards Western perspectives (Baruch, 2001; Bruton, 2010; Thomas, 1996; Thomas,
Shenkar & Clarke, 1994; Werner, 2002). Lituchy, Punnett and Puplampu (2013) as well as Zoogah and
Nkomo (2013) discuss the limited management research in Africa. Similarly, Das, Do, Shaines and
Srikant (2013) found that research papers published in mainstream economic journals were linked to
level of development, and that countries with the lowest incomes and weakest economies received the
least attention. This is perhaps not surprising, given that most active management researchers are from
North America and Western Europe (Thomas, 1996; Punnett, 2008, 2012). These authors, and others,
have argued that non-Western management research needs to be increased. In spite of these calls for
more research in non-Western countries, management literature remains dominated by research from
The West, particularly the United States. Bruton (2010) said that, “while many business leaders have
taken up the call to address the issues surrounding entrenched poverty in the world, management
scholars have been slower to respond” (p. 6). We believe that this lack of knowledge about business and
management in non-Western and developing countries means that we really know very little about
business and management from a global perspective. In order to truly talk about business or
management, researchers need to be able to understand the similarities and differences that exist across
countries. We can only do this if we do research in under-researched countries, and if we can explain
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
5
what is unique to some countries, as well as how countries compare on variables of interest. Tsui (2004)
talks of the need for indigenous or context-specific research that “involves the highest degree of
contextualization, or research that does not aim to test an existing theory but to derive new theories of
the phenomena in their specific contexts. Indigenous research focuses on both novel and familiar issues
in novel contexts and thus ranges from very unfamiliar (novel issues in a novel context) to somewhat
familiar (familiar issue in a novel context) to scholars outside that context” (p.501). The current papers
address familiar issues of leadership and motivation, from the unfamiliar context of Africa and the
African diaspora.
It is important from a theoretical perspective to understand unfamiliar contexts. It is also
critically relevant to the world of business. The under-researched countries and regions of the world
have substantial potential for economic growth and more and more trade and investment is taking place
among developing countries as well as from developing countries to more developed ones, and vise
versa (Punnett, 2012). The case of China’s investment and involvement in various countries is a good
example of the new business interactions taking place around the world, that need to be informed by
research emanating from regions such as Africa.
International business researchers have carried out cross-national and cross-cultural studies for
some time now, and have built up a basis of understanding of national and cultural similarities and
differences. Hofstede’s (1981) work on culture has led to a body of work that has looked at cultural
values in different countries, and the impact of cultural values on various organizational phenomena.
Some recent cross-country research has sought to identify similarities and differences in perceptions of
leaders, the characteristics of leaders, and the fit between culture and leadership behaviors. House,
Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman and Gupta’s (2004) GLOBE study involving 62 societies around the world is
particularly relevant in this context. Such studies remain relatively rare, and certain regions of the world
continue to be largely ignored. Even in the GLOBE study, African countries were not well represented,
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
6
and there has been little discussion of the results from Africa. Similarly, the African diaspora has been
essentially ignored in most studies. Gramby-Sobukwe (2005) and Mohan & Zach-Williams (2002)
comment on how the African diaspora can play a role in improving leadership and motivation in Africa.
For our purposes, we define the diaspora as consisting of anyone of African origin who lives outside of
Africa, or with roots going back to Africa (Cohen, 1997). This includes the descendants of those
brought to the Americas as slaves in earlier centuries, as well as more recent emigration of highly
educated Africans to developed countries (Kaba, 2011). We recognize that there is debate regarding a
precise meaning of the term diaspora (Agunias & Newland, 2012), but we see that debate as distinct
from our purposes here. We are also aware that some descendants of Africans brought to the Americas
may feel little relationship with Africa, while others may feel that they remain ‘African’ (for example,
the term African America implies such a relationship). We hope that the current research will help
uncover the degree to which such a relationship does or does not exist, by highlighting similarities and
differences among various diaspora groups and between these groups and their counterparts in African
countries.
Using Africa as an example, scholars who have studied management in African countries have
often questioned the effectiveness of Western management and practices there (Blunt & Jones, 1992;
Kamoche, Debrah, Horwitz, & Muuka, 2004; Littrel, et al., 2013; Sørensen & Kuada, 2001), but only a
few researchers have looked at the role and impact of culture in the African context (Jackson, 2004;
Jackson, Amaeshi, & Yavuz, 2008; Wanasika, Howell, Littrell, & Dorfman, 2011) and indigenous
concepts such as Ubuntu (Brubaker, 2013; Mbigi, 2000) and Tree of Talking (Wambu, 2007). Further,
much of this literature is conceptual rather than empirical. In addition, evidence from Africa is quite
varied as the following illustrates: James (2008) described the traditional concept of leadership as
encompassing the ”big man” who is all-powerful, fearsome, all knowing, and a multifaceted problem
solver, who is infallible; Hale and Fields (2009) explored the concept of servant leadership, where the
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
7
leader achieves success through humility, and acting as a servant to her/his followers; Smith (2002)
focused on spirituality, time seen as eternal, the importance of ancestors, and connection to ancestors,
the land and communalism, and he concluded that decisions are holistic and collective; McFarlin, Coster
and Mogale-Pretorius (1999) suggested that trust is based on interpersonal relationships; Mangaliso
(2001) considered Ubuntu important in the South African context; Mbigi and Maree (1995) described
Ubuntu as a sense of brotherhood among marginalized groups combined with spiritualism; however,
Swartz and Davies (1997) argued that the work of Mbigi and Maree is not grounded in academic rigor;
and Walumbwa, Orwa, Wang and Lawler (2005) identified African leadership as authoritarian due to
high power distance. Clearly, these varied descriptions present very different pictures of what an
effective leader is like in African countries. It may be that all the styles described are effective, in
different locations, and under varying conditions, but we cannot say that, based on the current state of
research.
The LEAD research project focused on leadership and motivation because both are central to
effective management and both have been studied intensively in the West for the past century (Steers,
Mowday & Shapiro, 2004), but cross-cultural research is limited (Morrison, 2000; Suutari, 2002). There
are individual studies of specific Western approaches in a variety of countries (e.g. Amabile, 1993; Seo,
Barrett, & Bartunek, 2004) and some indigenous studies of motivation (e.g. Choi, 2004), but there is no
major global study of both effective leadership and motivation, and which approaches are effective in
the context of country/cultural differences; and research in Africa and the African diaspora is
particularly lacking. This is of concern because the perception of effective leadership will differ, in some
ways, among different cultures (Den Hartog, House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, & Dorfman, 1999), as
will what is perceived as being motivating (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999; Puplampu, 2013.). This clearly is
an area where more research is required.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
8
International business researchers need to begin to fill the gap by undertaking research in around
the globe, and particularly in those areas identified as under-researched. This is important for academic
knowledge, and from a practical perspective, so that managers and executives doing business in different
parts of the world can draw on the knowledge. This is clearly a worthwhile endeavour, but the reality of
doing such research is by no means simple. In this introductory paper, we consider an emic-etic
approach to research design, as well as some of the practicalities of implementing such a design.
Africa remains relatively under-researched, with some researchers going so far as to claim it is
all but invisible in mainstream management literature (Nkomo, 2011). One review of seventeen papers
dealing with management in Africa (Lituchy, Punnett, Ford & Jonsson, 2009) found that three dealt
generally with Africa, one with Southern Africa and one with Western Africa. Of those that looked at
individual countries, Botswana, Kenya and Malawi were each included in one study, three focused on
Ghana, and six on South Africa. The continent of Africa consists of about 55 countries (the actual
number depends on whether places such as Somaliland are included as countries), and the studies
identified only addressed five of these countries, with South Africa dominating. More recently, there
have been studies on absenteeism (Addae, Johns & Boies, 2013), and organizational change (Nkomo &
Kriek, 2011). Furthermore, we could not find any management studies specifically addressing the
African diaspora.
There is also a lack of management research in the Caribbean, (Lewis & Simmons, 2010; Simon
& Preziosi, 2009). Nurse and Punnett (2002) reviewed the management literature on the English
speaking Caribbean and concluded that there was very little and that research was needed in all areas
including Organisational Behavior (Baba, Galperin & Lituchy, 1999). A few studies have been
undertaken since 2002, but they address very specific issues such as absenteeism (Baba, et al., 1999;
Punnett, Greenidge & Ramsey, 2007) and goal-setting (Punnett, Corbin & Greenidge, 2007). Given the
lack of research in the area, we decided to use qualitative research to examine the general research
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
9
question, “What is seen as effective leadership and motivation in African countries and the African
diaspora?” The intent of this project is to understand to what extent African views of leadership and
motivation are unique, and may represent an “African theory of leadership/motivation”, and to what
extent they can be interpreted in the context of more general theories of leadership and motivation, but
African variations can be identified.
Emic Methods
We believe that to address business and management issues in under-researched areas such as
Africa and the African diaspora, research needs to incorporate both emic and etic approaches. The
primary reason for this is that used together emic and etic approaches can have a synergistic effect that
illuminates things unseen using only one approach, and both approaches used together can eliminate the
weaknesses of either approach that exist when they are used alone (Morris, Leung, Ames & Lickel,
1999). Emic approaches allow researchers to uncover variables that are specific to the region, country,
or group being investigated, while etic approaches allow for large-scale comparisons across groups.
Where little empirical research has been done, in countries such as those in Africa, or with groups such
as the African diaspora, emic research is critical. We need to know how people in these places view the
constructs of interest, otherwise researchers impose a particular view, developed elsewhere. Knowledge
based on emic research alone, while valuable, does not allow for comparisons among groups, nor does it
provide generalizable results. In order to more clearly understand how groups are similar or different,
etic research across groups is necessary (Morris et al., 1999).
The LEAD project is an on-going project, which illustrates the emic-etic-emic approach. The
research began with what we called a blank slate—using a Delphi Technique, “experts” (knowledgeable
people) in leadership positions were asked to define, then refine, the details of the concepts to be
measured (culture, leadership and motivation). The Delphi Technique was followed by focus groups,
consisting of lower level managers, supervisors and employees.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
10
There are many emic approaches that can be used in international management research. We
selected the Delphi Technique to begin our project because we felt that we wanted participants
themselves to define the concepts (culture, leadership, motivation), and we felt that initially this should
be done by experts, or knowledgeable people, in each country included in the study.
The Delphi Technique has been described as a method for structuring a group communication
process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a
complex problem (Linstone & Turoff, 1975). Usually, a Delphi Technique consists of a series of rounds
in which information is collected from panelists; analysed and fed back to them as the basis for
subsequent rounds. This provides the opportunity for individuals to revise their judgments on the basis
of the feedback. Rounds continue until participants reach a consensus. Participants in the Delphi
Technique held leadership positions in various organisations in Canada, the United States, two
Caribbean countries, and five countries in Africa. Knowledgeable people were identified from the
following groups: (a) Academics, (b) Private Sector, (c) Public Sector, and (d) Other – Religious
Leaders, Leaders in Non-Governmental and Charitable Organizations, and Community Leaders.
Following the Delphi Technique, we wanted to get input from people who would not be
considered experts. Due to the effectiveness in collecting qualitative data through group interaction
(Morgan, 1996), focus groups were selected as the best approach following the Delphi Technique. The
purpose of the focus groups was to ascertain if responses to the same questions from non-leaders would
support the Delphi Techniques’ findings. Recently focus groups have gained scientific respectability
(Kahan, 2001) and have also been used both in qualitative and quantitative research (Morgan, 1997).
According to Morgan (1997), they are useful for generating hypotheses based on informants’ insights,
developing interview schedules and questionnaires and getting participants interpretations of results
from earlier studies.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
11
The focus groups allowed groups of people to discuss the same open-ended questions that had
been used in the Delphi Technique. We felt, as with the Delphi Technique, that this avoided the
researchers imposing their own ideas, and that the results would reflect the thinking of the participants.
We believe these two approaches provide a valuable design for a research project in under-researched
areas, as it is particularly important to avoid introducing Western researcher bias into the conception of
these concepts for African and diaspora contexts, as other researchers have cautioned against (Nkomo,
2011).
In each focus group, the facilitator began the focus group with introductions, an overview of the
project and the role of the focus group. Participants were assured that the results and their information
would be held in strictest confidence. Each focus group participant was provided with paper and pen for
taking notes. The lead facilitator encouraged a discussion of each question. The facilitator recorded the
responses. After this was done, the second facilitator read responses from the earlier Delphi Technique
and asked the groups input on each item. After some agreement was reached, each participant was asked
to rank top five responses that were most important, with one being the most important. Rankings were
collected and results were collated using the reverse scoring method to determine the mean or the
average score. For example, rank one response would have a score of five, rank two response a score of
four and so on. The scores of each response were added, and then divided by the number of participants
in the focus group to give the average score. The item with the highest average score was considered to
be the most common result. The focus group lasted for approximately two hours and participants
received refreshments after the focus group exercise was completed.
The questions used in the Delphi Technique and the focus groups were: (1) What three to five
words best describe your ethnic or cultural background? (2) What words/terms would you use to
describe an effective leader? (3) What does an effective leader do? (4) What motivates leaders to
succeed? (5) What motivates people (other than leaders) to work hard? (6) Name three to five people,
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
12
men or women, whom you consider to be, or to have been, effective leaders (they can be local, national
or international), and why each is effective? And, (7) How would you describe your culture?
Results of the Delphi Technique and Focus Groups
The Africa paper presents the results of using the Delphi Technique and Focus Groups in Ghana,
Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda. The authors found that most of the participants agreed on most of
the leadership traits and motivators in the Delphi Technique. Fairness/impartiality,
commitment/dedication, honesty/trustworthiness, and being knowledgeable were descriptors of effective
leadership. While in the focus groups, respondents from Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria agreed that effective
leaders were visionary, charismatic, intelligent and innovative. Quest for justice, extrinsic benefits like
money/wealth, and service to community/society were said to motivate leaders according to the Delphi
participants. Similar variables were reported in the focus groups.
In the Caribbean paper, the authors present the results of both the Delphi Technique and focus
groups to examine culture, leadership and motivation. Holder, Knight, Punnett, Charles and Harewood
state that in most Caribbean countries the African diaspora makes up a majority of the population. They
found that effective leaders are charismatic, visionary, and results oriented. They motivate others, lead
by example, and develop visions and goals. The leaders believe that they are motivated by, “making a
difference”. Non-leaders are perceived as being motivated primarily by financial rewards.
The results of the Delphi Technique research conducted in the United States and Canada are
presented elsewhere (Ford et al., 2013; Lituchy, Punnett, & Ford, 2013). In this special issue, Galperin,
Lituchy, Acquaah, Bewaji and Ford conducted ten focus groups in the United States and Canada. There
was agreement that “visionary”, “effective communicator”, “honest/trustworthy”, and
“wise/knowledgeable” were words that describe an effective leader. In terms of motivation, participants
in both countries described the “need to support”, “monetary rewards”, and “non-monetary rewards” as
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
13
factors that motivated leaders to succeed. The participants from both the United States and Canada see
“security”, “potential rewards”, and “recognition” as important motivators for people, other than leaders.
In the final paper of this special issue, the authors Ford and Miller provide a birds-eye view of
the results from the Delphi Technique and focus groups that were conducted in Africa—specifically
Ghana, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda, the Caribbean—Barbados and Trinidad & Tobago, the
United States and Canada. The summary focuses on the similarities, differences, and unique findings
from the studies that shed light on the variability that exists within and between cultures when
considering leadership effectiveness and motivation, as well as the culturally implicit linkages driving
the similarities that emerged. There was collective agreement that effective leaders are charismatic,
visionaries who are good communicators also knowledgeable and team-oriented and posses a great deal
of integrity. The continuation of the project, with the development of a quantitative survey that builds
on the current findings is presented. The paper concludes with a conceptual framework what both maps
the specific Delphi Technique and focus group questions/responses onto the framework and also serves
as a vehicle against which develop the etic research.
Putting an Emic-Etic-Emic Approach into Practice
We believe that the critical contribution of this emic-etic approach is that the questionnaire (etic)
we have developed includes Afro-centric concepts (emic) from the Delphi Technique and focus groups,
which are not represented by existing theories. We do not believe that research should stop with the etic
approach. Instead, we see the real potential of using etic results to do further emic research to develop a
more complete understanding of what various constructs and concepts mean. For example, if
“spirituality” is an important aspect of effective leadership in a particular context, one would want to
pursue this further, by asking how spirituality is manifested in the workplace.
This emic-etic-emic approach seems the best way to investigate management phenomena in
under-researched areas. We acknowledge, however, that this approach is time consuming, and advise
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
14
colleagues to be ready for such projects to take substantial time and effort. In the following discussion
we consider some of the challenges to putting this research design into practice.
An underlying premise of research that addresses under-researched areas is that researchers
should avoid imposing their own biases on the project. Selecting the appropriate design is critical to this.
In the LEAD project, we decided that the Delphi Technique and focus groups were the best way to
accomplish this. Other approaches, such as case studies, interviews, observations, participant
observation would be appropriate for different projects. Equally important to avoiding bias is the makeup of the research team.
It is critical for international businesses that we understand the realities of business and
management around the world. A number of reviews of the ‘state of the art’ in cross-cultural and crossnational research have clearly identified major gaps in the research (Leung, Bhagat, Buchan, Erez &
Gibson, 2005; Tsui, 2007; Tsui, Nifadkar and Yi Ou, 2007). In this paper, we have also identified the
lack of research in many parts of the world. We feel that international business researchers need to focus
on filling the gaps that exist because of this lack of research. We argue that using an emic-etic research
design is the best approach. We use an on-going project to illustrate this approach as well as the
challenges associated with such a research design.
Research in under researched areas is not only relevant for academics; it also has a very practical
outcome. The world of business is increasingly international, and managers find themselves managing
under very different circumstances than is the reality at home. This is true of the Kenyan working in
Canada, and it is true of the Caribbean national in Ghana. Movement around the world has become
today’s reality. International business researchers are in a position to help managers understand these
realities. We can only do this if there is research to draw on. We believe that the papers in this special
issue will provide a beginning towards this understanding in certain locations in Africa and in some of
the African diaspora.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
15
References
Addae, H., Johns, G. & Boies, K.(2013). The legitimacy of absenteeism from work: a nine nation
exploratory study. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 20(3), 402 – 428.
Agunias, D. R., & Newland, K. (2012). Developing a road map for engaging diasporas in development:
A handbook for policymakers and practitioners in home and host countries. Washington, DC:
International Migration Organization (IMO) and Migration Policy Institute (MPI). Available at:
http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/thediasporahandbook.pdf
Amabile, T. M. (1993). Motivational synergy: Towards new conceptualizations of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation in the workplace. Human Resource Management Review, 3(3), 185-201.
Baba, V.V., Galperin, B.L. & Lituchy, T.R. (1999). Work and Depression: A study of nurses in the
Caribbean. International Journal of Nursing, 36, 163-169.
Baruch, Y. (2001). Global or North American? A geographical based comparative analysis of
publications in top management journals. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management,
1(1), 109-126.
Blunt, P., & Jones, M. L. (1992). Managing Organizations in Africa. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Brubaker, T. A. (2013). Servant leadership, Ubuntu, and leader effectiveness in Rwanda. Emerging
Leadership Journeys, 6(1), 95-131.
Bruton, G. D. (2010). Business and the world’s poorest billion – The need for an expanded examination
by management scholars. Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(3), 6-10.
Choi, J. N. (2004). Individual and contextual predictors of creative performance: The mediating role of
psychological processes. Creativity Research Journal, 16(2-3), 187-199.
Cohen, R. (1997). Global diasporas: An introduction. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
16
Das, J., Do, Q., Shaines, K., & Srikant, S. (2013). U.S. and them: The geography of academic research.
Journal of development economics, 105, 112-130.
Den Hartog, D. N., House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A., & Dorfman, P. W. (1999).
Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of
charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed? The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2),
219–256.
Ford, D. L., Lituchy, T. R., Punnett, B. J., Puplampu, B. B., & Sejjaaka, S. (2013). Leadership in
Africa and the diaspora. In T. R. Lituchy, B. J. Punnett, & B. B. Puplumpu (Eds.),
Management in Africa: Macro and micro perspectives (pp. 249-269). London: Routledge.
Gramby-Sobukwe, S. (2005). Africa and US foreign policy: Contributions of the Diaspora to democratic
African leadership. Journal of Black Studies, 35(6), 779-801.
Hale, J. R., & Fields, D.L. (2009). Exploring servant leadership across cultures: A study of followers in
Ghana and the USA. Leadership, 3(4), 397-416.
Hofstede, G. (1981). Cultures consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
House, R., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership and
organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 Countries. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on
intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 349-366.
Jackson, T. (2004). Management and change in Africa: A cross cultural perspective. London:
Routledge.
Jackson, T., Amaeshi, K., & Yavuz, S. (2008). Untangling African indigenous management: Multiple
influences on the success of SMEs in Kenya. Journal of World Business, 43(4), 400-416.
James, R. (2008). Leadership development inside-out in Africa. Non profit Management &
Leadership, 18(3), 359-375.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
17
Kaba, J.A. (2011). The status of Africa’s emigration brain drain in the 21st century. Western Journal of
Black Studies, 35, 187-207.
Kahan, J. P. (2001). Focus groups as a tool for policy analysis. Analyses of Social Issues and Public
Policy, 1(1), 129-146.
Kamoche, K., Debrah, Y., Horwitz, F., & Muuka, G. N. (2004). Managing Human Resources in Africa.
(Eds.). London: Routledge.
Leung, K., Bhagat, R., Buchan, N., Erez M., & Gibson, C. (2005). Culture and International Business:
Recent Advances and Their Implications for Future Research. Journal of International Business
Studies, 36(4), 357-378.
Lewis, T., & Simmons, L. (2010). Creating research culture in Caribbean universities. International
Journal of Educational Development, 30(4), 337-344.
Linstone, H. A., & Turoff, M. (1975). The Delphi method: techniques and applications. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Littrell, R. F., Wu, N. H., Nkomo, S., Wanasika, I., Howell, J., & Dorfman, P. (2013).
National and Sub-National Cultures on Preferred Leader Behaviour In T. R. Lituchy, B. J. Punnett, & B.
B. Puplampu (Eds.), Management in Africa: Macro and Micro Perspectives (pp. 232-248).
London: Routledge.
Lituchy, T. R., Ford, D. & Punnett, B. J. (2013). Leadership in Uganda, Barbados, Canada and the USA:
Exploratory perspectives. African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, 4(2), 201-222.
Lituchy, T. R., Punnett, B. J., Ford, D. L., & Jonsson. C. (2009). Leadership effectiveness in Africa and
the diaspora. Eastern Academy of Management International Proceedings. Rio, Brazil.
Lituchy, T. R., Punnett, B. J., & Puplumpu, B. (2013). Introduction. In T. R. Lituchy, B. J. Punnett
& B. B. Puplampu (Eds.), Management in Africa: Macro and Micro Perspectives (pp. 1-8).
London: Routledge.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
18
Lituchy, T., Punnett, B. J., Thomas, A., Cruickshank, A., Oppenheimer, R., Ford, D. L., & Sejjaaka, S.
(2011). Using focus groups to examine effective leadership and motivation in the African
diaspora. IAABD Conference Proceedings, 486-492.
Mangaliso, M. P. (2001). Building competitive advantage from Ubuntu: Management lessons from
South Africa. Academy of Management Executive, 15(3), 23-32.
Mbigi, L. (2000). In search of the African business renaissance: An African cultural perspective.
Randburg, SA: Knowledge Resources.
Mbigi, L., & Maree, J. (1995). Ubuntu. The spirit of African transformation management. Randburg,
SA: Knowledge Resources.
McFarlin, D. B., Coster, E. A., & Mogale-Pretorius, C., (1999). South African management
development in the twenty-first century: Moving toward an Africanized model. Journal of
Management Development, 18(1), 63-78.
Mohan, G., & Zack-Williams, A.B. (2002). Globalization from below: Conceptualizing the role of the
African Diasporas in Africa’s development. Review of African Political Economy, 29(92), 211236.
Morgan, D. L. (1996). Focus groups. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 129-152.
Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications Inc.
Morris, M. W., Leung, K., Ames, D., & Lickel, B. (1999). Views from inside and outside: Integrating
emic and etic insights about culture and justice judgement. Academy of Management
Review, 24(4), 781-796.
Morrison, A. J. (2000). Developing a Global Leadership Model. Human Resource Management, 39(2),
117-132.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
19
Nkomo, S. M. (2011). A postcolonial and anti-colonial reading of 'African' leadership and management
in organization studies: Tensions, contradictions and possibilities. Organization, 18(3), 365-386.
Nkomo, S. M., & Kriek, D. (2011). Leading organizational change in the 'new' South Africa. Journal Of
Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 84(3), 453-470.
Nurse, L., & Punnett, B. J. (2002) Management Research on the English-Speaking Caribbean: Toward a
Research Agenda. Journal of Eastern Caribbean Studies, 27(2), 1-37.
Punnett, B. J. (2008). Management in developing countries. In C. Wankel (Ed.), 21st Century
Management, (pp. 190-199). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Punnett, B. J. (2012). Management: A Developing Country Perspective. London: Routledge.
Punnett, B. J., Corbin, A., & Greenidge, D. (2007). Assigned Goals and Tasks Performance in a
Caribbean Context: Extending the Global Reach of a Tried and True Management Approach.
International Journal of Emerging Markets, 2(3), 215-235.
Punnett, B. J., Greenidge, D., & Ramsey, J. (2007) Job attitudes and absenteeism: A study in the English
speaking Caribbean. Journal of World Business, 42(2), 214-227.
Puplampu, B. (2013). Employee Motivation in Africa. In T. R. Lituchy, B. J. Punnett & B. B. Puplampu
(Eds.), Management in Africa: Macro and Micro Perspectives (pp. 270-290). London:
Routledge.
Seo, M. G., Barrett, L. F., & Bartunek, J. M. (2004). The role of affective experience in work
motivation. The Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 423-439.
Simon, M. R., & Preziosi, R. C. (2009). The impact of transformational leadership on small and medium
enterprises in Trinidad. International Leadership Journal, 1(3/4), 35-54.
Smith, B. (2002). Worldview and culture: Leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa. New England Journal of
Public Policy, 19(1), 243-274.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
20
Sørensen, O. J. & Kuada, J. (2001). Institutional context of Ghanaian firms and cross-national inter-firm
relations. In G. Jacobsen, & J. E. Torp (Eds.), Understanding Business Systems in Developing
Countries (pp. 163-201). New Delhi: Sage.
Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Shapiro, D. L. (2004). The future of work motivation theory. Academy
of Management Review, 29(3), 379-387.
Suutari, V. (2002). Global leader development: An emerging research agenda. Career Development
International, 7(4), 218-233.
Swartz, E., & Davies, R. (1997). Ubuntu - The spirit of African transformation management - A review.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 18(6), 290-294.
Thomas, A. (1996). A call for research in forgotten locations. In B. J. Punnett & O. Shenkar (Eds.),
Handbook for International Management Research (pp. 485-506). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Thomas, A. S., Shenkar, O., & Clarke, L. (1994). Globalization of our mental maps: Evaluating the
geographic scope of JIBS coverage. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(4), 675-686.
Tsui, A. (2004). Contributing to Global Management Knowledge: A Case for High Quality Indigenous
Research. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21, 491–513.
Tsui, A. (2007). From Homogenization to Pluralism: International Management Research in the
Academy and Beyond. Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1353–1364.
Tsui, A., Nifadkar, S., and Yi Ou, A. (2007). Cross-National, Cross-Cultural Organizational Behavior
Research: Advances, Gaps, and Recommendations. Journal of Management, 33(3), 426-478.
Walumbwa, F., Orwa, B., Wang, P., & Lawler, J. J. (2005). Transformational leadership, organizational
commitment, and job satisfaction: A comparative study of Kenyan and U.S. financial firms.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16(2), 235-256.
Wambu, O. (2007). Under the tree of talking: Leadership for change in Africa. London: Counterpoint.
LEADERSHIP & MOTIVATION IN AFRICA AND THE DIASPORA
21
Wanasika, I., Howell, J. P., Littrell, R., & Dorfman, P. (2011). Managerial Leadership and Culture in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of World Business, 46(2), 234-241.
Werner, S. (2002). Recent developments in international management research: A review of 20 top
management journals. Journal of Management, 28(3), 277-305.
Zoogah, D. B., & Nkomo, S. (2013). Management research in Africa: Past, present and future. In T.
R. Lituchy, B. J. Punnett, & B. B. Puplampu (Eds.), Management in Africa: Macro and
micro perspectives (pp. 9-31). London: Routledge.