The Strategies
of Modern Science
Development
III International
scientific–practical conference
12-13 September 2013
Proceedings
Science Book Publishing House
Yelm, WA, USA
2013
Scientific Publishing Center "Discovery"
otkritieinfo.ru
The Strategies of Modern Science Development: Proceedings of the III
International scientific–practical conference (Yelm, WA, USA, 12-13
September 2013). - Yelm, WA, USA: Science Book Publishing
House, 2013. - p.
The materials of the conference have presented the results of the latest
research in various fields of science: information technology and
engineering, biological end сhemical sciences, philology, economics
and jurisprudence, historical, psychological end political sciences,
ecology. The collection is of interest to researchers, graduate students,
doctoral candidates, teachers, students - for anyone interested in the
latest trends of the world of science.
O Authors, 2013
O Scientific Publishing
Center "Discovery", 2013
2
CONTENT
SECTION 1. Chemical sciences
M. A. Yakiyayeva, R. K. Rakhmetullaeva, A. K. Toktabaeva
COMPLEXATION AND STIMULI-SENSITIVE PROPERTIES OF
ACRYLIC ACID’S COPOLYMERS TRANSITION METAL
WITH IONS (СU2+, NI2+)………………………………………………...…..7
SECTION 2. Biological sciences
I. Paliy
INTERCOMMUNICATION BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS’ INTENSITY,
THE MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND NUTRITION
CONDITIONS IN NEPETA CATARIA VAR. CITRIODORA BECK………..13
SECTION 3. Engineering
A. G. Hristoforova
PATENT LANDSCAPE OF NORTHEASTERN FEDERAL
UNIVERSITY………………………………………………………….…….21
SECTION 4. Historical Sciences
O. V. Fidchenko
ACCESSION OF THE DESTRUCTIVE ACTIVITIES
OF THE PRE-REVOLUTIONARY RUSSIAN INTELLIGENCE
IN THE LIGHT OF ORTHODOX………………………………………..…27
SECTION 5. Economics
I. V. Balynin
DEBT POLICY OF REGIONS OF THE CENTRAL FEDERAL DISTRICT
IN 2008-2012: AN ANALYSIS, EVALUATION DATA AND EFFECT
ON THE LEVEL OF RISK OF IMBALANCE REGIONAL BUDGETS…..35
B. Beisengaliyev
MODERN MODEL OF SOCIAL POLITICS………………………….……47
3
T. V. Goloshchapova
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREDICTION OF HOTEL
INDUSTRYS EFFECTIVENESS...................................................................52
N. Yu. Ivanov, N. Yu. Bagaeva
FORMATION OF INNOVATIVE SEGMENT
IN REPUBLIC SAKHA (YAKUTIA)……………………………………….57
A. I. Krivtsov
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR ECONOMIC
AND INNOVATIVE BUILDING ORGANIZATION………………………64
M. K. Krivtsova, M. A. Podzorova, A. S. Sibiryaev
THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL POLICY
OF THE STATE ON THE HOUSEHOLD BUDGET……………….………70
E. U. Kuznetsova
BRAND AND ITS FORMATION: THE RUSSIAN PRACTICE………..…75
Yu. V. Merkulova
THE PLANNING OF THE DYNAMICS OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND….79
T. A. Oruch
CURRENT STATUS OF THE QUALITY OF SERVICES RUSSIAN
MOBILE OPERATORS………………………………………………..…….86
V. M. Timiryanova, A. R. Nurova, E. A. Krasilnikova
INFLUENCE OF CONSUMER GOODS MARKET CONDITION
ON EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION…………………..……91
D. Turekulova, M. Zhamkeyeva
ANALYSIS OF CAUSES AND EFFECTS
OF THE CHANGE IN PRICE FOR EXPORT-IMPORT GOODS……...…100
E. V. Voronina
THE ASSESSMENT OF CORPORATIONS LOAN CAPITALS:
METHODOLOGICAL ASPECT…………………………………...………105
4
SECTION 6. Philosophy of Science
E. V. Fidchenko
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY
OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: AS RATIONALIZATION……...…110
SECTION 7. Philology
Ekaterina Gradaleva
LEXICAL UNITS DENOTING A HORSE
IN BRITISH LITERATURE…………………………………………….….117
L.V. Grichenko
PRESENTATION FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT – THE PROPER
NAME IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN PROVERBS……………………....123
V. I. Kukovska
MAIN TACTICS OF THE DEFENSE COUNSEL
SPEECH IN COURT………………………………………………………..128
О. V. Marunevich, D. G. Manzhos
THE METHODS AND FORMS OF FOLK’S NAIVE VIEWS ARCHIVING
ABOUT DEVIL AS A FOREIGNER IN THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN
FOLKLORE IN XVII-XIX CENTURIES……………………………..……131
A. Mynzak
ENGLISH LEGAL ANTONYMS IN CONTEXT: COORDINATED,
ANCILLARY, AUTONOMOUS AND COHESIVE ANTONYMY………137
O. A. Shatun
ON THE ISSUE ABOUT THE USE OF ILLEGIBLE SETS
FOR STRATIFICATION OF LEXICAL UNITS
IN THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE………………………………………144
5
SECTION 8. Jurisprudence
Andrew Ashin, Natalya Simagina
PUNISHMENT AS THE TYPE OF COMPULSORY COMMUNITY
SERVICE FOR JUVENILES ACCORDING TO THE FOREIGN
COUNTRIES LEGISLATION……………………………………………...150
O. Ruzevich, A. Krasilschikova
THE PROBLEMS OF FRAUD QUALIFICATION
IN THE BANKING FIELD…………………………………………155
S. I. Suslova
SUBJECTIVE RIGHTS ON ACCOMMODATIONS IN RUSSIA:
LEGISLATIVE REGULATION AND TRENDS
IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH………………………………………………160
SECTION 9. Psychological science
N. G. Makarova
THE VALUES OF A MODERN PERSON…………………………..….…165
D. Pogontseva
ATTRACTIVE FEMALE – MODERN VIEW
ON CLASSICAL FENOMENON…………………………………….….…169
E. Polianichko
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING
MENTAL REFLECTION…………………………………………….….…173
SECTION 10. Political science
E. S. Barsova
THE SYSTEM OF RUSSIAN FEDERATION FOREIGN PUBLIC
INSTITUTIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF NATIONAL SECURITY…..…178
SECTION 11. Ecology
S. S. Rodionov
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE PRESENT STATE
OF THE INFORMATION…………………………………………….….…183
6
SECTION 1. Chemical sciences
COMPLEXATION AND STIMULI-SENSITIVE PROPERTIES
OF ACRYLIC ACID’S COPOLYMERS TRANSITION METAL
WITH IONS (СU2+, NI2+)
*M. A. Yakiyayeva1,2, R. K. Rakhmetullaeva1,
A. K. Toktabaeva1
1
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
2
Almaty Technological University
*yamadina88@mail.ru
Introduction
Polymer-metal complexes are formed by the interaction of
polymers containing functional groups (polycations, polyanions,
nonionic polymers), with transition metal ions (Cu2+, Cd2+, Zn2+, Ni2+,
Co2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ etc.). This class of polymeric complexes is of great
interest in the processes of cleaning and extraction of metal ions from
industrial and natural water, in the process of water treatment, in the
synthesis of polymeric catalysts, in extraction of metal ions from the
soil, etc. [1].
In the solution on a stability of polymer – metal’s ion complexes
strong influence make such factors as a conformation and
microstructure of polymer ligands, the nature of metals, the degree of
ionization, the nature of anti ions (anions) metals, pH, ionic strength of
the solution, the nature of the solvent, temperature, i.e., all those
factors, which determine the conformational state of macromolecules in
a solution and their hydrodynamic characteristics. Numerous researches
of polymer – metal systems are devoted to the establishment of the
influence of these factors on the properties and structure of polymermetal complexes [2]. Also all of the charged and nonionic watersoluble polymers due to difilic macromolecules in any degree show
sensitivity to the effects of the temperature of the environment. At the
increase of temperature the destruction of hydrogen bonds between
functional groups of the polymer and water molecules, takes place
while also intra- and intermolecular hydrophobic interactions, intensify
as a result of which the water becomes a poor solvent in
7
thermodynamic terms. For aqueous solutions of linear macromolecules
there is a division into two phases the enriched and the leaned by
polymers [3].
In this work the complex making ability of linear copolymers
based on butylmetacrylate (BMA) and acrylic acid (AА) with ions of
heavy metals (copper and nickel) were studied. This study was
conducted with the purpose of studying of the obtained polymers as
adsorbents of heavy metals, as well as for the regulation of thermalsensitive properties of water-soluble polymers.
Experimental
pH of solutions was defined by the digital ionometer “Ion Meter
3345” (Jenway Ltd., United Kingdom). Optical density of solutions of
polymers and their polycomplexes were measured by UVspectrophotometer “UV-2401 PC Shimadzu” (Japan) at the wavelength
λ = 400 nm (25 degrees). Turbidimetric measurement of polymer
solutions and their polycomplexes were carried out with the use of UVspectrophotometer "UV-2401 PC Shimadzu" (Japan) at the wavelength
of λ = 400 nm.
Results and discussion
From the practical point of view sensitive polymers acquire
currently importance, water solutions of which are characterized by the
presence of the lower critical temperature of dissolution, because of the
presence of a hydrophilic - hydrophobic balance of macrochain. In the
structure of macromolecules of such polymers hydrophilic functional
groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, amine, amide, etc.) contains which show
the ability to form hydrogen bonds and provide their solubility in water,
as well as hydrophobic fragments. At the increase of temperature the
destruction of hydrogen bonds between functional groups of the
polymer and water molecules takes place, while also intra- and
intermolecular hydrophobic interactions intensify, as a result of which
the water becomes a poor solvent in thermodynamic terms. For aqueous
solutions of linear macromolecules there is a division into two phases –
enriched and lean by polymers. In this work we studied the complex
making ability of linear copolymers on the basis of butyl methacrylate
8
(BMA) and acrylic acid (AА) with ions of heavy metals (copper and
nickel). This study was conducted with the purpose of studying of the
obtained polymers as adsorbents of heavy metals, as well as for the
regulation of the thermal sensitive properties of water-soluble
polymers.
Investigation of the thermalsensitivity of the BMA-AK
copolimers showed that the heating up of their aqueous solutions up to
60 degrees does not lead to the change of their turbidity. This indicates
that these copolymers do not show the thermalsensitivity, despite the
presence in their structure of hydrophobic and hydrophilic fragments.
At the same time it turned out that copolymers BMA-AK show high
sensitivity to the presence in the solution of the ions of transition
metals, that is that copolymers very actively form complexes and
precipitate when adding very small amounts of metal ions. In the course
of experiments, it the optimal ratio of the metal was established
[COOH]:[Me2+]=15:1, in which the polymer is not excluded in the
sediment and the concentration of metal ions in the solution reached its
maximum value. A slight increase in the concentration of metal ions in
the solution of copolymer, OME[COOH]:[Me2+]=12:1, leads to the
fact, that the complex forms a precipitate.
It was found that this sensitivity to ions of heavy metals is
proportional to the content of a ion genetic component AK in the
original monomers mixture, the more its content in the original
monomers environment (OME), the greater the sensitivity manifests
itself of the ions of metals. Copolymer composition of the OME
[BMA]:[AА] = 5:95 mol.% shows increased sensitivity to ions of
transition metals, when the ratio of the concentration of the ions of
copper, [COOH]:[Cu2+]=120:1, the complex forms a precipitate
without the influence of the temperature that does not allow for further
research of thermal sensitivity of this copolymer (table 1). At the same
time, the high sensitivity of the BMA-AА copolymers to the presence
of transition metal ions allows us to consider them as a promising
sorbents for use in the systems of purification of waste waters, as well
as for concentration and extraction of metal ions from solutions
containing low concentration (about 0.01% of mass).
9
D 1,6
D
2
0,6
2
1,4
0,5
1,2
1,0
0,4
0,8
0,3
0,6
0,2
3
0,4
0,1
0,2
1
3
0,0
1
0,0
20
30
40
50
60
O
T, C
O
20
30
40
50
60
T, C
OME [BМА]:[АA] = 30:70 mol.%
OME [BМА]:[АA] = 30:70 mol.%
С (СPL) = 0.1М, рН=4.0
С (СPL) = 0.1М, рН=4.0
2+
CPL (1); [COOH]:[Cu ]=15:1 (2);
CPL (1); [COOH]:[Cu2+]=25:1 (2);
2+
[COOH]:[Ni ]=15:1 (3)
[COOH]:[Ni2+]=25:1 (3)
Figure 1 - the Influence of the temperature on the Figure 2 - Effect of temperature on the complexes
complexes of the BMA-AА copolymer with ions of of the BMA-AА copolymer with ions of transition
transition metals.
metals.
D 0,18
D0,25
2
0,16
3
0,20
0,14
0,12
0,15
0,10
0,08
3
2
0,10
0,06
0,04
0,05
0,02
1
1
0,00
0,00
20
30
40
50
60
20
O
30
40
50
60
O
T, C
T, C
OME [BМА]:[АA] = 10:90 mol.%
OME [BМА]:[АA] = 10:90 mol.%
С (CPL) = 0.1М, рН=4.3
С (СPL) = 0.1М, рН=4.3
2+
CPL (1); [COOH]:[Cu ]=15:1 (2);
СPL (1); [COOH]:[Cu2+]=25:1 (2);
2+
[COOH]:[Ni ]=15:1 (3)
[COOH]:[Ni2+]=25:1 (3)
Figure 3 - Effect of temperature on the complexes of Figure 4 - Effect of temperature on the complexes
the BMA-AА copolymer with ions of transition of the BMA-AА copolymer with ions of transition
metals.
metals.
11
Table 1 - Complexation of the BMA-AА
copolymer with ions of heavy metals
Cоpolymer
BМА-АA
BМА-АA
BМА-АA
OME composition,
[BМА]:[АA], mol.%
30:70
10:90
5:95
The ratio of
[COOH]:[Ме2+]
15:1
15:1
240:1
From the data presented in figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 we can conclude
that the complexes of double copolymers with ions of transition metals
do not show the temperature-sensitive properties.
Conclusions
The thermal-sensitive properties of copolymers based on the
BMA-AА and their complexes and ions of copper and nickel were
investigated turbidimetric methods. It is established, that for aqueous
solutions of copolymers phase stratification with increasing temperature
is not observed, which indicates the lack of thermal sensitivity for these
polymers. In the system of complexes BMA-AK with ions of copper
thermal sensitivity is not manifested. However, copolymers based on
the BMA-AK demonstrated high sensitivity to the presence of
transition metal ions, which makes the possibility of their use as
effective sorbents. It is shown that the thermal sensitivity of such
copolymers is possible to strengthen by complexation with copper.
References
1.
Bimendina L.A., Yashkarova M.Г., Kudaibergenov S.Е.,
Bekturov Е.А. Polymer complexes (obtaining, properties, application):
Monograph / edited by B.A. Zhubanov. - Semipalatinsk state
University of Shakarim – Semipalatinsk, 2003. – p. 313.
2.
L.A. Bimendina, E.A. Bekturov., G.K. Mamytbekov.
Complexes of water-soluble polymers and hydrogels.
3.
I.Yu. Galaev, «Smart» polymers in biotechnology and medicine
//Successes of chemistry.– 1995. –Т.64, №5. – р. 505-524.
SECTION 2. Biological sciences
INTERCOMMUNICATION
BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS’ INTENSITY,
THE MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
AND NUTRITION CONDITIONS
IN NEPETA CATARIA VAR. CITRIODORA BECK
Ivan Paliy
Nikitsky Botanical Garden – National Scientific Center Nikita,
Yalta, Crimea 98648, Ukraine, Yalta
e-mail: runastep@gmail.com
Introduction
Photosynthesis is the only process in the biosphere, which leads
to the increasing of free energy of the biosphere due to external sources
– the Sun - and allows for the existence of both plants and all of
heterotrophic organisms and humans between them. Plants productivity
is the result of the integration of many fundamental processes:
photosynthesis, respiration, transport of metabolites, growth and
development. Among the factors that determine productivity the
leading role belongs photosynthesis (Musнenko, 2001).
The presence of glycosides, saponins, essential oil and tannic
substances in N. cataria enables to consider it perspective for use as a
source of biologically active compounds, aromatic and medicinal raw
material (Libus' et al., 2004).
Information about the features of the intensity of photosynthesis
in aromatic crops one of which is N. cataria has a fragmentary
character. Physiological responses of N. cataria to the changing
environmental conditions that limit their productivity are still remain
insufficiently studied. In the writings of authors who have investigated
directly N. cataria, the issue of photosynthesis rate has not been
considered (Kuznetsova, 2009; Malankina, 2007; Nostro et al., 2001;
Schultz et al., 2004; Yakubenko et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2009).
So we set the goal - to examine the features of intensity of
photosynthesis in the plants of N. cataria depending on lighting
conditions, relative humidity, soil water potential, air temperature and
soil fertilization with mineral and organic fertilizers.
13
Materials and methods
The representative of the family Lamiaceae - catnip lemon
variation (Nepeta cataria var. citriodora Beck.) has been studied. In
our investigation we used the cultivar of Nepeta cataria var. citriodora
Beck. – «Pobeditel – 3» selected in NBS–NSC.
In the investigations the variant with applied fertilizer and
control have been used.
1.Mineral (N60P60) + organic fertilizers (manure 40 t / ha);
2. Control.
The experiments were conducted in 10 replicates. In the
experiments it was used phytometric system "Ekoplant" developed by
the design office "Biopribory" (Kishinev), that enables to registrate
basic functional parameters of a plant and environmental factors. The
system is able to measure the temperature of plant leaves, the
temperature difference at the boundary of a piece-to-air, the relative
speed of xylem and phloem flows in the shoots (the stems) of plants,
changing of the turgidity in the shoots (the stems) of plants, the growth
of various organs, soil water potential and other parameters. To
measure the of the photosynthesis intensity system "Ekoplant" has a
built-in infrared gas analyzer type «Infralit-4" with the switch gas
channels (Il'nitskiy et al., 2005).
The air temperature in the climatic chamber was maintained
through the refrigeration unit and the heater. Luminosity was changed
by including on / off lamps and removing them from plants.
During the study of the dependences from the main factors of the
environment one of the parameters was the independent variable, and
the rest – have been stabilized. The period of experiments was from
March to October. The plants were grown in containers (20 liters), large
enough to contain the free root system.
In the investigations the soil taken from NBG-NSC areas has
been used. It belongs to the type of brown, with the reaction pH 7.5-7.8.
Total nitrogen content is 0.16%, hydrolytic – 4.7 mg per 100 g of the
soil. Potassium contains: of gross - 1.33, movable - 6.67 mg per 100 g
of the soil. Phosphorus content: of gross - 0,144%, movable - 4.1 mg
per 100 g of the soil. In its properties, the soil is quite suitable for the
cultivation of aromatic and medicinal crops (Mashanov et al., 1988).
Obtained information automatically came into the computer
database, then treated with packages of applied mathematics program
14
«Statistica». Thus, information was obtained with a continuous or a
predetermined discreteness, without damaging the plants, and applied
measurement techniques do not adversely influence on the
environment.
Results and discussion
While determining of the dependence of the photosynthesis
intensity from the illumination the air temperature was maintained at
22-24 °C, humidity of the air hА = 60-80%, soil moisture Wgr = 7090%.
The light curves of the intensity of photosynthesis in the plants of
N. cataria, reach the plateau at illumination saturation of 0.5 kW/m2
(Fig. 1). At this level of light intensity photosynthesis in the plants of N.
cataria was higher if the soil has been fertilized. In particular, plants N.
cataria under the saturating light intensity had photosynthetic rate in
24% more if mineral and organic fertilizers were put into the soil.
Maximum values of the intensity of photosynthesis in plants N. cataria
were observed in the case of the application of organic and mineral
fertilizers simultaneously.
Fig.1
15
During determination of the intensity of photosynthesis
depending on soil water potential ФL = f (Ψs) the air temperature was
maintained at 22-24 °C, relative humidity of air of hА=70-80%, light 80 W/m2.
Dependence of intensity of photosynthesis from soil water
potential under the different feeding conditions in its form is close to
exponential (Fig. 2). Intensity of photosynthesis begins to drop sharply
even at very small changes in soil water potential. In the plants of N.
cataria photosynthetic intensity was greater If the soil was top-dressed.
Under the simultaneous application of mineral and organic fertilizers
photosynthesis intensity in the plants of N. cataria was 28% greater
compared with the option without fertilization.
Fig. 2
During determination of the dependences of the intensity of
photosynthesis from the air temperature illumination in the zone
experiences was maintained at 80 W/m2 humidity of the air hА=60–
80%, soil moisture within Wgr = 70-90%.
It has been noted the influence of fertilizers at photosynthesis
intensity on the background of the air temperature changes (Fig. 3).
Optimum of photosynthesis corresponds to the air temperature 28-32
°C. In particular, in the plants of N. cataria in the temperature optimum
photosynthesis intensity was 15% higher if the soil was top-dressed
16
with mineral and organic fertilizers. The maximum values of the
intensity of photosynthesis in the plants of N. cataria were observed in
the case of the application of organic and mineral fertilizers
simultaneously.
Fig.3
After reaching the optimum photosynthesis under the further
increase of the air temperature curves of the dependence practically
merge into a single line. The differences between the options are valid
only up to the critical temperature. Dependence of the intensity of
photosynthesis from the relative humidity of air was determined at the
air temperature 24-25 °C, soil moisture within 70-90%, illumination 80 W/m2.
Under the reduction of the relative humidity of air from 80% to
40% the intensity of photosynthesis in N. cataria decreases by 19%
(variant 1), 28% (variant 2) (Fig. 4). For plants of N. cataria
photosynthesis intensity was higher if the soil was fertilized. The
maximum values of the intensity of photosynthesis in the plants of N.
cataria were observed in the case of application of organic and mineral
fertilizers at the same time.
17
Fig.4
The highest rate of photosynthesis was observed at the period
from 9.00 to 12.00 o’clock. Plants of N. cataria at the period from 9.00
to 12.00 o’clock had a rate of photosynthesis by 33% more if the soil
was top-dressed with mineral and organic fertilizers (Fig. 5).
Fig.5
18
Curves of the intensity of photosynthesis in the plants of N.
cataria reach a plateau under the illumination of saturation 0.5 kW/m2
(Fig. 1).
The influence of soil water potential on the intensity of
photosynthesis with the account of the different conditions of root
nutrition has been determined. The intensity of photosynthesis begins to
drop sharply at the very small changes in soil water potential (Fig. 2).
As a result of the researches that have been carried out optimum
of photosynthesis for the studied culture has been determined. It is in
the range of 28-32 °C (Fig. 3). Under the decline of the relative
humidity of air from 80% to 40% decreasing of the intensity of
photosynthesis occurred in all variants (Fig. 4).
The influence of different conditions of root nutrition on the
intensity of photosynthesis traced.
The maximum values of the intensity of photosynthesis in the
plants of N. cataria were observed in the case of the application of
organic and mineral fertilizers simultaneously. Thus, the use of
fertilizers intensifies the photosynthesis altogether. Established
dependence between the action of the major environmental factors and
intensity of photosynthesis on the background of the influence of
mineral and organic fertilizers allows developing practical
recommendations for successful cultivation of N. cataria in future.
The intensity of photosynthesis is influenced by illumination,
mineral nutrition, water potential of the soil, air temperature and
humidity in various rates (Aristarkhov et al., 2000; Bolondinskiy, 2010;
Dubenok et al., 2010; Gegechkori et al., 2010).
Our studies of the plants of N. cataria confirmed the trends of
environmental parameters impact on the intensity of photosynthesis,
and the resulting experimental data allowed supplement the information
about investigated crop.
References
1.
Aristarkhov A. N. Optimizatsiya pitaniya rasteniy i
primeneniya udobreniy v agroekosistemakh / A. N. Aristarkhov, V.G.
Mineyev - M.:, 2000. [in russian]
2.
Bolondinskiy V. K. Issledovaniye zavisimosti
fotosinteza ot intensivnosti solnechnoy radiatsii, temperatury i
19
vlazhnosti vozdukha u rasteniy karel'skoy berezy i berezy povisloy. Tr.
Karel'skogo nauch. tsentra RAN, 2010. [in russian]
3.
Dubenok N. N. Mineral'noye pitaniye – vazhnyy rezerv
povysheniya produktivnosti posevov morkovi pri oroshenii. / Dubenok
N. N, Borodychev V. V., Martynova A. A., Dostizheniya nauki i
tekhniki APK, 2010. [in russian]
4.
Gegechkori B. S. Fotosinteticheskaya deyatel'nost'
list'yev yabloni v raznykh usloviyakh osveshcheniya. / B. S.
Gegechkori, A. A. Klad', M. Y. Rud', Doklady Ros. akad. s-kh. nauk,
2010. [in russian]
5.
Il'nitskiy O. A. Osnovy fitomonitoringa / O. A.
Il'nitskiy, M. F. Boyko, M. I. Fedorchuk Kherson, 2005. [in ukrain]
6.
Kuznetsova N. M. Morfologiya i ekologiya plodov
vidov Nepeta (kotovnik) Izvestiya SPb. gos. agrar. un-ta, 2009. [in
russian]
7.
Libus' O. K. Efirnomaslichnyye i pryanoaromaticheskiye rasteniya / O. K. Libus', V. D. Rabotyagov, S. P.
Kut'ko, L. A. Khlypenko, Kherson, 2004. [in ukrain]
8.
Malankina Ye. L. Agrobiologicheskoye obosnovaniye
povysheniya produktivnosti efiromaslichnykh rasteniy iz semeystva
yasnotkovyye (Lamiaceae L.) v Nechernozemnoy zone Rossii: avtoref.
dis. … d-ra s-kh. nauk: 06.01.13. - M. 2007. [in russian]
9.
Mashanov V. I. Novyye efirno – maslichnyye kul'tury:
spravochnik / V. I. Mashanov, N. F. Andreyeva, N.S. Mashanova, I.
Ye. Logvinenko, S., 1988. [in russian]
10.
Musнenko M. M. Fнzнologнya roslin : pнdruchnik. K.,
2001 [in ukrain]
11.
Nostro A. The effect of Nepeta cataria extract on
adherence and enzyme production of Staphylococcus aureus / A.
Nostro, M. Angela Cannatelli, G. Crisafi, J. Antimicrobial Agents,
2001.
12.
Schultz G. Catnip, Nepeta cataria (Lamiales:
Lamiaceae) – A Closer Look: Seasonal occurrence of nepetalactone
isomers and comparative repellency of three terpenoids to insects / G.
Schultz, E. Simbro, J. Belden, Environ Entomol, 2004.
13.
Yakubenko B. К. Vpliv azotnogo zhivlennya na
osnovnн bнometrichnн pokazniki ta produktivnнst' kotyachoн m'yati
limonnoн ( Nepeta Cataria var. Limonnik (L.) Bek. ) V umovakh
20
lнsostepu Ukraнni / B. К.Yakubenko, L. M. Dyadyusha, A. M. Zhidok,
Mezhdunar nauch – prakt. konf. Yalta, 2009. [in ukrain]
14.
Zhu J. J. Efficacy and safety of catnip (Nepeta cataria)
as a novel filth fly repellent / J. J. Zhu, X. P. Zeng, D. Х. Berkebile,
Med Vet Entomol, 2009.
SECTION 3. Engineering
PATENT LANDSCAPE
OF NORTHEASTERN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY
B. G. Hristoforova
FGAOU HPE North-E astern Federal University
named after M.K. Ammosov,Yakutsk, Russia
, e-mail: aprel-23a@mail.ru
The analysis of the patent landscape is defined as a state of
affairs in today's search process that provides a graphical representation
of the results of current information, its collection and monitoring. The
focus of this action is the results of intellectual activity (patents and
patent applications) from a particular area of technology. Unlike the
classical forms of search that provides relevant information in a text
format, an analysis of the patent landscape shows charts and graphs, the
direction of the leading representatives of the patent, cooperation
partners, purity analysis of space, technology assessment, etc.
The results of the patent landscape can be used in the projections,
programs, business plans, investment proposals, projects and plans for
the development of production facilities and equipment, planning
technical documentation for the execution of research and development
activities, registration of patent applications, contractual and reporting
documents, advertising, etc.
The desire to clearly demonstrate a patent rated the place and
role of the North-Eastern Federal University (NEFU) in a world-class
patent search operations of the scientific institutions of the country is
represented in the following figure 1.
21
SVFU
33
IPNG
0
INP
0
JAOSNIIGiM
0
RASHN
0
IFTPS
20
18
20
20
37
37
5
44
0
IGDS
0
77
44
14
12
14
14
2
JANIIT
49
20
53
53
40
60
80
All
Applications
Patents
Figure 1 - Rating Patent System in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
Figure 1 shows that Institute "Yakutniproalmaz" Joint-Stock
Company "Diamonds of Russia-Sakha" (Alrosa) has a leading position
in the number of registered patents. In total there are more than 100
patents.
The Institute of Mining of the North named after N. V.
Cherskogo RAS has 53 patents.
The Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of
Physical and Technical Problems of the North named after V. P.
Larionov, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS
IPTPN) (RU) has 49 patents.
State Scientific Institution YANIISKH RAAS - 37 patents.
The Department of Siberian Yakut Research Institute of
Hydraulic Engineering and Land Reclamation - 20 patents.
Institute of Nonmetallic Materials, Russian Academy of Sciences
- 18 patents.
Institute of Oil and Gas Problems, Siberian Branch of the
Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS IPGP) - 14 patents.
YANIIT State Department of Health of the Republic of Sakha
(Yakutia) - 14 patents.
Patents related to space are labeled as classified. Therefore, the
patents of IKFIA SB RAS named after Y. G. Shafer that are in the
public domain are not many, only 12.
Finally, the patent owner NEFU has 44 registered inventions.
The Analysis of information on the number of registered
intellectual property NEFU on structural divisions, such a result is
obtained (Figure 2).
TI branch
MI
JAGSHA
ITI
FTI
BGF
GF
0
66
11 2
5
1
7
3
6
18
8
9
7
0
All
5
23
11
10
10
18
24
14
15
Applications
20
25
Patents
Figure 2 – The Rating of patent security among academic units in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).
Today, the global scientific community educational divisions of
the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are ready to provide the following
number of intellectual property:
Mining Department (GF) NEFU - 24, including 14 patent + 10
applications
Faculty of Biology and Geography (BGF) NEFU-18, including 7
patents +11 applications
Physico-Technical Institute (PTI) NEFU - 9, including 6 patents
+ 3 applications
Engineering and Technology (IET) NEFU - 8, including 7
patents + 1 application
Yakutsk State Agricultural Academy (YSAA) -235 + 18
Technical Institute, a subsidiary of TI (f) NEFU - 6 applications
Medical Institute (MI) NEFU - 2, including 1 patent + 1
application
Promising scientific and technological developments having high
commercial appeal and proposed for introduction in the production and
use as the basis of scientific research and innovation are the following:
On the basis of CIM - biotechnology production of biologically
active food additives and drugs from natural plant, animal and
microbial material.
On the basis of the GF - how to develop deposits of kimberlite
pipes, how to develop and strengthen the industrial quarries.
On the basis of ITI - methods of housing construction in
permafrost.
On the basis of FTI Institute - inventions in various fields of
physics. Development is carried out in the departments of theoretical,
experimental, and radio physics.
On the basis of YSAA - a device for producing biogas from
organic waste, the methods of conservation of forage, grain, deer
antlers, and many other interesting research.
In addition, formal experience with close interaction between the
educational and scientific organization of educational departments of
the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) should be notedwith the production and
commercial structures. As a result of this cooperation, leading in the
ranking of the structures represented in the patent landscape NEFU find
financial and material support from the large commercial structures
allowing them to receive the most promising types of modern
technologies. However, this possibility is not possessed by other units
which activities are also used in parts of the world stratification of
practical implementation of intellectual property.
The industry of information technology, telecommunications and
other areas of activity that need to be improved in the North Particular
are of a particular interest. As you know, the climate conditions of the
northern territories, especially in the winter time are studied sparingly.
It is obviously that such a response of the expected events is driven
incentive for the formation and implementation of certain research and
surveying activities that may allow replenish the strategic reserve of the
patent landscape NEFU. Also, the positive experience of this kind will
change the structure of the leadership provided by Figures 1 and 2,
along with the usual familiar structures the new name will be
highlighted.
Currently, the palpable shift in the direction of the development
of information technology, telecommunications and other areas related
to these industries began to mobilize in the structure of the Institute of
Technology NEFU research process with the prospect of innovative
transformation.
In particular the interaction with the St. Petersburg State
University of Telecommunications named after Bonch-Bruyevich and
with the assistance of the firm "Tehnolyuks" the city of St. Petersburg
in the department of "Multi-channel communication systems" opens
interactive teaching and laboratory facilities SOTSBI-U. The
acquisition of this equipment will improve the quality of training of
highly qualified specialists in the field of telecommunications to the
expansion of activities with related industries and specific regions of
the north.The participation of the world known experts as faculty and
outstanding abilities will ensure the competitiveness of the graduates in
the technology industry. The improving of the latest equipment of the
country opens up the prospects for scientific and innovative study and
research, produce pilot projects in a completely new format.
Such planning ambitions of the Institute of Technology NEFU
are supported on a regional level of the government. In particular, at the
level of Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic strategic goals and
integrated activities linking the northern regions of Russia with the
introduction and advancement of information technology and
telecommunications are being developed. At the institutional level a
26
strategic plan for the implementation of the telecommunications and
computer software development of the northern territories is being
prepared. There are the negotiations with the representatives of
different countries and research institutions; their professional interest
is directly related to the development and implementation of projects
related to information technology and telecommunications in the
various industries and fields.
SECTION 4. Historical Sciences
ACCESSION OF THE DESTRUCTIVE ACTIVITIES
OF THE PRE-REVOLUTIONARY
RUSSIAN INTELLIGENCE
IN THE LIGHT OF ORTHODOX
O. V. Fidchenko
Moscow State Pedagogical University, Moscow, Russia,
e-mail: f.antares@yandex.ru
One of the most difficult problems of our time is the question of
the importance of pre-revolutionary intelligentsia. Aspects of it are not
well developed in the literature, for, despite the multidirectionality
conclusions made by analysts, they can be summed up in two lines of
thought: to the apologetics of pre-revolutionary intelligentsia and its
role in the history of Russia, or the criticism of the educated stratum of
the population, as well as its activities .
Among the advocates of materialist include Revolutionaries:
V.G. Belinsky, V.I. Lenin, G.V. Plekhanov, N.G. Chernyshevsky, their
supporters and followers who considered inappropriate penitential tone
of the collection "Vekhi" [2] .
The critically acclaimed style of the radical intelligentsia is the
author of "Vekhi," which, for the most part , after the forced
emigration: N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, M.O. Gershenzon, A.S.
Izgoev, B.A. Kistyakovsky, P.S. Struve, S.L. Frank [6].
27
Rethinking the historical role of the pre-revolutionary
intelligentsia engaged the authors of the anthology "Change of vekhi"
[11], who lived in exile. Posed by the authors, "Vekhi" problem
intellectuals are actively investigated and versatile historians and
philosophers [1, 2].
The authors of "Vekhi" as followers of the Western liberal
tradition, with hope about the future of Russia. They want to change the
country by strengthening legislation [2]. But, in our view, a
comprehensive trust in the law expresses the desire for the return of
government and social traditions of the Old Testament, that the Russian
modern times would mean a retreat back. The New Testament story has
taken a big step forward, because the teachings of Christ as never
before, the increased importance in the lives of the people of the Spirit the third person of the Holy Trinity. The Apostle Paul writes of Christ ,
"He hath made us able ministers of the new covenant, not of the letter
but of the spirit : for the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life " [3, Ch. 3,
Art. 6] .
One of the "Vekhists" P.B. Struve, displays the genealogy of the
intelligentsia of the freemen, - a vague anti-state elements since the
beginning of the XVII century. [2, p. 129]. A wrestler always pursues
its goals related to enrichment commonplace that emphasized I.I.
Petrunkevich [1].
Other authors of the "Vekhi" origin intellectuals back to the era
of Peter I. According to M.O. Gershenson, "Petrine reform almost
mechanically split personality in society, tore the consciousness of the
will, consciousness idle gluttony taught the truth and thus doomed him
to a monstrous error" [1].
According to I.I. Petrunkevich "idle gluttony truth" with Peter not
only never stopped, and all the more intensified. In the early twentieth
century Russian intelligentsia is the other, according to M.O.
Gershenson, isolated in their home country host patients, to whom the
people harbored unconscious hatred, it overcomes any self-interest. She
- says M.O. Gershenson - even lost human form, and if it can be what
you desire, just to try to become a man. [1]
Most, in our opinion, constructive, balanced and interesting
evaluation of the Russian intelligentsia give figures of the Russian
Orthodox Church. According to Abbot Benjamin (Novick), a collection
of "Vekhi" approved religious people who have an open type of
28
consciousness, for which such eternal values of God, truth, goodness,
beauty - is not empty sounds, it really exists. They were: A. White, V.
Rozanov, P.A. Stolypin, E.N. Troubetzkoy, Arch. Anthony
(Khrapovitsky), the future head of the Russian Orthodox Church
Abroad.
V.I. Lenin called the book "an encyclopedia of liberal apostasy"
and "manifesto Cadets" [1]. But the main cadet P.N. Milukov also
fought against the "Vekhi", he even alarmed that the "Vekhi" thwart the
revolution and agitation took a tour of Russia, criticizing this collection
[1].
S.N. Bulgakov in "Vekhi", defining the nature of the Russian
intelligentsia, summed up her work - she made a "religious suicide" [2].
According to Christian dogma as suicide - one of those sins that are not
forgiven!
However, according to the logic of the same S.N. Bulgakov,
Russian intelligentsia was unable to forget about this cardiac injury:
renouncing Christ, she bore his stamp on his heart and rushed in
unconscious longing for him, not knowing quench their spiritual thirst.
[2]
To understand why the trend towards loss of intellectuals regard
to religion can be traced from the moment of its appearance, it is
necessary to understand the important things. Thus, the concept of
"intellectual" means a person engaged in intense mental work. But the
mind of modern intellectual degraded to only one of the properties of
the mind - reason. According to ancient Christian anthropology mind the ability to holistic knowledge, and it is in the heart of man. In this
case, rationalism is “intelligence” heads, and wisdom - "intelligence"
heart [10, p. 20].
The intelligentsia emerged in ancient times, in the face of
scientists and philosophers who initially acted as interpreters of
religion. Antique intellectuals gradually rationalized mythology, and
even then traced the beginning of her desire to replace the priests and
the aristocracy. For example, in his book "The Republic" Plato
expresses the idea that the state should control the philosophers [10, p.
20-21] .
The Jewish intelligentsia post Babylonian period in the face of
the scribes and Pharisees wanted to be the spiritual leader of the people,
29
and for that matter itself against the Sadducees - the temple priesthood
[10, p. 21-22].
The Renaissance was marked by an attempt to take the place of
intellectuals, clergy and become leaders of the people [10, p. 22].
In the XVIII century, the struggle assumed the character of the
revolution. Kings the aristocracy and the clergy, as rivals intellectuals
were physically destroyed and various reprisals.
The situation is particularly severe in the former Russian Empire:
the young intelligentsia has declared war on the state and the Church,
the monarchy and clergy. The tribal aristocracy was virtually destroyed
(removed from public life reforms of Peter I). The nobility was not the
aristocracy, and the military estate. The clergy also became a class
enslaved. It took very bad form - the form of the caste organization,
becoming one of the lowest "castes", which looked down and nobles,
and the "new" intellectuals who came from different ranks [10, p. 2324].
The peculiarity of the pre-revolutionary Russian society was that
the aristocracy is not flowed to the clergy, and the clergy, to do away
with its caste character, fled to the intelligentsia, representing the most
radical and revolutionary of her group. It is this group of intellectuals
called the class hatred driving force of history! She fed the "lion" of the
revolution, to turn it against his enemies. But the lion turned into a lion
and rushed to their own masters [10, p. 25].
In this hidden struggle with the Church intellectuals spiritual
concepts seamlessly replaced soulful, soulful and then spread to all
human consciousness [10, p. 25-26].
The intelligentsia is trying to create his own religion - she
worships art. But, according to quip some of contemporary theologians,
the root of the concept of "art" - "art", which forms another and say,
"temptation", "adversary", "artificial". And the phenomenon called
"culture" has an artificial origin - all of it is created by man, as a result
of his activities, physical and mental.
The purpose of the intelligentsia - the desire to become a
"mistress of doom" of the people, that is, simply , the people govern .
But the Gospel says that "the Church is the pillar and ground of the
truth" [9 , Ch. 3 , Art. 15]. Christ says to the people: "I am the light of
the world: he that followeth me shall not walk in darkness, but shall
have the light of life" [5, Ch. 8, p. 12]. He sends the Apostles to people
30
like this: "Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the
name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching
them to obey everything I have commanded you" [6 , Ch. 28 , Art. 1920] . Hence it is obvious that it is for the clergy, as a direct successor of
the Apostles, the Son of God has fixed function teachings, making them
true teachers - teachers of Truth!
At the beginning of the twentieth century. V.F. Ivanov said that
«the history of the Russian intelligentsia of the last 200 years has been a
history of Freemasonry" [7, p. 23]. He gives some interesting facts.
"Since the 90's XIX century political refugees from Russia found itself
welcoming refuge mainly in the Masonic lodges in Paris. The city was
organized by the college, which became a school for the training of
future Russian revolutionaries. Many college professors: A.
Amphitheatres, M.M. Kovalevsky, A.S. Trachevskiy and their students
were Masons. L.D. Trotsky 5 years attended the lectures of Professor
Olar stories about how to make a revolution. P.N. Milukov in exile until
at least 1934, the vice-president of the internationally -Masonic society
"Des Droits de l'Homme"» [7, p. 375].
The first of these professors was the son of the famous Moscow
priest Valentine Amfiteatrov. But the example of his father's life and
preaching the Soviets hiding place of his burial to avoid people's
devotion did not prevent him to write a piece with the great title "My
Freemasonry." Of course, one could argue that such figures represent
the history of our people from the reaction of the clergy on the
unbalanced social policy of the autocracy. But that does not stop to
think about the conclusion V.F. Ivanov that the cause of Russian riot
was not material poverty and spiritual poverty [7, p. 46].
Belief in progress displaces faith in God with the onset and
development of capitalism. In contrast to the Middle Ages, with their
pervasive influence of Christianity on the lives of people, capitalism
characterizes the installation of the fact that people just up himself,
through his own efforts, and not divine help. Rolls ideological model of
the universe: it is theocentric rather than anthropocentric, the place of
God in the center of the universe is a person. All are called to the
service of his blessing. If you accept this service as a service to one's
neighbor, in this appeal is nothing wrong with that. But changing
understanding of the benefit of man: its composition includes not good
components - human passions.
31
Christianity calls for a relentless struggle against the passions, not
indulging in them. This struggle requires human effort - both internal
and external. And it needs to constantly maintain that it is difficult and
frustrating, since it is necessary to deal with yourself. So progress has
another pleasant way to "service" the man, the way of cultivation purely
material values. At the same spiritual values are swept aside, they are
no longer needed. In human life is no longer in place of God, for He is
with His commandments and morality begins to interfere.
Appears proverb ideal man does not exist. But people who
believe without reason called idealists, because they have the ideal
man. This is - Christ, true God and true man!
The image of the man at the center of anthropocentric model of
the universe is extremely blurred. This is a average person. He is
opposed to God. Who is he?
Iconography brilliantly defines the word "ugly": it does not mean
"terrible", and includes a quality for even pronounced differently - has
no the image. This is - the one who has lost the image and likeness of
God, lost it after the rebellion against God. This is - the devil - the first
in the history of revolutionary.
Each has a secret Masonic lodge room, available only for the
"Grand Master". It hid the statue of horned idol. Can you guess who it
is?
But the ignorance of the masses - a great weapon in the hands of
units. If you explicitly call for the worship of the devil in the
anthropocentric model of the universe, or Freemasonry, from the
electorate will remain one. The majority does not agree to do so. And if
you cover up at least some of the information to mislead, deceive, how many people will rush to establish the truth? And the devil work,
called Christ a murderer from the beginning, a liar and the father of lies
[5, Ch. 8, Art. 44].
Understanding these simple things were available to Russians late
XIX - early XX centuries, - They are a child brought up in a Christian
way. But, as saith the parable of the sower, not every abandoned grain
falls on good ground, and therefore often not bearing fruit [6, Ch. 13,
Art. 3-23].
History shows that deception and deceit are able to overcome a
few. Russian revolutionaries of that person became L.A. Tikhomirov, a
member of "going to the people", the last sentence in the Peter and Paul
32
Fortress, and continues to work in the same vein after the release and
exile.
But in 1888, there was a seemingly impossible: in Paris he was a
brochure, "Why I stopped being a revolutionary." In it, he denounced
the revolutionary ideas of [12, p. 20].
Get top pardon, he in January 1890 he returned to Russia. And
until his death in 1923, preached a conservative idea, becoming one of
the most capable of supporters of Orthodoxy and autocracy [12, p. 20].
Obviously, the man was a miracle of spiritual enlightenment, similar to
the treatment of the Apostle Paul [4, Ch. 9, Art. 1-22].
I remember the example of the great Russian writer Fyodor
Dostoevsky, in the twilight of his life often communicate with K.P.
Pobedonostsev. In his youth, he belonged to the "petrashevtsa", was
sentenced to death, but at the last minute before the execution, received
a reduced sentence of imprisonment.
Today, elements of regret for his anti-Soviet activities was able to
observe in K.K. Miller - a man who played an important role in the
destruction of the USSR. There may have been some other intelligent
people, "his sight" from their errors.
On the basis of a small number of those who made a revaluation
of own values, we see the validity of Christ's words that "narrow is the
gate and narrow the road that leads to life, and few there be that find it"
and "wide is the gate and broad is the road that leads to destruction, and
many enter through it"[6 , Ch. 7, Art. 13-14] .
But the output - is! After all, people like plant known by the
results of the activity: "By their fruits ye shall know them" [6 , Ch. 7,
Art. 16]. "A good tree can not bear bad fruit, nor a corrupt tree bring
forth good fruit" [6 , Ch. 7 , Art. 18]. Therefore, we must work hard, do
not try to change others, not the world, and myself, and bring it good,
constructive, not destructive fruit. This - the path to salvation, for "the
kingdom of heaven has been forcefully advancing, and forceful men
(gain) it" [6 , Ch. 11 , Art. 12]!
References
1. Benjamin (Novick), the abbot. Lessons, "Vekhi" (the 100th
anniversary of the collection) // [electronic resource]. URL:
http://www.vehi.net/vehi/uroki_veh.html (date accessed 27.05.2013).
33
2. Vekhi: Collection of articles on the Russian intelligence. M.,
1909
//
[electronic
resource].
URL:
http://lib.ru/POLITOLOG/XX/wehi.txt (date accessed 24.01.2013).
3. Second Epistle to the Corinthians, St. St. Paul // New Testament.
4. Acts // Ibid.
5. John // Ibid.
6. Matthew // Ibid.
7. Ivanov V.F. Russian intelligentsia and Freemasonry: from Peter I
to the present day. Moscow: Moscow, 2001.
8. The intelligentsia in Russia. M., 1910 // [electronic resource].
URL: http://www.vehi.net/vehi/ (date accessed 27.05.2013).
9. Timothy St. St. Paul // New Testament.
10. Raphael (Karelin), Archimandrite. The Church and the
intelligentsia. Saratov, Publishing House of the Saratov diocese in
2009.
11. Volte-face. Prague, 1921 // [electronic resource]. URL:
http://www.wkzinfo.ru/russia/smena_veh.shtml
(date
accessed
27.05.2013).
12. Ciganov V.I. The idea of Russian autocracy and its
development in the work of L.A. Tikhomirov. Specialty 12.00.01 Theory of Law and State, the history of state and law, the history of
political and legal doctrines. Abstract of PhD. Nizhny Novgorod,
Nizhny Novgorod State University. N.I. Lobachevsky, 2000.
34
SECTION 5. Economics
DEBT POLICY OF REGIONS
OF THE CENTRAL FEDERAL DISTRICT IN 2008-2012:
AN ANALYSIS, EVALUATION DATA
AND EFFECT ON THE LEVEL OF RISK
OF IMBALANCE REGIONAL BUDGETS
I. V. Balynin
Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation
(Kaluga Branch), Kaluga, Russian Federation
e-mail – igorbalynin@mail.ru
Socio-economic development of the Russian Federation is
largely due to the economic and social situation in the regions, which in
turn is largely determined by the ongoing fiscal policy , one of the key
challenges that currently is the problem of the imbalance and ensure the
sustainability of the regional budgets.
In order to identify regions with the highest and lowest risk
unbalanced budget was proposed by the author's evaluation model
based on multiple sets of factors [1].
One of the components of the model is to assess the region's debt
policy. For this it is necessary to calculate the following parameters:
1) Growth (decrease) of the public debt of the region;
2) The ratio of public debtof the region to the region's gross
regional product ;
3) The value of the public debt per capita (of the region).
Feasible, practical calculations indicated the values for example,
the regions of the Central Federal District of the Russian Federation. In
order to ensure accuracy of the results obtained in this research study
using data for the five-year period (2008-2012) .
Table 1 shows an overviewdynamics of regions of public debt of
the Central Federal District of the Russian Federation for 2008-2012.
35
Number of the
order
Table 1
Dynamics of public debt of regions of the Central Federal District
of the Russian Federation for 2008-2012
The region of
the Russian
Federation
(Central Federal
District)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Belgorodregion
Bryanskregion
Vladimirregion
Voronezhregion
Ivanovoregion
Kalugaregion
Kostromaregion
Kurskregion
Lipetskregion
Moscowregion
Orelregion
Ryazanregion
Smolenskregion
Tambovregion
Tverregion
Tularegion
Yaroslavlregion
Moscow city
The growth rate of the public debt of regions
of the Russian Federation
(CentralFederalDistrict),%
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
136,74
112,66
187,89
96,24
122,61
204,09
80,99
112,39
158,92
174,73
111,23
144,23
366,98
204,83
142,76
81,95
114,59
131,95
143,36
97,28
178,95
251,54
162,85
132,03
175,71
96,07
105,50
104,91
113,82
141,12
232,25
88,22
204,56
221,00
102,18
199,99
105,51
98,97
262,26
157,89
178,71
147,86
134,65
92,53
123,41
89,70
109,99
146,60
172,55
88,13
117,53
155,72
118,64
123,10
128,51
100,95
156,25
156,19
164,76
99,00
113,20
104,18
144,99
72,28
114,05
134,08
161,91
108,35
135,62
72,04
97,68
78,23
176,73
109,79
83,45
90,18
117,90
101,24
107,38
97,51
137,30
92,27
138,24
139,81
127,82
108,54
121,38
136,35
135,59
80,46
Source: calculated by the author based on data from the Ministry of Finance of
the Russian Federation.
36
According to the analysis of the data it should be noted that in
2008 (compared to 2007 ), the public debt has decreased in Voronezh,
Kostroma , Tula regions . At the same time, it has increased
significantly in the Kaluga , Tambov, Smolensk regions . It should be
noted that in the Kaluga region in 2011 there was a reduction of the
public debt (-1 % compared to 2010), and in 2012 - a slight increase (
1.24% ). In the Tambov region following the doubling of the public
debt in 2008, a decrease of 12% in 2009 and 2010 and low growth (
+8.35 % - in 2011 , + 8.54% - in 2012) .
Public debt (of regions) of the Central Federal District
characterized by an increase in its volume throughout the study period
in 8 regions - Belgorod, Vladimir, Ivanovo , Lipetsk, Orel, Ryazan ,
Smolensk and Tver regions .
It should be noted that among the regions of the Central Federal
District, only one has an external debt. It is Moscow city. The size of
the external public debt of Moscow city is 16.4 billion rubles.
To assess the debt burden in the Central Federal District will
calculate the ratio of public debt of each regions to gross regional
product . Table 2 displays the results of the calculations.
Number
of the
order
Table 2
The ratio of public debt of the regions of Central Federal District
to the gross regional product in 2008-2012
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
The region of the
Russian Federation
(Central Federal
District)
Belgorodregion
Bryanskregion
Vladimirregion
Voronezhregion
Ivanovoregion
Kalugaregion
Kostromaregion
Kurskregion
Lipetskregion
Moscowregion
Orelregion
Ryazanregion
Smolenskregion
The ratio of public debt of the regions (Central Federal District)
to the gross regional product in the coefficients
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0,031866
0,050893
0,00160
0,00788
0,015143
0,055961
0,041674
0,024185
0,015449
0,094826
0,031068
0,036083
0,014891
0,024323
0,044945
0,000804
0,018859
0,024637
0,071712
0,075192
0,02414
0,018661
0,107748
0,037721
0,049766
0,03355
0,038434
0,041937
0,005861
0,025923
0,034884
0,087114
0,081426
0,018636
0,021003
0,080119
0,035406
0,062574
0,046912
0,038454
0,034595
0,008028
0,031382
0,049643
0,069427
0,081152
0,016111
0,026475
0,047312
0,032748
0,071418
0,064132
0,061544
0,035009
0,006397
0,028534
0,055984
0,066307
0,077085
0,017092
0,034343
0,039173
0,042314
0,095725
0,080268
14
15
16
17
18
Tambovregion
Tverregion
Tularegion
Yaroslavlregion
Moscow city
0,060184
0,028382
0,010757
0,046024
0,014736
0,047062
0,056472
0,025631
0,047528
0,034108
0,039291
0,05991
0,036098
0,050042
0,035728
continuation of Table 2
0,033605
0,032755
0,070125
0,081845
0,02268
0,029995
0,041081
0,051908
0,023361
0,016891
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from the Ministry of Finance and the Russian Federal State
Statistics Service.
39
From Table 2 must be concluded that the most relevant public
debt of regions to gross regional product is noted in 2008 and 2009 in
the Moscow region, in 2010 - in Kaluga, in 2011 - in Kostroma, in 2012
- in the Ryazan regions. It should be noted that during the study period,
this indicator did not exceed 0.1 in all subjects (except for the Moscow
region - in 2009).
Finally, in order to implement a more comprehensive assessment
of the debt policy of regions of Central Federal District necessary to
carry out calculation of the public debt of regions of the Central Federal
District per capita. The results of the calculations made are shown in
Table 3.
Number of
the order
Table 3
The value of public debt of subjects of the Central Federal District per capita in 2008-2012
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
The region of the
Russian Federation
(Central Federal
District)
Belgorodregion
Bryanskregion
Vladimirregion
Voronezhregion
Ivanovoregion
Kalugaregion
Kostromaregion
Kurskregion
Lipetskregion
Moscowregion
Orelregion
Ryazanregion
Smolenskregion
Tambovregion
Государственный долг субъекта Российской Федерации
(Центрального федерального округа)
на душу населения, в тыс.руб.
2008
6,637206
4,927411
0,194963
0,996541
1,227444
8,392166
4,878241
3,513808
3,446465
23,24897
3,676479
4,679732
1,858776
6,630133
2009
9,483687
4,821222
0,351254
2,515989
2,011106
11,09426
8,621095
3,395705
3,653189
24,24472
4,207164
6,640122
4,353476
5,894387
2010
9,991556
4,83448
0,914146
3,847945
3,61584
16,28015
11,99055
3,206084
4,453891
20,66457
4,786244
9,731228
7,382818
5,188637
2011
12,80891
4,922691
1,437553
6,018723
5,991685
16,13253
13,66864
3,352222
6,491742
14,7435
5,48893
13,08608
11,98302
5,659261
2012
22,56517
5,451085
1,208178
5,430409
7,098346
16,37483
14,74065
3,275519
8,94157
13,89494
7,641199
18,35635
15,40027
6,181115
15
16
17
18
Tverregion
Tularegion
Yaroslavlregion
Moscow city
3,985196
1,604896
7,548942
11,56622
8,207047
3,576165
7,738056
23,01291
9,718327
5,533047
9,435311
25,92915
continuation of Table 3
13,2578
16,19029
4,000854
5,498433
9,216605
12,49053
20,15993
15,72466
Source: Calculated by the author based on data from the Ministry of Finance and the Russian Federal State
Statistics Service.
42
Analysis of the obtained values , we conclude that in 2008-2011,
the highest value of the public debt (of the region) per capita
characterizeddebt policyof the Moscow region and Moscow city.
In 2012, ahead of Moscow ( which has 15.7 thousand rubles)
largest public debt per capita ranged Kaluga region ( 16.4 thousand
rubles ) , the Ryazan region ( 18.4 thousand rubles) , Tver region ( 16.2
thousand rubles ) and Belgorod region ( 22.6 thousand rubles) . In this
leadership position in the Belgorod region has risen sharply (+9.8
thousand rubles- from 12.8 thousand rublespublic debt (of regions) per
capita in 2011 ) .
Table 4 shows the comparative ranking score subjects of the
Central Federal District of risk imbalances in their budgets under the
influence of ongoing regional debt policy .
Evaluation was carried out using the method of point rating
method. So, for the higher value of the highest score is calculated (the
subject in which the figure is the highest in comparison with other
regions, is assigned the highest score, the second largest - the highest
score minus one, and so on).
The regions that have the same fixed value of the indicator is
assigned the same value of rating points.
The calculation is the average score for each year of the study
period across all regions and each factor. In the final stage calculated
the average rating score for the entire study period.
Analysis of data in Table 4 should be allocated subjects with the
highest level of risk - Tver Region ( 12.7333 points) , Ryazan region (
13.4667 points) , Kaluga region ( 13.8667 points).
Among the subjects with the lowest level of risk that have been
identified as a result of the research study - Kursk ( 3.8667 points) ,
Vladimir ( 4,933 points) and Voronezh ( 6.2000 points) regions.
Rank
Table 4
Comparative-rating evaluation subjects of the Central Federal District
on the level of ofrisk imbalance of their budgets
carried out under the influence of regional debt policy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
The region of the
Russian Federation
(Central Federal
District)
Kurskregion
Vladimirregion
Voronezhregion
Tularegion
Lipetskregion
Bryanskregion
Orelregion
Ivanovoregion
Tambovregion
Moscow city
Yaroslavlregion
Ratingscore
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Averageratin
gscore
6,6667
5,6667
2,3333
3,0000
8,6667
11,0000
7,3333
5,6667
15,6667
10,0000
12,0000
3,3333
5,0000
8,0000
9,3333
4,6667
7,6667
8,0000
6,3333
7,6667
13,3333
9,6667
2,3333
6,6667
7,6667
10,3333
6,0000
7,3333
6,0000
8,3333
6,3333
11,3333
10,6667
3,6667
6,0000
9,6667
2,3333
9,3333
6,3333
7,3333
12,6667
7,3333
8,3333
8,3333
3,3333
1,3333
3,3333
8,0000
10,3333
7,0000
11,3333
9,6667
6,6667
5,6667
11,3333
3,8667
4,9333
6,2000
6,6000
7,8000
7,8667
8,0000
8,5333
8,7333
9,7333
10,4000
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Belgorodregion
Moscowregion
Smolenskregion
Kostromaregion
Tverregion
Ryazanregion
Kalugaregion
11,6667
16,6667
9,3333
8,3333
9,6667
11,3333
16,0000
10,0000
13,6667
11,0000
14,3333
14,3333
11,3333
13,3333
9,3333
11,6667
12,6667
14,3333
11,0000
13,3333
15,6667
Source: Calculated by the author on the basis of Tables 1-3
45
11,0000
10,0000
14,0000
14,0000
14,3333
14,0000
12,3333
continuation of Table 4
16,3333
11,6667
8,0000
12,0000
13,6667
12,1333
11,3333
12,4667
14,3333
12,7333
17,3333
13,4667
12,0000
13,8667
As part of the assessment of the region's debt policy should also
check the available indicators of budget system of the Russian
Federation in accordance with Article 107 of the Budget Code.
At the heart of public debt management on the principles
ofcertainly, urgency, single debt policy, coherence, reduce risks,
optimality, publicity [2].
Thus, research has shown that occurred during the study period
are characterized by changes in most regions growing year by year
public debt of the Central Federal District, the increase in the values of
the coefficients that determine the debt burden, rising public debt per
capita. Produced comparative rating analysis revealed regions with the
highest (and lowest) level of risk imbalance of the Russian Federation
under the influence of ongoing debt policy in the regions.
References
1. Balynin I.V. The problem of the imbalance of the budget in the
context of socio-economic development of the country and the
region. / / Collection of scientific works of the winners of the
regional awards and scholarships. 9.-Kaluga Issue: Sh.
Tsiolkovsky, 2013.-440 with., C. 303-312.
2. Balynin I.V.National debt of the Russian Federation: the socioeconomic dimension// "High Tech in mechanical engineering
and instrument-making and the development of innovation in
high school": Regional Materials Science and Technology
Conference 16-April 18, 2013 V.3. - Moscow: Publishing
MSTU Bauman, 2013. - 278., - P.151-154.
MODERN MODEL OF SOCIAL POLITICS
Berik Beisengaliyev
Kazakh university of economy, finance and international trade, Astana
Now in the world there are epoch-making changes - the center of
development moves from the West to the east. China, India, Japan,
Russia, Singapore, Malaysia – all these countries develop fast rates.
There comes the East era at which preconditions for creation of new
social economy are created. In these states there is a big human
resource that gives cheap labor. Therefore, and production of goods
here – is cheaper. Production from China, India is characterized, first of
all, by low cost. Therefore it is very important to Kazakhstan to develop
human resources to be competitive in the world markets. In it is pledge
sufficient high rates of development of our country.
In social economy the competition dictates rigid rules of
behavior for each member of society, a household and any enterprise or
the company. And, these rules – at the same time laws and survival and
success.
In the conditions of global contradictions, transformation of
functions of the state – the nation there is a change of a paradigm of
development: there is inefficient a military and technical violence,
political domination, value socially - economic partnership and
multicultural cooperation increases. Thus globalization processes
became the precondition to manifestation of such concept, as
innovative developments of the countries. It, undoubtedly, can be
carried to the positive country of influence of globalization on growth
of national economies [1, c.45].
The present model of the social state (human development
model) was based on essentially other demographic and social situation
– increasing population, prevalence of young age, and also rural the
population, not captured by system of social support. Now, when
process of aging of the population gained steady character, and demand
for social services steadily increases, it is necessary to create
considerably new model of the social state. The country which will be
able to create modern effective model of human development, will get
powerful advantage in the post-industrial world. Thus along with the
former model of social protection of the population which is based on
usual work for the purpose of obtaining the income in borders of
47
"normal working hours", in many countries new models of work and
the vital models meeting economic and production requirements of
modern society will have development.
Social policy can't be guided by short-term tasks, it is urged to
define the strategic directions which, naturally, can be exposed to
tactical adjustments, but as a whole has to be integral, reasonable,
rational, effective and be formed taking into account historical
conditions and national features, priorities and an economic situation,
cultural traditions. Social policy carries, besides, conservative and
innovative character. Conservatism is that it as though keeps that
positive in social I that it as though keeps that positive in the social
sphere that is already reached, and directs it on those who needs social
intervention. Innovation predetermines that has to be peculiar to policy,
adaptation of social structures to occurring changes. In the conditions of
Kazakhstan it means that it is necessary to make use as much as
possible of available experience and existing infrastructure which will
form base for formation of the new concept of social economy [2, c.78].
For the accelerated development of the human and social capital,
ensuring the maximum labor and social mobility of citizens it is
required to increase efficiency and a susceptibility to innovations of
sector of social services, education and health care, and also to integrate
into social life of disabled people and the persons being in a difficult
life situation, migrants. It is necessary to provide formation of system
of the social institutes which are meeting requirements of modern
society and effectively used already in the countries with similar and
higher level of economic development. The social policy which is
meeting the requirements of modern society, has to be directed on
increase of efficiency of establishments of the budgetary sector of the
economy, the accelerated development of non-state non-profit
organizations and distribution of mechanisms of social partnership and
practice of tripartite intersector interactions [3, c.62].
The Republic of Kazakhstan came to a new step of development
and understanding of the place and a role in the modern world. The
main measures for transfer of the country on new market rails are
carried out. It should be noted that present Kazakhstan is more
competitive and perspective as the independent economic power, than
nineteen years ago at the time of independence acquisition.
48
According to the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan
creation of the social state is one of main objectives of social
development. Social development of the country entirely depends on
quality of realization of social functions of the state determined by
laws.
In a state policy of social security it is necessary to apply a living
wage, instead of a settlement indicator. And the address social help has
to be really needing. Stimulation of involvement of the population in
this or that field of activity by means of system of social security –
experience not so successful. For such purposes there has to be the
unique incentive – compensation.
The beginning of creation of the steady and stable insurance
market is a condition of development of harmonous system of social
insurance which will entail increase of responsibility of citizens in
questions of the self-sufficiency self-sufficient and an effective solution
of the problem of social security on the principles of justice and
uniform distribution.
It is supposed to capture social insurance able-bodied population
on a formal labor market. Moreover, participation in system of social
insurance will stimulate citizens to legalize the labor relations. It is
caused by that participants of system will get invaluable advantages in
comparison with the citizens occupied on an informal labor market.
Real development will be had by obligatory insurance of
employer's liability for the caused damage of life and to health of the
worker. Many questions of social security of the unemployed have to
become a basis for improvement of social partnership in development
of a state policy concerning population employment.
It is necessary to develop and introduce the mechanism of
stimulation of development of social agencies on hiring, non-state labor
exchanges.
Increase of efficiency of social protection of the population has
to be promoted by such measures, as improvement of a state policy on
development of partnership of the state and the public in the solution of
social problems and achievement of real addressing of the social help.
Social reforms are urged to promote development of the directed
social policy, proceeding from resources really available for the state
and opportunities. Thus active social policy is capable to act not as the
limiter, and the catalyst of economic growth.
49
In the next Message of the President of RK to the people of
Kazakhstan "New decade – new economic recovery – new
opportunities of Kazakhstan" are accurately designated positions in all
directions of development of the state for the next 10 years. It both
economy, and policy, and social sphere [4, c.99].
The problem of human measurement of the politician shows,
what role is played by the individual and, first of all the "ordinary"
"mass" personality to which number the overwhelming part of the
population carries itself. Apparently from the Message of the head of
state – the person "a human factor" in public life is priority RK in
policy. The social state contacts the statement of the general benefit of
principles of social justice, social security, worthy living conditions.
The social state seeks to smooth a social inequality, to help weak
and unfortunate, to provide employment, availability to all educations,
health care, cultures – all this and is reflected in the Message of the
head of state.
In it main objectives and priorities of social policy in modern
conditions are reduced stabilizing a standard of living of citizens of the
Republic of Kazakhstan; not to allow a further impoverishment of the
population of the country. Therefore, the Head of state sets a task that
by 2020 unemployment rate didn't exceed 5%, and the population share
with the income is lower living to minima no more than 8%. It is
expected that in 2015 the size basic pension payment has to be raised to
level 60% from the size of a living wage, and the sizes of the welfare
social benefits – are increased by 1,2 times. By 2020 will be twice
lowered maternal and child mortality, the general mortality is reduced
by 30%. It is expected to increase life expectancy till 72 years.
General population of our society will expect increase of the size
of pensions, grants, a salary to workers of the budgetary sphere.
The head of state notes that human resource – the inexhaustible
potential of our society has to become the main property and a driving
force of economic development of Kazakhstan, priorities of the person
that is the main criterion of socially focused, strong state are at the
center put, it is hope and confidence of each Kazakhstan citizen and
future generations in social protection [5].
Realization of the main directions of social policy demands
acceptance of a number of laws and other normative documents in
50
which concrete ways, methods and mechanisms of the solution of the
major social problems of the population will find reflection.
Thus, it should be noted that social function of our state is shown
in implementation of care of the person as member of society:
satisfaction of needs of people in work, housing, education, health
maintenance; implementation of social protection aged, disabled
people, youth, unemployed, life insurance, health, property.
Literature
1. А. Н. Аверин. Государственная система социальной
защиты населения. – М., 2007. – 230с.
2. Социальное обеспечение в странах Запада: Франция,
ФРГ, Италия/Ран. ИНИОН. – М., 1999. – 108 с.
3. Социальная защита населения в Республике Казахстан/
под ред. Т. Притворовой. – Алматы: ПРООН, 2007. – 101 с.
4. Притворова Т. Формирование и развитие социальноориентированной экономики в Казахстане. – Караганда. – 2003. –
296 с.
5. Послание
Президента
Республики
Казахстан
Н.А.Назарбаева народу Казахстана «Социально-экономическая
модернизация - главный вектор развития Казахстана» Январь,
2012 г.
51
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PREDICTION OF HOTEL
INDUSTRYS EFFECTIVENESS
T. V. Goloshchapova
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional
Education “Volga Region State University of Service”,
Togliatti, Russia, gol155@yandex.ru
Development of the sector of the hotel industry in large central
cities predetermined by the wealth of historical and cultural heritage.
Togliatti in this aspect can not be considered as a competitive
city in view of the fact that it is very young. The idea of creating a
center of tourism in the city, related to alternative forms of recreation
(environmental, active, auto, business) will allow Togliatti
harmoniously enter into a national hospitality industry.
When forecasting the performance of the hotel industry a
decisive role is performed by the quantity and structure of the tourist
flow. Ability to apply mathematical economics forecasting due to the
following factors:
- the results of studies of the structure and size of the tourist flow,
it can be concluded that, in its dynamics is not observed any dramatic
changes as soon as the factors affecting the size and structure of the
tourist flow, remain virtually unchanged over the period of 2008 - 2012
years;
- Projections are the basis for the formation of activities of the
program of development of the hotel industry, which is being
developed for the period up to 3 years, so in this particular case the
applicable short-term forecasting methods;
- As a result of research of tourism and hospitality cluster in the
city district, we obtained data that could form the basis of a predictive
model.
Development of economic and mathematical model based on
regression analysis, which is a statistical method for studying the
dependence of stochastic variable Y on the variables Xj (j = 1, 2, ..., k),
considered in the regression analysis as a non-random value,
independent of the true law of distribution Xj.
The linear regression equation is:
Y = β0 + β1xi1 + β2xi2 + ... + βkxik
(1)
52
The regression coefficient βi indicates how much the average
change the performance score Y, if variable Xj to increase per unit of
measure, ie a regulatory factor.
In the model of evaluating the performance of the hotel industry
as the dependent variable Y stands profitability, as the variables Xj organizational component summary measure of human resource
capacity, the price of hotel services, as well as the component that
characterizes the change in the index over time.
We reduce the data to develop a model evaluation of
organizational and economic support for the functioning of the hotel
industry in Table 1.
Table 1
The initial data for the development
of a multiple regression model
Index
Symbol 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Return on providing Y
3.2
3.5
5.4
6.1
6.7
hotel services, %
General indicator of X 1
organizational
23.1
22.4
23.7
24.1
24.3
component,%
General indicator of X 2
52.0
53.4
51.0
50.0
49.2
human capacity
The average price X 3
816
925
935
958
1050
of the service, rub.
By using Excel, compose multiple regression equation, which
will reflect the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of the
organizational and economic support for the functioning of the
hospitality industry:
Y = -130,089 + 3,1125 1.1031 x1 + x2 + 0.004 x3 + 0,4575 t
(2)
Thus, the increase in the organizational component by 1% leads
to an increase in profitability at 3.1125%, the growth rate of human
resources by 1% - at 1.1031% rise in the average price of $ 100 0.004%, the impact of other factors is reflected in the part of the time t,
then at constant factors x1, x2, x3 in the next period of time will
increase the profitability of 0.4575%. The negative value of the
53
constant term means that the effective sign - profitability – is becoming
zero long before reaching the zero values of all factors. As a result of
the study we found that the efficiency of the hotel industry is more
dependent on the organizational component and the level of use of
human resources, namely the implementation and development of these
factors should be sent to further scientific and practical research.
The main body governing the operation of the hotel industry is
the association of hotel companies, uniting producers of hotel services
in a particular area, to solve the problems.
Members of the Association can be both legal persons and
entrepreneurs without legal entity, working in the field of hotel,
restaurant, tourism and related businesses, as well as representatives
and authorities share the goals and objectives of the Association and
contribute to their achievement and implementation.
The purpose of the Association is the co-promotion of the hotel
market hotels in the city district. To one of the main tasks undertaken
by the Association may be included the professional development and
training of hotel workers, and one of the most important activities of the
Association is the professional training, taking place in the form of
seminars, individual consultations and presentations.
The Association is a non-profit organization established on the
basis of voluntary property contributions by the participants expressed
their support for the objectives of the Association and (or) its specific
actions. Membership fees for entry into the Association are calculated
based on the cost of joint projects implemented in each year.
Association members will have tax benefits, since the purpose of
calculating income tax, according to item 15 of article 270 of the Tax
Code, in determining the tax base it does not include the costs as a sum
of membership fees (including entrance fees) in public organizations;
the amount of voluntary contributions from members of unions,
associations, organizations (associations) for the maintenance of these
unions, associations, organizations (associations).
The main document defining the direction of development and
economic feasibility of measures in the field of hotel industry should
become a "Development Program of the Hotel Industry in c.d. of
Togliatti." The Program should be adjusted depending on changes in
factors of the microenvironment, as well as results forecasts for the
value of the tourist flow. Development Program should be provided by
54
the City Council in conjunction with the Mayor's Office and the
Chamber of Commerce.
Development Program of Hotel Industry is an element of a
comprehensive program of socio-economic development and is a
predictive analytical document containing a set of linked resource,
performers and timing of activities and projects aimed at achieving the
set goals.
The need to elaborate the Development Program for Hotel
Industry in the c.d. of Togliatti is caused by structural problems that can
not be solved within the framework of a single hotel.
“The Development Program for Hotel Industry in the c.d. of
Togliatti” is aimed at addressing a number of problems:
 meet consumer demand for the services of hotel complexes;
 development of material base of the tourism industry by attracting
investors for the reconstruction of existing and construction of new
accommodation facilities;
 the development and promotion of new types of hotel services;
 To establish a database of accommodation facilities, investment and
innovation in the field of hospitality;
 implementation of vigorous activity to improve the skills and training
for the hospitality industry in c.d. of Togliatti;
 activity on the formation of the image of c.d. of Togliatti as a region,
attractive from the point of view of business and recreational tourism;
 improvement of statistical reports on the hospitality industry.
Based on these tasks, the Program can be divided into two
groups: The first group of measures designed to address the specific
hotels: expanding the range of services, renovation, modernization,
renovation of rooms, the establishment of tourist and hotel complexes,
the construction of new hotels, etc. The second group of measures
designed to address the development of the hotel industry as a whole:
the creation of a database on hotels in the city district, investment
projects, the implementation of measures to promote the image of the
c.d. of Togliatti in order to attract business and recreational travelers,
professional development and training for the hospitality industry, to
improve statistical reporting and monitoring the hospitality industry.
These measures will help to further integrate all the hotels in a
well-balanced systems with a single technical and technological policy,
55
uniform criteria for technology and services, unified policy in the field
of service, training, sales techniques and interaction with the leading
tourist agencies.
The economic rationale for the program events for the city is
reflected in the additional tax payments to budgets of all levels
associated with an increase of volume and profitability of the
Association members, as well as top-line growth of related industries,
which is calculated based on the value of multipliers. The average value
of the multiplier on tourist flow is 2.84.
As a result of the actions of the Program:
- Tax revenues from the hospitality industry in the various budgets will
increase by at least 3.5 million rubles;
- An increase in the volume of sales of related industries for 27 519
thousand rubles.
- Occupancy of the hotel enterprises will increase by 2%;
- The investments attracted to the tourism industry will exceed 400
million rubles.
Implementation of the program will also encourage the
development of such industries as services, transportation,
communications, trade and public catering, construction and
reconstruction of roads, improvement of cities and towns, the
production of souvenirs, training and retraining that will help solve the
employment problem, primarily for young people.
References
1. Tax Code of the Russian Federation [Electronic Resource]:
Parts 1 and 2: with Amendment and Additional. Updating date:
18.07.2011. Access from System “GARANT”
2. The Federal Law "About the State Forecasting and Programs of
Social and Economic Development of the Russian Federation"
[Electronic Resource]: [It is Accepted by the State Duma on June 23,
1995]: Official Text: as of July 20, 1995 – 11 kb.
3. Provision on the State System of Classification of Hotels and
Other Accommodation Facilities [Electronic Resource]: [Are Approved
as the Order of the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian
Federation of June 21, 2003]: official text: as of August 21, 2003 – 131
kb.
4. Vesnin V.R. Strategic Management [Text]: Textbook. – M: TK
56
Velbi, Publishing House Prospect, 2006. – 328 p.
5. Goloschapova T. Organizational and Economic Ensuring
Functioning of the Hotel Industry: PhD Dis. Candidate Economics:
08.00.05 / T. Goloshchapova. – Togliatti, 2006. – 161 p.
6. Goloshchapova T. Organizational and Economic Ensuring
Functioning of the Hotel Industry: Avtoref. Dis. Candidate Economics:
08.00.05 / T. Goloshchapova. – Togliatti, 2006. – 20 p.
7. Pankratyeva N. The System of Statistic Indicators of the
Service Sector as a Sector of Economy [Text] //Statistics Questions. 1998 . - 4 . – p. 16-20.
FORMATION OF INNOVATIVE SEGMENT
IN REPUBLIC SAKHA (YAKUTIA)
N. Yu. Ivanov, N. Yu. Bagaeva
FGBOU HPE State University of Land Use Planning, Moscow.
FGAOU HPE North-E astern Federal University named after MK Ammosov,
Yakutsk, Russia, e-mail: 21aprel@mail.ru; bagaeva_nu1974@mail.ru
Positive developments in the agro-economic transformation of
the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are possible only with the transition to
an innovative model of development. The positive experience of
advanced countries shows that the key to success and achievements in
social and economic life of the community is to build an effective
innovation system. Historical evidence proves that universities play a
significant role in shaping the innovation economy of the state which is
the main impetus of growth. The features of the socio-economic and
geo-political structure of Russia necessitate the creation of
infrastructure in terms of innovation excellence at the regional and
inter-regional systems. The consequence of it should be the formation
of innovative foundation of the country. In this context the problem of
the North-Eastern Federal University (NEFU) is initiating a formational
innovative models aimed at the comprehensive development of the
Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). It means that the development of the
university and its innovative programs are of key importance for the
republic.
57
In the framework of the Federal University development
program the innovative potential is concentrated in the form of a
mobilized in 2010, the Arctic Innovation Center (AIC), which
prioritizes the principle of diversified scientific and educational
complex and innovative. The structure of the center is in the process of
formation and includes the following units (Figure 1):
58
ARCTIC INNOVATION CENTER NEFU
GraduateSchoolofMa
nagement
andInnovation
The Institute of Regional
Economy of the North (IRES)
The
CenterofIntellectualP
roperty
The common Use Centre
The Center for Applied
Computational
Technologies
An
Innovativetechnopark
The Centre
of Grants
and Programs
IntercollegiateStudentinn
ovativebusinessincubator
Figure 1 - Organizational Structure
-
An Innovative Technopark (creation of small innovative
enterprises technical type, joint innovative enterprises, the
development of student business incubator);
- The center for Applied Computational Technologies (base
development of computer technology, equipped with one of the
most powerful supercomputers in Russia to perform basic and
applied research);
- The center for collective use (creation and management of the
unique research equipment park);
- Intellectual Property Center (formalization and use of the
results of intellectual activity providing patent and licensing
bases of the university);
- The center of programs and grants (to ensure the university's
participation in the competitions on the financial support of
innovation and attract leading foreign and domestic scholars,
specialists).
The generating activity in the direction of the AIC is to
comprehensively promote innovation in education. In this regard,
cooperation with the business units of the University will provide
updated educational programs, methodologies and technologies with
application of modern technology especially in information and
communications fields.
An important basis for the functioning of innovative structures is
the need for training in a market highly competitive environment and
sustainable change of personnel - young professionals capable of a
minimum period of adaptation to connect to the research and
development of the advanced level, thus ensuring their region country a
worthy place in the regional and international division labor and
cooperation.
In this regard, the Program of Innovative Infrastructure
Development of Federal University envisages the creation of a separate
entity - Graduate School of Management and Innovation bringing
together such basic of "Management", "Management of mining and
geology", "Marketing" Master of Business Administration (Figure 2).
ARCTIC INNOVATION CENTER NEFU
The Department
of Management
Bachelor
"Management"
- Production
management;
- Financial
Management
The Department of
Management of mining
and geology
bachelor
"State and Municipal
Management":
- Regionalmanagement
- Propertymanagement
GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF MANAGEMENT
AND INNOVATION
TheDepartmentofI
nnovation
Bachelorof
"Innovation":
Innovativebusiness
The
DepartmentofM
arketing
Bachelor
"Management"
- marketing
Master’s degree program
"Financial Management", "Environmental Management", "Innovation Management",
"Industrial Management"
"State and Municipal Management", "Management in the Oil and Gas Complex",
"Marketing"
Figure 2 - Graduate School of Management and Innovation in the structure of the AIC
Currently, the Department of "Innovation" is initiated to open as
the profile of the generator structure. Today, preliminary work on the
preparation of documents for opening training areas "Innovation" by
degrees "bachelor" and "master" have been done. Thus, there is a full
resource potential and the base for the opening of the Graduate School
of Management and Innovation as a separate structural unit of a federal
university.
The second major component of the AIC may be joining him
FGNU "Institute of Regional Economy of the North" that will certainly
enhance the status and effectiveness of the Centre which attracts in the
educational process of innovation and highly qualified scientific
potential. This unit will provide the scientific and methodological basis
of the formation of innovation priorities for the integration and
expansion of the federal university in the global space with a regional
focus and participate in the improvement of the legal framework of
innovation at the federal and regional levels and conduct regular and
systematic monitoring of the development of this framework.
The Institute will construct a complex scientific and
methodological support in the area of economic and regulatory issues
of the innovation process from idea to industrial production and, thus,
to become one of the main activities of the AIC that can enhance the
formation of the Federal University of the innovation system as a basis
for the North-East and Russia and represent the interests of the country
at the international level.
Higher School of Management and Innovation (VSHMI) must be
created as a division of BARC which will prepare innovative managers
for the region, companies and inter-disciplinary professionals.
The third major component part, except for teaching and research
is the implementation and commercialization of the results of scientific
and educational activities of the Federal University which provides an
innovative technology park.
Thus, the Arctic Innovation Center is an educational, scientificinnovative structural division of the federal university which will be
engaged in educational activities (undergraduate, graduate, retraining
and skills development), research (doing research, postgraduate,
doctoral, scientific seminars, conferences, issue of the scientific
literature, the Bulletin of the AIC) and the introduction of innovative
development (industrial activity).
Theoretically, Arctic Innovation Centre should seek to realize a
system for the generation of ideas, development of modern technology,
the transformation of classical knowledge in knowledge about
innovation and scientific school to produce competitive professionals
and managers in the field of innovation. It will allow the effective
integration of science, education and business which is so necessary for
a modern economy of Russia. It will introduce new and efficient
technologies in the creation of transport infrastructure, construction and
manufacturing in the North, in medicine, pharmacy, biotechnology,
sustainable development north-eastern regions of Russia by upgrading
to a rational and environmentally efficient implementation of natural
resource potential. The federal university has enough classic experience
in these areas that is necessary to turn to the innovative excellence.
And, recently the AIC included the way of transformation of
knowledge in agricultural innovation among the promising. Since the
approval of the Government of the Russian concept of the federal target
program "Sustainable Development of Rural Areas, 2014-2017 and for
the period up to 2020," Federal University puts one of the challenges in
research, innovation promoting the formation of innovative programs,
development projects and research in the field of agrarian problems,
socio-economic development of the village, training, etc.
The retrospective of a successful practice of AIM allows to plan
the future together with the Ministry of Agriculture and Food of the
Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), municipal and city governments to create
an innovative agricultural infrastructure that meets the requirements of
the international standard.
63
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR ECONOMIC AND
INNOVATIVE BUILDING ORGANIZATION1
B. I. Krivtsov
Samara State Economic University, Samara, Russia,
2030202@gmail.com
Resource constraints dictated by the need to find additional
sources to expand the market share of the organization to meet the
increasing demand for industrial goods and household goods. The
objective prerequisites of reserves due to macroeconomic trends that
appear in the change in phases of economic cycles. Particularly urgent
task of finding reserves is at the stage of recovery and growth, when
there is a need to determine the reserves of extensive and intensive
development.
In connection with the above criteria for the diagnosis of
economic and innovative potential are determined by the technology
developed on the basis of the existing Russian and foreign techniques.
The purpose of this technology is the ability to use the results of the
analysis for the development of effective management decisions for
economic growth and innovation potential.
The concept of "economic potential" came into use in the 70's
and was a summation expression of qualitative changes in social
production.
Potential - from the Latin Patentia - force, reserves, reserves. In
modern literature can be found a variety of definitions of the term.
In the Great Soviet Encyclopedia economic potential defined as
"the total capacity of the national economy to produce capital
construction, transportation of goods, provide services to the population
in a particular historical moment" [1, p. 428].
However, this definition needs clarification and additions. The
ability of industry to produce perfectly reflects the essence of the
economic potential, if fully fit, planted themselves in support of the
potential ability to produce a lot of their wealth, to provide a certain
number of services.
Thus, we can conclude that in many definitions of the economic
potential link to economics that is at the forefront take out natural
1
Abstracts with the financial support of the RGNF, project № 13-02-00235
64
resources, which does not reflect the main purpose of the economy - to
meet the needs of the people. Therefore, "under the economic potential
refers to the ability of the economy to produce a lot of goods and
services at a set time and specified quality and make them available to
consumers" [3, p. 8]. But again, it takes into account opredelenilene
benefits that are created by economic activity, but not the goods and
services, for example, the goods produced in the home.
65
financial potential
Economic and innovative potential
production potential
The environment
property potential
working potential
Scientific and technical potential
Market conditions, political
conditions, social and
cultural environment, and
other factors
Figure 1 The economic and innovative capacity of the organization
Thus, under the economic potential of the economy's ability to
understand the lawfulness of certain mass produce goods at a set time
and for a given quality and make them available to consumers.
It is advisable to identify six stages of evaluation of the economic
and innovative potential of the organization within which outline the
tasks necessary to fulfill:
STEP 1. Information: Determination of structural components of
the economic and innovative potential of the company, the composition
and preparation of information on the estimated object, Systematics of
selected financial data (financial statements); Preparation of analytical
forms according to the accounting (financial) statements, data selection
of non-system information
STEP 2. Primary Analysis: Develop a system of parameters of
economic and innovative development affecting the assessment of
potential, analysis of the dynamics of economic performance and
innovation capacity; Factor analysis of indicators of economic and
innovative capacity of the organization
STEP 3. Secondary Analysis: Calculation of economic and
innovative potential, analysis of the dynamics of the economic and
innovative potential; Factor analysis of indicators of economic and
innovative capacity of the organization
STEP 4. Briefing: Building expert committees; Preliminary
examination of the economic and innovative potential and the financial
condition of the organization during this period analyzed;
Determination of the potential of enterprises and the construction of
their ranking; Strengthening economic and innovative potential and
financial condition on the developed management decisions
STEP 5. Strategy: Develop a strategy of economic growth and
innovation capacity; Diagnosis of economic and innovative potential,
the level of funding of enterprises with high economic and innovative
potential; Preparation of proposals on the level of priority funding for
businesses with high economic and innovative potential
STEP 6. Control: Monitor the implementation of decisions taken;
making management decisions on the development and implementation
of economic and innovative potential, making management decisions
on the development and implementation of economic and innovative
potential, analysis of the system decision-making system adjustments
In the analysis of economic and innovative potential of the
organization should analyze the dynamics of the organization structure
of the balance sheet assets, calculate and interpret the return on assets,
to assess the dynamics of growth (decrease) in market value of the
organization and the value of assets, a comparative dynamics of sales
and assets of the organization.
In assessing the economic and innovative capacity of the
organization figures should be considered only in the dynamics in order
to avoid incorrect conclusions because of random events occurring in a
given period. First necessary to ensure the comparability of the
analyzed parameters. For comparability to: adjust the data contained in
the financial statements on the inflation rate, adjust the data when
changing accounting policy, make sure that there were no mergers or
division organizations. If the procedures have taken place, then
compare the data is impractical.
The first step is to conduct the factor analysis, ie calculation of
the size of influence of individual factors on the effective rate method
of chain substitutions. The following is to estimate the share of
influence of each factor in the overall change in the effective index and
hold the rating by using the method of the amount of seats. This
weighting can be used. The values of weighting factors associated with
the industry analyzed enterprises. [2, p.160]. The next step in the
evaluation of investment attractiveness of the offer to the forecast trend
analysis on key indicators of the company, guided by the basic rule of
management: capital growth should not exceed the rate of growth of
revenue from the sale, and they, in turn, the growth rate of profits from
the sale.
According to the initial data are calculated values of (the growth
rate is the ratio of data to the data of the reporting period the previous
period, multiplied by 100%), after which the graphics are built using a
trend line. Depending on the behavior of the organization chart can be
ranked.
On each of the three stages of the analysis of investment
attractiveness of the compared entities are assigned to the appropriate
places in groups of indicators. Therefore, the final moment will be the
definition of a common place in the rating of the entity to be installed
again using the sum of places [2, p. 161].
68
With the data of the final ranking list and, if necessary,
transcripts rated financial condition, effective use of production
resources and trend analysis of the budgeted growth rate of the main
indicators of the company, the investor can make an informed
management decision.
Rating analysis is used also by the economic entities to assess
their competitiveness and market positioning, as well as to analyze the
possibilities dealership and predict its economic and innovative
potential.
The adoption of effective management decisions involves the use
of information on the financial condition, results of operations and cash
flows of the organization. Methods of financial analysis used to assess
either public accounting organizations (competitors, business partners)
or a rapid analysis of its own records, or for the performance of internal
control procedures. And all that is necessary to maximize the value of
the organization.
The further development of the organization provided not only a
quantitative increment of economic potential, but also its quality
improvement (innovation component). The increase in assets of the
business, in some cases does not add to the enterprise confidence in the
future, but on the contrary, increases the risk of bankruptcy, for
example, an increase in accounts receivable, while improving the
stability of the financial situation of the company reduces dependence
on borrowed sources and provides the opportunity for further
development.
The use of diagnostic economic and innovative potential, and
their use encounters the existence of objective differences in the
practical activities of the organization. However, the management of
business operations requires a unified and coherent approach to
decision-making on the development of the organization.
Literature
1. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia,
1970. V.20
2. Gogina G., E. Nikiforov, Shiyanova S.L.Kompleksny analysis
of the economic potential of the organization / Under. Ed A.
Afonichkina. - Togliatti, Volga University. VI Tatishcheva, 2003. - 175
p.
69
3. Golikov, Introduction to applied economics: A brief summary
of lectures. Chelyabinsk Chelyabi. State. University Press, 1999.
4. Kryvtsov, A. The technique for transaction costs accounting
(2013) Actual Problems of Economics, 142 (4), pp. 372-377.
THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL POLICY OF THE STATE
ON THE HOUSEHOLD BUDGET
M. K. Krivtsova, M. A. Podzorova
The Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation,
bachelors of Public and Municipal Administration Faculty, Moscow,
the Russian Federation, e-mail: marinstar@bk.ru
Adviser: A. S. Sibiryaev, Candidate of Political Science of the State
University of Management, Docent of Public and Municipal Administration
Department, Moscow, the Russian Federation, e-mail: gimu09@mail.ru
The development of the state social and economic policy basis
assumes the analysis of the distribution of population income in four
main directions:
- change of functional income distribution at the expense of
having an influence upon the relative prices of the factors of
production;
- change of the distribution of income according to the size at the
expense of a progressive redistribution of resources in favour of the
groups of population with a medium and low level of revenue;
- reduction of an income share of the most prosperous part of the
population by means of progressive taxes on income and property;
- increase in an income share of the least prosperous part of the
population by means of direct transfer payments and gratuitous
provision of goods and services for the population by the state.
The above-mentioned four main directions are nothing but the
methods of realization of the state social function which define the
bases of Russian social policy realization at a present stage of the
economic reforms. [2] It contains the solution to a triune task using the
following components:
70
- social function should be directed towards the elimination of
price deformation regarding the factors of production that will promote
the growth of production efficiency and labor market formation. It can
be reached by means of a pricing system (on the basis of institutional or
regional criteria), i.e. with the aid of giving the right signals which will
regulate the activity of both producers, and suppliers of resources from
the society's point of view;
- social function should be directed towards structural changes
with the object of wealth and power redistribution in the society. It can
occur as in a static way (privatization or reprivatization) or in a
dynamic one (in the form of redistribution by force of economic growth
or investments into the human potential). These things will contribute
to the growth of an employment level and an income level as a result;
- social function should be directed towards the income leveling
between various national groups by dint of using progressive taxation
of all the types of income and property. The above-mentioned measure
will allow the state to carry out a policy of consumption subsidizing in
the form of financial and natural payments or in the form of subsidized
goods and services which the state will give the consumers through
specific institutes. [4]
A family is a major cell of the Russian society. On the one hand
motherhood and childhood as well as a family are under the protection
of the state. On the other hand the state influences on the household
budget because nevertheless the institution of a family experiences a
crisis as it has already been mentioned before. For example, a wellknown social program of "Maternity capital" has a considerable impact
on the household budget of families which have a second child. Thanks
to this program, a lot of families managed to expand their living spaces
and started to build their own houses. More than 160 billion rubles were
spent on paying back the housing credits at the expense of the maternity
capital means. Since 2009 Pension Fund of the Russian Federation
accepted 509 600 statements about the direction of the maternity capital
means towards paying off the housing credits. Therefore improving the
housing conditions of a family with the help of credits is one of the
most popular directions of the maternity capital usage. Federal and
regional programs of support of underprovided large families render
considerable assistance to budgets of the families which belong to these
categories: they have certain privileges while making utility payments
71
or payments for kindergartens, schools, etc. In this regard despite the
fact that the Russian social policy is at a low level, nevertheless it aims
to support the household budget. The current situation is confirmed by
the actions of public authorities. So, according to the law the tax
deductions for families with children are going up: they will make
approximately 1400 rubles for the taxpayers who bring up two children
and almost 3000 rubles for the ones with three or more children. The
tax deduction makes 1400 rubles for each month of the tax period for
people who educate just one child and who are parents or a spouse of a
parent, tutors or trustees, adoptive parents, a spouse of an adoptive
parent of a child.
The politicians also reconsider the problems of Russian families
and express ideas about improving the situation. For example, the
President of the Russian Federation declared at the meeting in 2010:
"The system of social protection of the population should be reoriented
towards the support of families whose level of income is below a
minimum of subsistence, taking into account the regional features".
The chairman of the State Duma Committee E.B. Mizulina
(responsible for family, women and children issues) introduced the idea
that a family support, motherhood and childhood are one of the
priorities of a social policy of the Russian Federation. [5] It contains
rendering assistance to large and incomplete families, families with
disabled children, preventive measures against family ill-being, as well
as social rehabilitation of neglected and orphan children, children
without a parental support, etc. Each of above-mentioned social groups
needs special care and attention of the state. It is necessary to stimulate
increase in the number of large families and as a consequence to raise a
birth rate in Russia and to provide decent quality of life and social
prestige of large families.
Nevertheless, no matter how the state would strive for supporting
this cell of the society it is impossible to forget that a social policy has
not become a rather steady type and a form of social activity yet as it is
still in a formation stage. Though a modern social policy activity
certainly has its own purpose and the functions which contribute to
achieving this goal, however the specification of these functions is far
incomplete, and the set of the social statuses and roles which are typical
for social institutes is not fully defined. Modern social policy of Russia
still is not able to provide an opportunity for all members of the society
72
and its various social groups to completely satisfy their needs thereby it
does not stabilize social relations at present time and does not bring in
the consistency of acts of the society members.
The program "An affordable accommodation for a young family"
is a good example. According to Sergey Mitrokhin, the deputy of
Moscow City Council, the chairman of the party "Apple" though this
program also promotes improvement of life quality of some groups of
the society, it has a number of essential drawbacks. [6] The program
covers a small number of families, and not the poorest ones which have
an opportunity to participate in a mortgage. It goes without saying that
according to this program it is possible to buy an apartment even for
500 thousand rubles, but a young family has not got such sum of
money. Then it should be children of wealthy parents who can help.
Certainly, the program is useful, however it has insignificant coverage:
far not any Muscovite with a young family is able to join it.
The officials successfully made use of its imperfections.
Undoubtedly, another its disadvantage is that commercial building of
Moscow does not allow to build houses within this program in urban
territories, and the authorities gradually transfer the houses designed for
young families to the region where a lot of Moscow privileges (e.g.
payments for housing and communal services) do not work anymore.
[1]
A family policy in different countries is not identical. Some
countries (France) follow demographic purposes besides their social
tasks. Other countries give priority to child protection from poor
families. Such approach (concerning only poor families) is a
characteristic feature of the USA as well as Holland. The third group of
countries adheres to a more modern approach: they support all types of
families (Denmark and some other countries). The accents of a family
policy underwent changes in a historical retrospective. The changes in
objectives, orientation, priorities, and implementation methods are the
characteristic features of a family policy. A family policy reacts to
many factors: economic environment, social shifts and a demographic
situation. The reduction of public expenses can be reflected in the
expenditures for a family policy though it happens not always.
The national mentality which was formed during the process of
historical development of each country, influenced on a family policy
owing to specific national understanding of the problems, priorities and
73
social shifts. So, Denmark and other Scandinavian countries were the
first to admit both parents equally responsible for education of their
children and the first to introduce leave of absence in view of the birth
and upbringing of the children both for a father and for a mother.
Nowadays the concept of granting leave of absence to both
parents applies to other countries, including those ones where women's
social status is lower (Portugal, Greece), than in Northern Europe
countries.
A common aspect for all European countries is the fact that a
family is a major social institute where new generations are born and
brought up and where the process of their socialization takes place and
these generations get economic and psychological supports. [3]
Consequently, the public family policy has special value for all
countries of the world when historical processes of a family
transformation, which proceed in a painful and contradictory way,
intertwine with complicated problems caused by the global economic
crisis. The development and realization of specific strategies and
mechanisms which actively allow to develop family potential on the
basis of improving its relations with the state as well as a full
realization of institutional rights and needs should become the most
important task of a family policy. A family policy, supplementing and
deepening general social measures, urged to contribute to the solution
to specific family problems that is of great importance while carrying
out the reforms.
Bibliography
1. Gorelov N. A. The income policy and life quality of the
population - SPb: St. Petersburg, 2012. - 254 pages.
2. Niftaliyeva T.S. The Russian demographic policy: measures of
support of families with children//National interests: priorities
and safety, 2011, № 40
3. Pokudov A. Personal finance//Personal budget, 2011. – 65
pages.
4. Pyatenko S. V., Saprykina T.G. Economic crisis and personal
finance. – M: Knorus, 2009. - 320 pages.
5. Savenok V. S. Personal finance//The household budget, 2013 –
65 pages.
74
6. Zherbin V. M., Romanov A.N. Economy of housekeeping - M:
Finance, YuNITI, 2010. - 278 pages.
BRAND AND ITS FORMATION: THE RUSSIAN PRACTICE
E. U. Kuznetsova
Volga Region State University of Service, GO Togliatti, Russia,
elenatgus@ya.ru
The rapid development of economic relations that increases
competition at both global and domestic markets encourages enterprises
to develop and use more varied means of identification in order to
attract consumers. And one of them is a brand. In this case, the
relevance and practicability of using this economic category in the
business units’ activity can be demonstrated by the brand’s ability to
establish a special emotional connection with consumers providing, in
turn the competitiveness of manufacturers.
The process of creating long-term consumer preferences is a
purposeful activity to position the benefits of products compared with
competing peers and to form in the minds of consumers associations
and experiences connected to them. Its shaping in the whole bright and
stable picture of the overall product presentation and its trademark is
called a brand. In other words, the brand is a kind of the trademark
image of the item, selected from the peer group by the target objects.
Currently, there are many definitions of the brand, considering it as a
set of image features of a company or a product, allowing to capture the
market quickly.
Generalization of different interpretations of the definition
suggests that the brand means the attributes of an enterprise or goods
that reflect their identity and values attracting the focused attention of
consumers and encouraging them to make a purchase.
However, the small experience of the Russian practice in terms
of operating the examined economic category has led to ambiguity of
its interpretation due to the identification of the brand with the
trademark and trade name on the basis of their close relationship. That
in turn makes it necessary to establish clear semantic boundaries
between these related concepts.
75
A trademark compared to the brand is registered by the relevant
competent authorities in accordance with the law trademark (service
mark) in the name of a natural or legal person engaged in business
activity. This activity encompassing the goods’ images specified in the
certificate is the effective means of advertising and contributes to the
positive image of the company.
The brand and trademark definitions comparison shows that both
concepts denote the means of a particular manufacturer’s product
differentiation from similar products of competitors. However, these
means of identification relate to each other as a whole and its part as the
brand includes not only the elements of the structure of a trademark
(logo, name and soundtrack), but also a variety of other characteristics:
the product itself, its consumer properties and benefits of its use, the
image of the product and its brand, as well as associations of potential
consumers in relation to the goods.
Also, the trademark is a generalized image, a symbol of the
enterprise, while the brand is the result of actions to build commitment
to the product in the long term, based on the combined effect on
consumers of the trademark, packaging and marketing communications
elements, united by a common idea, and one style of implementation
that single out the goods among its peers and create a unique image.
At the same time, brand and trademark are identical only if the
product has objective and distinct features for its individualization. On
the other side, a trademark can be considered as a brand, if for
recognition and identification of the goods consumers use only those
features that are registered by the manufacturer as a trademark. [2]
Thus, the differences between the trademark and brand are as
follows:
- for legal purposes the existence of the trademark is recognized
only when its use is limited to the legal framework. In this case,
everything that can be called a trademark (service mark), is described in
Part 4 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation of 18.12.2006 N
230-FZ: types of trademarks, especially the state registration, the
grounds for refusal of registration of a trademark, etc.[1]. All registered
trademarks are protected by law;
- the brand is all that consumers think and feel in relation to the
product and its manufacturer, that is, any association (consumer’s
experiences, the advice of others, advertising, selection, purchase,
76
storage, transport, use, and so on), so the boundaries of the term’s use
are defined by the consumers perception and feelings, which in turn
describes the brand as a broader and more comprehensive concept than
a trademark.
Identification of the brand with the concept of the trademark can
also be found in the economic literature, the difference between them is
significant, however.
The brand name is commonly understood as symbols, used to
identify and differentiate products over competing counterparts. The
brand, as noted above, represents the set of elements and features, one
of which is the trade name (in case of registration - trademark), and
consequently it becomes the next stage of its development. This
happens due to the emergence of stable positive emotional links with
the target audience when the manufacturer fulfills his promises and
potential customers expectations correspond with the product. As well
as it helps to meet a wider range of needs.
It can be stated that any brand is a trademark, but not every
trademark can become a brand, this in turn leads to the difficulty in
determining the conditions for giving brand a new higher status.
According to the most popular opinion overcoming of the 20%
threshold target audience loyalty to the brand is one of the features of
the brand formation, if it does not contradict the characteristics and
parameters of the particular market functioning.
On the assumption of the above it is possible to identify the main
distinctive brand characteristics, which are:
1. The existence of a duly registered trademark or its complex;
2. Significant (sometimes capital) cost of the promotion;
3. Duration of promotion stage;
4. Possibility of several brand names combination;
5. The availability of alternative development strategies either
goods or an enterprise;
6. Monitoring of the satisfaction level, the analysis of the causes
of dissatisfaction and a rapid response to consumers
complaints;
7. The strategic orientation of financial investments.
In addition, compared to the trademark, the brand provides a
number of advantages:
77
a) the ability of the goods to win more market share compared to
the same product promoted under the brand name or trademark;
b) higher rates of demand growth for goods with the brand than
the demand for products that are promoted under the brand
names or trademarks;
c) possibility of product positioning that has a brand within the
target segment in the higher price ranges than similar goods
promoted under the brand name or trademark;
d) bigger profit margin from one meter of sales area;
e) simplification of procedures and facilitatation of the market
launch of a new product through its sales under the already
popular brand;
f) a high degree of loyalty and the consumer’s commitment to the
product and its manufacturer (more than 20% under normal
conditions of the market);
g) maintenance of the planned volume of sales in a particular
market and the implementation of the long-term program aimed
at creating and sustaining the product or group of products
image in the minds of consumers;
h) increase of profitability by expanding the range of goods and
knowledge of their common unique properties, implemented by
the corporate image.
Based on the above, the presence of the brand provides not only
emotional benefits to its owner but also the positive financial results
fulfilling at the same time a number of functions that are of priority for
consumers:
o allows the ability to find interesting proposals quickly;
o allows to save time and resources by buying the same
commitment and specific brand;
o gives confidence in the quality of the product regardless of the
time and place of purchase;
o confirms the image of the consumer for himself and for others,
etc.
As a symbol of the product, the brand is developed on the basis
of the consumer’s interests and extends his life values and promotes
gaining a certain social status. Consequently, the brand also performs a
social function by encouraging the creation of one's own consumers
values by forming the image of the goods with the help of senses and
78
emotions in relation to it, producers acting on the formation of brand
identity, as well as the promotion and operation of its market.
The carried out studies also show that the brand contributes to
building the commitment of customers, which in turn ensures a stable
competitiveness of the product and its manufacturer.
Thus, the expert management of the creation and promotion of
the brand should be viewed as a guarantee of the competitiveness of the
whole enterprise, which in turn determines the cost-efficiency of its
operation.
References
1. Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Chapter 4, 18.12.2006
N 230-ФЗ: (enrolled by State Duma of the Russian Federation
24.11.2006) : (current version 01.09.2013). – Available:
http://www.consultant.ru/popular/gkrf4/79_1.html#p27.
2. Vladislavlen D. N. Encyclopedia of Bank Marketing. –
Moscow, 2005.
THE PLANNING OF THE DYNAMICS
OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Yu. V. Merkulova
сandidate of economic sciences, Moscow, Russia
merkul.yuliya@gmail.com
Planning of profit growth is always associated with the
adjustment of product supply this or other way, depending on consumer
demand. Forecasting consumer demand on the basis on analytical
assessments cannot be considered valid anymore. It’s not enough know
the current consumer demand, but it is important to predict the trends of
its development in the future, i.e. the research of the consumer demand
must be a dynamic process. At the same time it is important not only to
predict, but also to plan the consumer demand, i.e. to influence its
changes in this or other way through economic instruments of business
entities. In other words, one should take into consideration that the
consumer demand is inextricably linked to other variable categories,
such as the market, consumers market, competition, product offering.
79
Their changing promotes the change in the consumer demand. The
consumer demand is influenced by many factors, which also should be
studied as dynamic processes. The carried out research [1,2 ] is
extremely relevant, since the proposed methodology of the dynamic
consumer demand research makes it possible to create truly competitive
products that will be in high demand at both domestic and international
markets.
The proposed methodology of consumer demand planning is
based on constructing the matrix of consumer segments formed on the
principle of the balance of consumers’ needs and paying capacity.
Level of needs
1.1
High
1.2
1.3
1.1
2.1
1.2
2.2
1.3
2.3
Medium
2.1
3.1
2.2
3.2
2.3
3.3
Low
3.1
High
3.2
Medium
3.3
Low
Level of paying capacity
Fig. 1. Matrix of consumer segments
Strategic Management Areas are understood as the consumer
market segments that are defined on the basis of the quality demands
and the level of consumers’ paying capacity. The matrix represents 1, 2,
3d sector of product offering, corresponding to high, medium and low
needs levels and the level of prices. Each commodity sector is divided
into three consumer segments, which display a certain quality products
(high, medium, mass-market demand), but with varying degrees of
novelty, customer appeal, and therefore different profitability and
potential in a particular class of products. Thus, we could define 9
notional consumer segments that differ in customers paying capacity,
product strategies, profitability and the company’s potential.
To determine the commodity positioning areas the company must
predict possible changes in the consumer demand in each of the
80
selected customer segments of the market in different time periods of
demand. The company should take into account that the price, volume
and quality indicators of consumer demand even for one and the same
product throughout its life cycle in the market will change. When
product demand rises, the company has a chance to position the product
in the most profitable segment of the commodity market sector, where
the products of this level are positioned. Much less common is the
situation when due to engineering and design enhancements of the
product, the company changes its positioning area for a more promising
commodity market sector. However, changing of products positioning
areas is the most practical for the company when its demand is
beginning to decline. To extend the life cycle of the product on the
market, the company can transfer with it, not only from a more
profitable segment to another less profitable within a particular
commodity sector, but it can also try to keep its high profitability. To
do this, the company should consider the possibility of transfer from a
prestigious commercial sector into the less prestigious, but where it will
be able to position the product in the most profitable segment of the
market.
Figure 2 illustrates the most likely and common changes in the
products positioning areas on the later stages of their life cycle with
the purpose of maintaining the product demand and its profitability at
a good level.
1.1
2.1
3.1
1.2
2.2
3.2
1.3
2.3
3.3
Fig. 2. The scheme of the change in consumer goods positioning
segments during their passing stages of the life cycle on the market
81
In the later stages of the product life cycle, when new products
and of higher quality appear on the markets, the demand for the
previous makes decreases. In this situation, the decision to reduce the
price of this product and to change the consumer segment of its
positioning will allow the company to keep the goods on the market
and to support the demand for them. As can be seen from the scheme,
in most cases the company tries to maintain profits at the same level. It
is rarely the case, when in the later stages of demand the company can
find more profitable segments of positioning, unless it finds a niche in
the market, which has been abandoned by the competitors.
However, the time demand factor is not the only aspect that
should be considered when planning. It is important to study the
dynamics of changes in the factors that influence the customers'
demands. It should be noted that not only the manufacturers of products
may change the areas of its positioning in the market, but consumers
can change their quality demands and move from one consumer
segment to another. Consumer demands depend on various factors, but
their level of paying capacity has the main influence on them. The
company must take into account that the consumer needs in different
consumer segments are not static, but dynamic. Therefore, when
planning the indicators adjustment of products supply it is very
important for the company to predict the possible overflow of
customers from one customer segment to another correctly. There are
two types of "migration" of customers.
The first is the most probable and it happens due to borderline
customers. Customers purchase goods in the customer segments,
unusual for them and their transition to the other customer segments,
more suitable for them is very likely, these segments positioning the
products which are more appropriate to the level of their paying
capacity and the typical quality requirements. This is shown in Fig. 3.
In the first commodity sector borderline customers are the customers in
the consumer segments 1.2 and 1.3. Their transition to the second trade
sector is very likely – to the consumer segments 2.2 and 2.3, rarely the
customers moving from segment 1.3. into segment 3.3.
82
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
1.3
2.3
3.3
Fig. 3. Overflow of borderline customers from one consumer segment
to another, in accordance with the level of effective demand
(notation: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 - consumer segments
of the market;
– customers overflow between segments)
At the same time, the first commodity sector can be extended
through the same borderline customers of the second commodity sector
of the consumer segment 2.1 and even from the third commodity sector
- the consumers of consumer segment 3.1. The transition of customers
from consumer segments 3.1 and 3.2 into the second commodity sector
of the market is very likely. The commodity sector can be increased by
moving of the first commodity sector consumers - from consumer
segment 1.3 and the second commodity sector - from the consumer
segment 2.3 into it. Thus, it is not the case of transition from one
customer segment to another within a particular commodity sector, but
it is their overflow between the commodity sectors of the market. This
should be taken into account in the forecast. If the market prices change
or there are changes in effective demand, in customers’ quality
requests, the nature of the overflow of customers in commodity sectors
and consumer segments changes radically.
That brings us to the second reason of customers’ "migration",
that happens due to the dynamics of effective demand and the change
in quality inquiries. In other words, the overflow from one customer
segment to another is a result of changes in the terms of sales (rising
product prices) or changes in the paying capacity of customers groups.
If there are no sudden changes in the economy, it is very likely that one
can predict changes in consumer preferences and possibilities in related
consumer segments. Fig. 4 shows an exemplary diagram of the
83
overflow of customers from one customer segment to another with
their quality requirements and paying capacity increased.
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
Fig. 4. The customers overflow from one customer segment to another
due to improved quality demands and paying capacity
Customers of the cheapest goods in their product sector seek to
enhance their paying capacity and go to more prestigious and expensive
segments of the market commodity sector to buy goods of a better
quality, which are sold it at a higher price. Figure 4 shows a smooth
customers overflow due to their having found the ways to improve their
paying capacity reserves within a particular commodity sector, namely
from segment 3.3 to segment 3.2, and from there to 3.1, from segment
2.3 to segment 2.2, and from there to 2.1 , from segment 1.3 to segment
1.2, and from there to 1.1. However, a significant change in paying
capacity of consumers can lead to a radical change in their quality
demands and their changing not only the segment, but also the
commodity sector. Most often this happens when customers tend to
move to purchasing goods in more prestigious commodity sectors. For
example, they move from purchasing consumer goods of decent quality
(sector 3.1) to goods of well-known brands and guaranteed high-quality
(section 2.1), and from them to purchasing luxury goods (section 1.1).
The matrix shows not a sharp but a smooth transition from one
customer segment to another, from one commodity sector to another.
However, in case of the rapid changes in consumer demands and
market conditions, abrupt migration of customers and the transition of
the company with its goods from one customer segment to another are
possible.
84
If there is a situation of a sharp rise in prices in the market, the
decline in effective demand and, as a consequence, lower-quality
customer demands, one may observe quite different relations of the
customers overflow within market sectors.
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
Fig. 5. The overflow from one customer segment to another due
to the reduction in their quality demands and paying capacity
Fig. 5 shows a smooth transition of customers from one
customer segment to another, from one commodity sector to another
by reducing their quality demands due to the decrease of their paying
capacity. Although in reality sudden changes of customers within
commodity market sectors are possible. It depends on the ratio of the
prices growth dynamics and the reduction of the earning power of
payment groups. Therefore, the analysis of the effective demand
dynamics must be the primary step in predicting consumer overflow
situation between customer segments and product sectors of the market.
Thus, the proposed methodology for studying the dynamics of
supply and demand allows better planning of the product offering by
the company. Changes in the number, composition and customers
inquiries, their paying capacity determine the demand in the strategic
management areas of the company, which has a direct effect on the
plans of the company and its strategy of product positioning. In fast
growing markets and fast changing business environment, the creation
of competitive products is increasingly dependent on the ability of the
company to maneuver its brand positioning strategies and positioning
areas of their products with the accont of customers "migration" within
consumer segments and product market sectors.
85
References
1. Merkulova Yu.V. Situation and strategic planning in the
economy.1Tom.─ Economy.2013.439p.
2. Merkulova Yu.V. Situation and strategic planning in the
economy.2 Tom.─ Economy.2013.411p.
CURRENT STATUS OF THE QUALITY OF SERVICES
RUSSIAN MOBILE OPERATORS
T. A. Oruch
Volga Region State University of Service, Togliatti, Russia
e-mail: oruch_t@mail.ru
Increased competition among companies that provide services to
consumers, promotes the fact that today one of the most important
factors is the level of competitiveness of the service quality.
In the service sector the approach to measuring the quality of
service is based on a contrast of the expected quality before
consumption and the perceived quality of service at the moment of the
direct consumption of services.
Features and specificity of customer service quality provided by
service companies primarily is shaped by the distinctive characteristics
of services.
In modern economic literature they identify five main
distinguishing characteristics of services: intangibility, inseparability of
the performer and the consumer, variability in the quality, non-shelf life
and inseparability from the source of the service. [1] These attributes
(data) services are the benefits that are available to consumers, as well
as the distinctive features of services from physical goods.
Based on these characteristics of the services, one can highlight
the problems associated with assessing the quality of customer service:
1. Subjective Assessment of the Quality of Customer Service.
Assessment of the quality of services by the consumer has an
individual character. Subjective assessment of quality is related to the
fact that the same set of consumer characteristics of the service
provided by all consumers perceived differently due to the nature of
86
their personality, interests, personal skills, knowledge, as well as
situations in which the consumption of services. In assessing the quality
of services the consumer compares what he was given to that he
expected to receive.
2. Lack of a Unified System of Indicators of Service Quality.
Currently, there is no single, unified system of indicators of
service quality due to the fact that the service industry is characterized
more by its diversity and, therefore, a system of indicators of service
quality is formed depending on the type of services provided, the
specifics of the enterprise. The breadth and diversity of services makes
it impossible to determine the different types of services in the general
laws specific to the service sector.
3. The Absence of a Common Methodology for Assessing the
Quality of Service.
The problem of assessing the quality of service is one of the most
difficult. Currently, there is no common, comprehensive assessment
methodology of service quality, which would include all aspects of
service quality: quality of service and quality of the process of customer
service.
4. The Absence of Feedback, i.e. Assessment of Service
Quality by Consumers.
Assessment of the perception of service quality by consumers
plays a central role in assessing the performance of service industries.
Consumer surveys and analysis of consumer complaints on the quality
of service help to identify the gaps, identify problem areas. In addition,
the trends of changing the opinion in a certain period of time about
quality level of service can be used by regulators and the administration
to assess the performance of the enterprise.
In this connection the problem of assessing the quality of
consumer service acquires a special importance as seen. In order to
evaluate the service quality of cellular services and to develop the
methodology for assessing the quality of customer service it is
necessary to study the process of consumer service by cellular
operators.
The servicing process of cellular communication consumers is
the basis for dividing of the observed indicators of service quality on
the groups according to the stages of the observation values of the
87
indicators for quality in real time. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the
process of customer service by cellular operators.
Accompanying the process of service
Stage 1. Making
contact the
customer and
service provider
Identifying
the needs of
the consumer
Signing the
contract for
service
Connection of
a subscriber to
the operator’s
network
Stage 2.The provision
of cellular services
Providing access
to the network
operator
Providing access to
customer service
Ensuring continuity
of services
Ensuring the
completeness of the
service
Stage 4.
Completion of the process of
customer service
Stage 3.Provide the
customer billing
system service
Acceptance
of payments
Billing of
provided services
Activation /
deactivation of
service
Providing
information about
the balance
Change of a rate
plan, etc.
Application for termination or
suspension of a customer
service
Disconnection of the user from
the operator network
Fig. 1. Stages in the servicing process of cellular service consumers
88
The whole process of customer service can be divided into four
stages: getting in touch of the consumer and the operator, providing the
consumer the cellular services, providing the consumer the service of
billing system, the completion of the process of consumer service.
Detailed stages of customer service characterize the life cycle of
the process of providing cellular services from the date of the contract
and the customer's connection to the service provider's network to the
termination or suspension of service.
Thus, the analysis of servicing process of cellular service
consumers allows distinguishing the three areas of assessment of
customer service quality:
1. Assessment of the service quality.
2. Assessment of the service execution quality.
3. Assessment of the billing system quality.
In this regard, it is advisable to develop a methodology to assess
the quality of customer service for cellular services, in accordance with
the directions: assessment of the service quality, assessment of the
service execution quality, assessment of the billing system quality (Fig.
2).
89
Fig.2. Methodics to assess the quality of customer service provided by cellular operators
Synthesis integral indicator of quality consumer service provider
is calculated by the formula:
К service  3 К serv.quality * К execution  К billing
(1)
The developed method allows us not only to make the current
assessment of the consumers service quality, but also predicted the
performance of an enterprise providing cellular services, depending on
the projected economic conditions, changes in the level of service
quality.
References
4. Lyghina N.I. Lyapina I.R. Marketing Products and Services: a
Textbook. - Moscow: FORUM: INFRA-M, 2005. - 240.
5. Tikhvinskiy V.O., Terentev S.V. Management and Quality of
Services in Networks of GPRS / UMTS. - M.: Eco-Trendz, 2007. - 400
s.
INFLUENCE OF CONSUMER GOODS MARKET CONDITION
ON EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION1
V. M. Timiryanova, A. R. Nurova
Ufa Institute of Russian State University of Trade and Economics, Ufa, Russia,
79174073127@mail.ru
E. A. Krasilnikova
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia,
krasilnikova_elena@rambler.ru
The consumer market is one of important sectors of services
sphere which is distinguished by dynamic development at the moment.
It should be considered as a complex of markets of individual goods
and services, the development of which is predetermined in many
respects by the infrastructure of a particular local market, peculiarities
The article is prepared within the framework of the scientific project №1332-01232, supported by the Russian Foundation for the Humanities.
1
of its participants behaviour etc. The consumer market is an important
part in the process of reproduction. It is here that the stage of
consumption is implemented, i.e. product distribution is completed, the
delivery of the product to the final consumer takes place.
The product distribution is a complex economic process which
plays an important role in securing economic equilibrium of the
national economy. It includes a broad complex of economic relations
occurring at different stages of product movement from the moment of
its production till the moment of selling it to the consumer.
Product distribution as an inherent element of reproduction
process often becomes the subject of research. In literature, significant
attention is paid to researching the channels of product distribution
from the perspective of individual manufacturers. The aim of these
works is optimization of the channel of particular enterprises by way of
choosing the optimal number of mediators and through building
relationships with them with the aim of profit maximization. As a rule,
such models take into account the needs of enterprises at the expense of
the needs of the population. Elaboration of scientific-methodological
bases for logistic restructuring of regional distribution centres,
including with the aim of improving spatial organization of transport,
optimizing flows etc. is another course of research. [1,2] The third
course is connected with researching product distribution from the
perspective of its influence on reproduction processes and the
economic security of the population. However, these works mainly
consider one-product models of product distribution, which
significantly narrows down opportunities for making managerial
decisions with the aim of optimizing processes of product distribution
countrywide. [3,4,5].
Despite quite frequent emphasis on the necessity of improving
the effectiveness of product distribution, the works do not give the
definition of “effective product distribution” and the influence of the
development of consumer goods market on it.
Functions of product distribution are performed through the
channels of distribution, which include all the organizations or all the
people connected with the movement and exchange of goods. As a
matter of fact, these channels represent the way by which goods move
from manufacturers to consumers. The characteristics of gaps in time,
place and property right separating goods and services from those who
92
would like to use them depend from the peculiarities of organizing
distribution channels.
The main parameters of a distribution channel are length and
width. By the length of the channel we mean the number of
intermediate parts carrying out the work of moving the product
from the manufacturer to the consumer. The longer the part the
higher the value added of the final product. From the
manufacturer’s point of view, the more levels the distribution
channel has, the fewer opportunities there are to control it. In this
regard, it is necessary to work for reducing it, however, excessive
reduction of the length of the distribution channel can result in
disproportions in the range, supply of reserves for particular
territories etc.
By the width of the distribution channel we mean the number
of mediators on each level, who participate in product distribution.
The width of the channel, as well as its length, has limits. On the
one hand, presence of only one enterprise on a certain level creates
opportunities for abuse of monopoly position. At the same time, it
is not so important, which level it takes place on. Even on the level
of retail enterprises it creates a threat for not only consumers, but
for the manufacturer itself forcing it to agree to the terms of the
mediator. On the other hand, an excessively wide channel creates
conditions for reducing profitability and corporate bankruptcy.
Thus, the ratio of the number of representatives of manufacturing,
wholesale and retail parts is one of the characteristics of product
distribution as a distribution channel.
The width and length of the channel are important indices for
evaluating product distribution. But these indices alone do not
answer the question of the effectiveness of product distribution.
The fewer there are enterprises producing final products in the
region the longer the channel should be and the higher its transfer
rate should be. In each case many factors influence the
peculiarities of distribution channels: place of production,
consumers, transport facilities, infrastructure etc.
In our opinion, the effectiveness of product distribution
should be determined from the effect it gives to the consumers and
manufacturers.
93
The following properties can be the criteria for evaluating
the effectiveness of product distribution: index of consumer prices
lower than the average Russian level and the index of
manufacturers’ prices, growth of turnover both in the wholesale
and retail chains, lower level of distribution costs both in
processing industry and trade, lower volume of money spent by the
population on buying goods outside the territory of residence.
Almost all these criteria are directly connected with the
condition of the consumer goods market.
Inventory turnover is one of the criteria for evaluating
product distribution. The federal executive body for statistics gives
the information about the size of stock of commodities in retail
organizations in trading days, which, as a matter of fact,
characterizes turnover. Turnover acceleration should be considered
as a positive dynamics. However, it is impossible without
appropriate development of consumer goods market, its
infrastructure (transport and financial), and intermediary
enterprises, which, in order to accelerate turnover, need to use
more sophisticated equipment and technologies providing
reduction of time needed for performing operations etc.
One of the reasons why manufacturing enterprises delegated the
functions of delivering goods to consumers to commercial enterprises is
their aim to minimize expenditure. Trade should function in such a way
that unit costs connected with delivering goods to the consumer do not
grow. Therefore, product distribution is organized effectively if the
level of distribution costs of both industrial and commercial enterprises
falls. In turn, reduction of distribution costs is connected with the
opportunities of consumer goods market.
From the consumer’s point of view, product distribution
should be organized in such a way that customers’ needs are
satisfied more fully, but it does not lead to unreasonably high rise
in prices. At the same time, the quality of commercial services
should be high, which is impossible under the conditions of lack of
profits in enterprises and lack of an opportunity to invest them in
capital maintenance. Therefore, the consumer price index can be a
criterion for evaluating product distribution.
Please note that commercial enterprises play a very
important role in price equalization. Drastic changes of
94
manufacturer’s prices can be dampened in trade which can be a
criterion for evaluating the distribution channel as well. Thus, the
extent to which product distribution is well organized can be
evaluated indirectly through the ratio of consumer price index to
manufacturer price index.
Coming back to the efficiency of product distribution from
the consumer’s point of view, it is necessary to note that the
fullness of satisfaction of customer’s requirements to the quality,
number and range of offered goods is very important. In case of a
perfect system of product distribution, the final consumer will
offered a commodity of such quality, range and quantity that would
meet his/her requirements completely. But this evaluation can be
done directly only through opinion poll, which has risks and
complexity, considering the territory and population of Russia. We
offer to evaluate range satisfaction by means of an indirect index.
If the population is not satisfied by the range offered in the market,
they will aim to satisfy the demand for goods but this time outside
the place of residence. On the whole, it is considered by statistics
authorities. Thus, the Resolution of the State Statistics Committee
of the Russian Federation №61 of 16.07.1996 “On approving the
methodology of calculating the population’s balance of money
income and expenditure, and main social-economic indicators of
living standards of the population” states that “excess of income
over expenditure can mean not only higher cash balance, but also
partial spending outside the territory of the given republic, region
of money income gained on its territory”. This way we will
determine the difference between statistical information about the
structure of application of money incomes, in particular, the share
for buying goods, and the relationship between retail turnover and
personal income. The higher the difference the more money is
spent outside the places of residence, therefore, the less the
population is satisfied with the offered range, quality and quantity
of goods.
The calculations in the cross-section of the 78 Russian
Federation subjects show, that none of the considered subjects
meets all the criteria of effectiveness. Moreover, there is some
significant differentiation of the subjects in certain categories
(Figures 1, 2). One subject meets all but one criteria.
95
0.2
0.18
0.16
Level of selling costs in 2011
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0
-0.02
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Dynamics of selling costs level
the Russian Federation subjects (section D Processing industry)
the Russian Federation subjects (section G Wholesale and retail trade,
maintenance of motor vehicles, motorbikes, household goods and personal
appliances)
The size of the ball shows the ratio among the number of sole
proprietors, enterprises of trade and processing industry (the larger the
ball the more enterprises and sole proprietors in trade per enterprise of
processing industry)
Figure 1 – Level of selling costs, in shares
0.12
The consumer price index is lower than the average Russian
level and the manufacturer price index, the turnover both in
wholesale and retail parts is accelerating, the level of costs is going
down both in processing industry and retail only in the Ryazan
Region.
108.
107.
Consumer price index
106.
105.
104.
103.
102.
-25.0
-20.0
-15.0
-10.0
-5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
Difference between the consumer price index and manufacturer price
index
the Russian Federation subjects
The size of the ball shows the ratio among the number of sole
proprietors, enterprises of trade and processing industry (the larger
the ball the more enterprises and sole proprietors in trade per
enterprise of processing industry)
Figure 2 – Consumer price index
and manufacturer price index in 2011
98
20.0
Further research aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of
product distribution will make it possible to determine the optimal
values of consumer market development, which should be aimed
at, letting accelerate reproduction processes and improve the
effectiveness of the economy in general.
References
1. Kuratova E.S. Methodology of Economic Evaluation of
Product Distribution Processes for the Purposes of Improving Spatial
Organization of Transport: Author’s Abstract of Doctor of Economics,
М. – 2010, 48p.
2. Khalyn V.G. Logictic Restructuring of Regional
Distribution Centres in the System of Product distribution (by the
Example of the Southern Federal District): Author’s Abstract of
Candidate of Economics, Rostov-on-Don – 2011, 26p.
3. Boiko D.A. Improving Logistic Management of Product
Distribution Process of Grain and Cereals: Author’s Abstract of
Candidate of Economics, Rostov-on-Don – 2013-26p.
4. Zinnatullin А.А. Organizing Product Distribution in the
Regional Market of Food Products: Author’s Abstract of Candidate of
Economics, Izhevsk - 2005, 18p.
5. Kuzmicheva М.B. Logistic Support of Restructuring
Product Distribution in the Russian Meat Market: Author’s Abstract of
Candidate of Economics, М. – 2006, 24p.
99
ANALYSIS OF CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE CHANGE
IN PRICE FOR EXPORT-IMPORT GOODS
Dametken Turekulova
Makhabbat Zhamkeyeva
Kazakh university of economy, finance and international trade
Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan
Estimating position in the Kazakhstan market of oil and oil
products, first of all we will note that only 5% of oil are realized in the
domestic market, practically all oil made in the Republic of Kazakhstan
leaves for export of 95%. Design capacity of domestic oil refineries
doesn't allow to make oil products in volumes necessary for a covering
of domestic market, oil refining of the Republic of Kazakhstan is
limited to oil and gas separation (without further use of petrochemical
raw materials). Owing to this fact, the shortcoming practically all
products of oil processing, gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene is closed by
means of attraction of additional resources at the expense of import.
Therefore the main volume of oil is exported and delivered by fuel
option that testifies to an obvious raw orientation of economy of the
Republic of Kazakhstan. That fact is important that technical
characteristics of pipelines don't allow to use domestic oil as raw
materials. The Pavlodar plant completely, Shymkent - more than a half
of production of the oil products takes from the Siberian crude oil
which is transported here on the uniform oil pipeline.
Thereby, the market of fuel and energy resources is characterized
on the one hand by existence in prosperity of oil crude which main part
is exported in a type of an insufficient horsepower of available oil
refineries which in turn owing to technical properties, import oil crude
of Russia. Existence of some imbalance which is expressed in an
insufficient covering of the internal requirements for oil products,
generally gasoline, leads to destabilization of a price situation in the
domestic market, partly completely dependent on the offer from the
outside and regulated at the moment the state measures.
Further for the purpose of definition of existence of interrelations
between the prices of the strategic goods of a foreign trade turnover
presented in the market of fuel and energy resources,
проанализирована dynamics of the world prices and the single cost of
100
export deliveries and import revenues to the corresponding production
for 2010 and decrease in 2011.
Price changes on all presented range of production of fuel and
energy resources have interrelation, thus as the main catalyst of these
changes the world price situation in the market of fuel and energy
resources which has volatile character as on oil, and gas) acts. Change
of the world price for oil (Brent) in 2012 towards increase led to
increase in single cost of export deliveries and import receipts of oil
and oil products in the crude and processed look. Similar to change of
the world price for gas in 2008 towards increase led to increase in
single cost of export deliveries and import receipts of gas. Thus we will
note characteristic for all commodity positions price increase in 2010
and decrease in 2011.
Throughout the analyzed period obviously essential influence of
the world price on oil crude on the main indikator of foreign trade of
the Republic of Kazakhstan. Such indicators as, the volume of a foreign
trade turnover, export, import in terms of money, the export and world
price for oil crude are interconnected. And the interrelation is proved by
influence of the world price on the export price of oil, forming the main
volume of export, and as a result a foreign trade turnover in terms of
money the Republic of Kazakhstan as a whole.
For this reason the comparative analysis of interrelation of the
world prices and export price of oil (single cost of export deliveries),
and also the prices in domestic market and import price of oil crude (the
single cost of import receipts) and oil processing products for 20082012 further is submitted. in value terms and on the basis of chain
annual rate of a gain. Thus we will note the special importance of the
world price for a grade of a mix of Brent by means of which there is a
transfer pricing of 65% of the transactions which are carried out at
purchase and sale of oil in the world. Brent, being a reference grade,
sets a tendency of the world price for oil and it is most widespread
when carrying out the analysis of the prices on the oil market.
Calculation of export cost of the Kazakhstan oil is based on quotations
of grades: Brent dtd (North Sea dated), Urals (REBKO), taking into
account the size of the differential representing total size of all
expenses, incurred during the transporting, delivery, an insurance and
energy resource realization to the buyer per 1 barrel or ton. Also we
will note, important aspect in determination of the export price of the
101
Kazakhstan oil of norms of legislative regulation, existence/lack of
export duties on an energy resource and the amount of insurance
payments.
Thus, the major factors influencing the prices in the world
market on oil, are:
- consumption level of oil and oil products during the concrete
period of time, quantity of the energy resource presented in the market
which depends first, on a situation in the United States of America,
guaranteeing a dominant from universal consumption of oil. Secondly,
the situation in the Asian countries (China, India), promptly developing
and forming strategic reserves by means of energy carriers is important.
In the third, a situation in the Middle East who are main suppliers of oil
in the United States of America.
- situation in the financial markets, that many investors preferred
to convert the capitals in the financial instruments connected with the
market of energy carriers, for example as future contracts on oil.
- the dollar exchange rate of the United States of America in
many respects connected with formation of the national budget of the
countries – exporters of oil. At a dollar depreciation of the USA the
income of these countries while the considerable part of import and
operating costs is paid in US dollars decrease.
Among the major factors influencing the prices in domestic
market on oil and oil products, we will note such, as:
- fluctuation of the world prices for oil and the oil products,
creating unstable, difficult predicted a price situation on raw materials
which negatively affects as a whole production of oil products, being
the main components of prime cost. Also we will note that price growth
on oil crude accompanies the crisis phenomena in economy, leading to
growth of inflation which leads to growth of tariffs on all services
(municipal, transport, etc.) that in turn affects production prime cost;
- growth of internal consumption of oil and oil products. Price of
oil and oil products, as well as the price of any other goods, is regulated
in full accordance with the supply and demand law. Consumption
growth at limitation of resources, including the insufficient power of
domestic oil refineries on processing of domestic oil, leads to excess of
demand over the offer therefore the price grows. Thus also we will note
that oil production including development of new already certain fields,
102
demands big investment investments which then are shifted in the form
of investment expectations to the oil price;
- the low competition in this market and high affiliation of the
market of production and realization of oil products. So, the market of
oil products in the republic still remains monopolized by such
companies as to "Petrokazakhstan", "KazMunaiGas" and "Helios"
which supervise more than 70% of domestic market. Thereby, Jointstock society "The KazMunaiGas national company indirectly
supervises all three oil refineries a number of the oil-extracting
companies.
- the trade conditions regulated at the state level (for example, the
Customs Union, World trade organization).
Estimating a price situation on gas, we will note that its
consumption is the perspective direction as at combustion of gas
substantial negative effects aren't observed, and also there is a sufficient
resource base. Questions of ecological regulation can promote a rise in
prices for gas in case of introduction of strict restrictions on emissions.
In this case the office of gas prices from oil, but already towards
increase of the gas prices at the expense of more favorable
characteristics of gas fuel is also possible. It already occurs to the
United States of America where ecological properties of gas stimulate
rapid growth of demand for it in power industry.
Change of the export price of natural gas in the Republic of
Kazakhstan also has a certain interrelation with the world price for oil
crude. Really, feature of exported domestic natural gas that for 90% it
is passing, i.e. with input of any restrictions on gas reception, in the
Republic of Kazakhstan will stop oil production. Gas placement in
domestic market in the conditions of existence of the big territory and
unevenly distributed insignificant population density is impossible
though measures for expansion of domestic market are undertaken and
works on gasification are conducted.
As a whole, among factors of influence on gas price in domestic
market we will note the following:
- Infrastructure, in particular lack of an extensive pipeline
network by means of which providing with population gas is possible.
Creation of a pipeline network in the territory of Kazakhstan demands
considerable financial investments.
103
- Insufficient demand from the population. By estimates in
Kazakhstan at present there is a volume of gas exceeding internal
requirement which in a type of technical characteristics much more
effectively to use as an energy resource. However, coal which in the
developed countries is used for a long time only in the production
purposes is at present used.
The factors influencing gas price in the world market are:
- Growing demand for gas from consumers on the household
purposes. So coal mining in the developed countries happens in small
quantity for a covering of production need for metall branch, when
melting metals high temperatures which gas can't give are necessary.
Gas in the form of an energy resource, is very demanded owing to
ecological characteristics, the relative price in comparison with other
energy resources, conveniences of use.
Infrastructure, in particular existence of the branched gas
pipeline, advanced technologies when using in a life, possibility of
individual control of consumption of gas.
Prices for goods of these branches have a certain interrelation
among themselves, but meanwhile, the main pricing goods is – oil. So,
in particular, the change in price for energy carriers in the shortest
terms is reflected in the prices of all branches of economy. How prices
of oil in the world change, there is a change in price of domestic
market. The carried-out analysis allows drawing a conclusion those
now internal factors, except a factor of state regulation, practically
having no impact on formation of export price of oil, crucial
importance is rendered by the world price and a condition of the world
market. Further taking into account reconstruction of operating oil
refineries which will allow to process the bigger volume of oil and
respectively to increase the volume of the offer of oil products in
domestic market, internal pricing factors by oil products, including
control from the state, will be defined fully by influence of market
laws.
In the market of metals the price situation is unstable and similar
to occurring processes in oil and gas branch, but taking into account
one specificity of this market. The prices of non-ferrous metals are
volatile in a type of unstable demand and variability of investment
appeal at world commodity exchanges. Demand for ferrous metal is
always stable, as is reflected in difference of the prices of non-ferrous
104
and ferrous metals – the prices of ferrous metals are steady against
market conditions.
In the food market pricing considers the whole set of the various
factors having considerable impact. Climatic conditions and the related
seasonal fluctuations belong to the most essential first of all. Secondly,
we will note output influence at which increase the offer exceeds
demand and the prices of foodstuff fall, in an opposite situation, at
decrease in output of the price on the contrary increase. In the third, the
total amount and structure of expenses for production of food
production which at an effective ratio with gained income result in
attractive profitability and finally are reflected in the prices.
As a whole following the results of analytical research, we will
note that growth of a foreign trade turnover of the Republic of
Kazakhstan, happens generally at the expense of export which increases
volume by means of positive dynamics of the prices of fuel and energy
resources, metals, the food, mainly in connection with rise in prices in
the world market on these goods.
THE ASSESSMENT OF CORPORATIONS LOAN CAPITALS:
METHODOLOGICAL ASPECT
E. V. VORONINA
Surgut State University KMAD – Yugra, city of Surgut, Russia,
ugine_v@mail.ru
Assessment of capital value is a necessary condition for the
formation of optimal structure for company’s funding sources. As for
business organization, the cost of capital is the costs, i.e. it expresses
the price that the company pays for its involvement in the various
sources of borrowing.
Componentwise assessment of the cost of borrowing capital is at
first glance more precise than the assessment of equity capital, because
interests and fees on borrowings are determined by the loan agreements
and contracts. At the same time, if the researchers are quite unanimous
in the relation to the assessment of "banking credit," then the
assessment of the "Bonds" source appears to ambiguous.
105
The cost of loan capital in the form of banking credit is assessed
by the formula [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.]:
kD = YD × (1 – t),
where kD – is the cost of loan capital pulled in the form of
banking credit; YD – interest rate for banking credit, %; t – income tax
rate, margins per unit.
If the borrower has additional costs connected with the
involvement of credit (loan), then the denominator is added to the
formula: the difference between the unit and the level of these costs. At
the same time, most researchers point out that while calculating the cost
of capital it is possible to neglect the indicator of concomitant attraction
expenses (issue costs), if their size is insignificant. However, specific
recommendations on the amount of the "significance" are not to be
found in the specialist literature. As a rule, the level of emission cost
does not exceed 3% of the output. So, for example, by the end of 2012
the level of additional costs associated with obtaining the loan of PLC
"Gazprom Neft", was 2.5%.
The cost of debt capital attracted by the issue of corporate bonds
is estimated based on the coupon percent rate, producing a sum of
periodic coupon payments. In comparison with with bank credit, the
value of this source is slightly higher because it carries a higher level of
credit risk. If the dynamics and fluctuations in interest rates on bank
loans are more or less defined and predictable, the value of bonds is
characterized by high volatility.
In general, the method of calculating the value of bonds looks
the same as for loans and credits:
kO = YO × (1 - t),
where kO - the cost of debt capital, introduced by means of bond
offerings; YO - coupon interest on bonds,%; t - the tax rate on margins
per unit.
To determine the value of a "Bond Issue" source V.V Kovalev
[1, p. 831] proposed to use two options of calculation:
1. A more precise option involves the determination of net profit
from the sale of bonds (the current market price of the asset Pm) on the
basis of indicators of the amounts paid to regular interest income for the
reference period, the number of base periods to maturity bonds, the face
value of the bond. The result is determined by the total return of the
106
bond. This indicator is sometimes referred to as the yield to maturity
and represents YTM (Yield to Maturity).
2. Approximate option involves finding the source of the
investigated source as follows:
kO = (M×kcr + (M - Sno)/n) / ((M + Sno)/2),
where kO - the cost of debt capital, introduced by means of bond
offerings; M - notional value of the bonds (the value of the loan); kcr coupon rate on the bonds; Sno - net profits from the placement of a
bond (loan); n - term loan.
Regardless of the options for calculating V.V Kovalev offered to
lead the result to after-tax basis by adjusting the tax shield - interests on
borrowings are adjusted by the tax rate on profits (the difference
between a unit and the income tax rate).
I. A Nikonova [2, p.39] suggested that the cost of bonds
servicing should be determined by their total income, which is
calculated by taking into account the costs associated with the issuance
and placement:
kO = (kcr × T + disc (-premium)) / P × Tn,
where kO - the cost of debt capital, introduced by means of bond
offerings; kcr - amount of coupon payments per year, T - maturity, in
years, P - the offering price equal to the notional value of bonds minus
«discount» (when placed at a discount ) or the sum of notional value
and bonus «premium» (when placed at a premium), taking into account
the cost of organizing production and distribution.
It is to agree with the U.V Semernina [6] that in the works of the
vast majority of scientists bonds are seen as a tool of the security papers
market, not the source of funding. In this connection, attention should
be paid to the work [7, p. 172-175] in which the features of definition
of the bonds value are considered according to their species - zerocoupon, ordinary and convertible.
At basis for determining the market value of capital represented
by the zero-coupon bonds, the authors of this work offer to find the
internal rate of return for the cash flow on the above bonds: the
resulting flow of loan capital flow formed by the repayment of the
bonds at face value [7, p. 173]:
107
𝑛
100
IRR = √𝑃 ,
𝑚𝑜
where n - the degree of the number of years to maturity bonds;
Pmo - the market value of the bond (the percentage of the face value).
It is true that ordinary coupon bonds include three types of cash
flows for the Issuer [7, p. 173-174]
 cash flow associated with obtaining debt capital;
 cash flow formed maturing bonds at face value;
 annuity payments educated coupons.
Accordingly, the value of this source is more difficult than the
zero-coupon bonds:
The market rate bonds - Coupon × A number of years to
maturity;
IRR = IRR - 100 / (1 + IRR) Number of years to maturity = 0
Obviously, the solution of these equations is only possible when
using special software, for example, means of Microsoft Excel.
The valuation of convertible debt is carried out in the following
sequence [7, p. 174-175]:
 determine the market price of the parity number of shares to
maturity date of convertible bonds;
 conclude whether the investor will repay the bond or exchange
it for shares;
 adjust cash flows and find the IRR.
From our point of view, to the valuation of bond borrowing
corporations in terms of the formation of an optimal capital structure
cannot be treated in isolation, hoping to yield individual financial
instruments. Therefore, we propose to evaluate the source of "bonded
loans" to use an approach similar to the estimated yield bond portfolios,
in particular, presented in [8, p. 44-45].
The weighted-average of the bond portfolio yield is given by:
Ysrp = Σ di × Yi,
where Ysrp - the average yield of the bond portfolio of the
issuing corporation; di - the proportion of the market value of the i-th
bond in the portfolio of the issuer (the ratio of the market value of the
bond to the market value of the portfolio); Yi - returns the i-th bond.
Despite the information content and simplicity of calculation by
this method, this approach allows to consider only one factor that
108
influences the price of corporate capital attracted in the form of bonds –
it is the yield to maturity. Such parameters of borrowings as maturity
bonds, coupon yield and type of bond remained uncovered in the
calculation.
Accordingly, basing on the portfolio approach it is proposed to
use the internal rate of return of the bond portfolio for estimating the
cost of capital.
The internal rate of return of the bond portfolio is the interest rate
at which the present value of the cash flow from a portfolio coincides
with the market value of the portfolio. On this basis, the internal rate of
return of the bond portfolio IRR must satisfy the equation:
Ppo = ΣCFi / (1 + IRR)n
where Ppo - the market value of the bond portfolio of the
corporation-issuer; CFi –the issuer’s cash flow on a portfolio of bonds;
IRR - internal rate of return of the bond portfolio; n - the number of
coupon payments until maturity.
Needed to notice, that the adjustment of the tax shield in this case
should be implied only on the cash-educated coupon (mostly, it’s about
the form of annuity on corporate securities).
Based on the above, the choice of methodology for assessment
corporation capital borrowings represented by bonds has a significant
impact on the costs associated with its service, and as a result, the
efficiency of financial decision-making with regard to debt financing.
Literature
1. Kovalev V.V Financial management: theory and practice / V.
Kovalev. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - Moscow: Prospect, 2010. - 1024 p.
2 Nikonova I.A, Business Financing / I.A Nikonova. - Moscow:
Alpina Publisher, 2003. - 197 p.
3. Cheng F. Lee Business Finances: Theory, Methods and
Practice / F. Lee Cheng, Joseph E. Finnerty, trans. from English. Moscow: INFRA-M, 2000. - XVIII, 686 p.
4. Bocharov V.V Corporate Finances / V. Bocharov. - St.
Petersburg.: Peter, 2001. - 256 p.
5. Ross S. Fundamentals of corporate finances / S. Ross, R.
Westerfield, B. Jordan, trans. from English. under the total. Ed. Y.
Shlenova. - Moscow: Laboratory of Basic Knowledge, 2000. - 720 p.
109
6. Semernina Y. Theory and Methodology of bond financing
businesses in the Russian securities market. Abstract of Thesis ..
Doctor. Economics. Science. - Saratov, 2012. – 36 p.
7. Lobanova E. N Corporate Financial Management / M.A
Limitovsky, E.N Lobanova, V.B Minassian, V.P Palamarchuck. Moscow: Publishing Yurayt, 2012. - 990 p.
8. Encyclopedia of financial risk management / ed. A.A
Lobanov, and A. Chugunova. - 3rd ed. - M: Alpina Business Books,
2007. – 878 p.
SECTION 6. Philosophy of Science
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY
OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: AS RATIONALIZATION
E. V. Fidchenko
Moscow State Pedagogical University, Moscow, Russia,
e-mail: fev.08@mail.ru
Modern communication strategies are of interest to a number of
areas and sectors of society, culture and technology: from philosophy
and politics to economics and technics. Our time - this time of
communication, and our culture - a communicative culture. We live in
an information environment completely, which is different thematic
concentration and enormous technical transparency [3; p. 91], but our
social and cultural existence is thus potentially more regulated and
orderly.
It describes how the style life of modern man and culture of his
thinking. Human experience historically transformed, changed its
socio-cultural contexts, but the culture of rational thinking still remains
an integral component of the modern civilized social order [7; p.520].
Communicative rationality is the basis of strategic thinking,
which, to the functionality and success of the socio-cultural
(communicative) actions is not only consistent study of the
communication object, but also a step by step study of the target
110
audience, as well as action planning, forming a chain objectives,
moving along which and represents the logic of rationalization through
the actualization of funds.
Each strategy is a rational set of planned and implemented
actions, aimed not just at the optimum, but maximum results. The
criteria for the degree of efficiency of the developed and implemented
strategies are allocated in accordance with the scope of its application.
According to Popper, science for this criterion can be a "her
falsifiability, refutability, or testability" [6; p.245]. This position is very
close supporters to strengthen the role of communities and, in general,
members of critically rational way of thinking.
For the economic sector, the criterion should certainly take a
profit. Given the unprecedented high for the Newest time-capitalized
categories of science and areas of human activity, it should be noted,
that the above criterion is fully synchronized with the criterion of other
sectors of social and cultural activities of the people. Very convincing
about it speaks of the information society theorist F. Webster, believing
that "in the information sphere of cultural capital (for example: higher
education, access to libraries and command of the language) could be
crucial" [10; p.213]. That is, the selection criterion of subjectivity
synchronized us (and socially, and in the objective existence) of
capitalized societal choice.
In the socio-cultural environment is accompanied by a selection
of called criterion and more value component that varies depending on
the interpretation and context. Very true when it looks like the notion
that the history of rationality, "is a history of change and metaphysical
foundations of culture" [6; p.520].
Rational, according to Weber, is able to take into account the
irrational state when goal-oriented rational behavior is guided by an
absolute value, the process of which is unconditional become "selfsufficient value behavior as such (pure persuasion, beauty, absolute
good, the absolute performance of his duty)" [9; p. 629]. It's quite
accurate and timely observation, about the actual state of human
existence - where everyday is not placed boundary markers with the
words "rational" and "irrational," but, nevertheless, a rational direction
for our thinking, social structure and culture of the beginning, and
specifically clearly defined.
111
Utmost importance to the application of situational
communication strategy is also given to synchronize the activities of
the communicants. Consistency of action, it would seem, has long been
familiar to us - it really is an unprecedented phenomenon of culture, the
work of the set adopted at different times of the conventions in action,
only consistent, rational work that we, in small steps, in fact, we carry
out every day. Desynchronization is a violation of rational rules of the
game - and, consequently, destructive process in relation to
communication, and in a very wide range: from interference in the
technical and technological properties of a real threat to the process of
information exchange and implementation of socio-cultural strategies.
Communicative action as those strategic steps that we daily
commit, facilitate gradual transformation ability to communicate in
social and cultural skills. In the event that communication strategy is
constructive, it entails a stabilization in the rational management of
communicative resources and ordering, in general, the social sector
faces the space-time continuum. Obviously, in the most communicative
strategies laid 'gene' progress, which not only affects the culture, but is
fixed in it.
Rationality as a strategy, however, has significant functional
risks. More R. Descartes argued the need for proper management of
functional application, for "not enough to just have a good mind
(esprit), but the main thing - it's good to use it" [2; p.250-251].
Communication strategies today focus on functionality, on the
understanding as a resource as already familiar, previously capitalized,
mainly material categories (for example: finance, natural resources,
etc.) and not quite well-known in this capacity - to a certain extent, is
directly not capitalized - not so much physical, social, and even how
ontological categories (for example: social resources, human capital,
etc.). It is in this sense we are not moving away from the understanding
of the information capitalized categories and spheres, it is the process
of a rational scale development of both objective and subjective and
social reality, is the newest cultural transformation.
Her goal-oriented rational fully supported by a communications
resource, itself with communication takes three meanings: 1)
understand how to strategically control the basic linguistic and other,
amenable to linguistic encoding, resources; 2) employed as an
information technology progress and 3) analyzed the total goal-oriented
112
rational methodology of the "information society". In accordance with
the presented meanings, she characterized the basic principles,
governing the process as efficient as possible rationalization.
First, it is the principle of extrapolation. It involves the
polarization relative priority of analysis: the recipient/sender, the
communication object/subject of communication, etc. The advantage of
this principle - dichotomous rationalization by which lined the verge of
communication and information field is formed. Structural modeling of
the information field also occurs by means of the principle of
extrapolation. A special case of the implementation of this principle can
be regarded as algorithmic. Construction of logic algorithm involves
motion in diametrically opposite, polar directions depending on the
selected strategy. This approach is rational, it works in both cases with
the socio-humanitarian and natural science models of communication.
The uniqueness of the direction and the result are the main advantages
of the algorithmic way.
Second, it is the principle of expediency. It provides a local
presence, turn-based communication purposes, as well as evolving on
their smooth implementation of the overall objective setting. Under the
expediency can understand integral communicative project, carrying
out the effective implementation of the plan and at the same time
suggesting the transfer of an informative message about the fact of the
presence of this meta-action. In particular, the expediency can be
realized, for example, through the phenomenon of information content.
In the process of studying the market, this phenomenon is realized in
promotions of, the success of which depends entirely on the wellcrafted plan. Must be clear not only that you are promoting on the
market, but to whom, what the target audience is addressed to the
product. Emerging risks represent a competitive environment that needs
to be overcome by making your product special, not like anything on
the thread consumed counterparts. Inform the consumer, according to
this position, it should be in the form of an invitation to participate in
the joint project with them mutually beneficial.
And third, it is the principle of functionality. He is working
qualities of the realized project, its effectiveness is measured on all
possible scales: from capitalized profitability of the program to the
value-oriented systems for public utility. Functionality - this is the most
pragmatic of the proposed principles for goal-oriented rational analysis
113
of the communicative approach, it is associated with the rational
organization and, most importantly, the implementation of the process,
not only in the instrumental phase, but also to qualify the installation
level conceptualization of the research project.
The best way this principle is seen in the application
implementation. Such may be, for example, success, as the positivist of
strategic indicators measured in practice. Materially, this income and
status, and professional rating. But success is at once the most
subjective of the estimated parameters of assessment this activity. In
particular, it is of value judgments partners to provide a picture of
competence and professional reputation. And they, in turn, affect the
above-mentioned rating and status. Also, do not forget about reflection
and self-motivation of the author / authors of the strategy, as well as the
possibility to exercise his / their personal and / or corporate growth both
in the vertical and in the horizontal system project.
Criticism of the functionalist approach to the socio-cultural unit
of society historically has been very extensive, from accusations of lack
of evaluation of the role of labor and capital to the post-modern
facilities complete rejection of methodological principles. Objections
functionalist also numerous and in many ways, are reasonable. Here
you can talk about the utter de-synchronization, and the absence of a
constructive approach to the understanding of the essence of the
strategy and of ascertaining as genuine arguments judgments about
different subjects and different contexts.
An example of such misunderstandings can serve as a colorful
statement H.M. McLuhan, who said that "So far, culture mechanically
predetermined the fate of human societies, as is an automatic
internalization of their own technology" [5; p.114]. But in fact the
problem of analysis of cultural contexts, as a rule, is that the
contradictions expressed concern mainly irrational things, and the
specificity of our thinking is that it requires a communicative
rationality. And it is appropriate to re-appeal to Descartes, who
proposed a remarkable conventional "recipe" on the functional risk.
"The difference between our opinions, - he wrote - is not what the other
one is wiser, but only on the fact that we are sending our thoughts in
different ways and do not consider the same things" [2; p.250-251]. It is
about the legitimate differences, of distinguishing between the
114
trajectories of thought. And yet these ways - are rational, and their
rationality is not quantitative, but qualitative dimension.
The value of communication strategies for the social and cultural
fabric of society is difficult to overestimate. Quite a heated debate
about what type of socio-cultural order of the most relevant today is
directly related to the consideration of approaches to the "information
society" and the "knowledge society" as a competing design formats. In
my opinion, the "information society" is far from being exhausted itself
in some aspects of the study, for example, in the areas of information
distribution and information security, almost everything is in the
starting state.
We communicate is not chaotic, and the exchange of information
- is rationally organized process. Communication as a strategy
characterized by two priority functions: informative and social. The
transition to an information type of social functioning - this is actually
ontologize cultural shift cycles. We live in the information
environment, it acts and cultural context of our thinking, and
meaningful object of our business, professional and everyday
communication.
J. Habermas, in particular, shows the existence of 4-spheres of
human activity (agriculture, goods-producing industries, trade,
transportation and service industries, sector and knowledge-based),
focusing most of their attention on the last of them. Sector, based on
knowledge - it is for him, "<...> high-tech industries and health care,
banking and management", which depend on new information, and, in
the long run - from scientific research and technological innovation [4;
p.211]. Here, unlike the previous 3-spheres of human activity, clearly
defined the basic principles of paradigmatic symbol itself "knowledge
society", he began.
It seems to me that the "knowledge society" - this is a
civilizational transition, the formation of a new "tradition" - regarded
the information as knowledge. For such a transition to radically change
not only value judgments, but also the contexts of social life, as
spiritual beings with respect, and with respect to material things. The
value of knowledge as such - it's not just a nice idea, it should be a
basic element of self-identification and development of the society. The
capitalization of such value shall be equivalent material, and it should
not be perceived as a vulgarization, but only as correspondence of ideas
115
and their practical application in the work. Consequently, the dimension
of the functional manifestations of capitalization and communication
strategy is able to be adjusted conceptual way to categorical level. In
this case, the objection is neutralized by D. Bell of excessive
rationalization, scientistic way leading to technocracy society [1; p.
362].
Functionality, in turn, should not "off-scale", but only as a
rational meet the need for public use, taking into account futurological
prospects. The fact that the "knowledge society" is a new level of
rational culture of social existence, and indicates the position of A.
Toffler. His opinion on the information in a "knowledge society" boils
down to the fact that for her, "for the most part, are characterized by
concentration" [8; p.105]. That is, there is a strengthening of the
categorical status information, which is a basic element of control
rationally related processes.
The concept of knowledge in this type of socio-cultural structure
of the society can not be limited vision in it capitalized category. For
the "knowledge society" basic category should be self-organizing,
synergistic unit to the real motivating creativity in the production of
innovation moving forward not only a posteriori, but a priori that meets
not only the needs of the society of those "here, and now, and by all
means," but its potential prejudice to the trajectory, the vector of the
future progress of human civilization.
Valuable understanding of information as knowledge, it is not
only a manifestation of intelligence, common sense in the socio-cultural
being, communication and everyday life, but also a manifestation of the
strategic mind.
References:
1. Bell D. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social
Forecasting. - N.Y.: Basic Books, 1973.
2. Descartes R. Works in 2 vols. V. 1. - M: Mysl', 1989.
3. Fidchenko E.V. Distribution of information: on question about
communicative methodology //Etnosotsium and inter-ethnic culture,
2011. – Number 9 (41). P. 91-94.
4. Habermas J. The political work. - Moscow: Praxis, 2005.
5. McLuhan M. Gutenberg Galaxy: The World of print culture. - Kiev:
Nicka-Center, 2004.
116
6. Popper K. Logic of Scientific Discovery. - Moscow: Progress
Publishers, 1983.
7. Sukhodub TD Rationality in the philosophical tradition and modern
culture: the problem of rootlessness / / Postneklassika: philosophy,
science, culture / ed. LP Kiyaschenko and VS Stepin. St. Petersburg.:
Publishing house "Mirъ", 2009. P. 519-538.
8. Toffler A. The Third Wave. - Moscow: AST, 2004.
9. Weber M. Selected Works. - Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1990.
10. Webster F. Theories of the Information Society. - Moscow: Aspect
Press, 2004.
SECTION 7. Philology
LEXICAL UNITS DENOTING A HORSE
IN BRITISH LITERATURE
Ekaterina Gradaleva
Samara State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering,
Samara, Russia, e-mail: katerina-888@bk.ru
Language is a mirror that reflects the culture of a certain country:
its people with their history, habits and traditions. Language is the
source that helps us to reveal the key values of a certain cultural
community and to understand the National Character.
Any native speaker is a bearer of a numerous number of
concepts. Some of them can be determined as Cultural Concepts. They
reflect the values and the world perception of a certain nation and at the
same time reproduce specific traits of an individual that are
predetermined by his cultural background.
When we analyse realization of a Cultural Concept in the
language, we get acquainted with some facets of national culture. In
this research a Horse has been chosen as the Cultural Concept that can
disclose some peculiarities of the British culture. The choice is
determined by the fact that a horse has always been significant for the
British on both levels: in their everyday life and in their mind. Since
117
antiquity it has been part of architecture and various traditions, it has
appeared in folklore, literature, toponymy and phraseology. In each
sphere of the English language it has its special symbolic meaning
which makes it possible to understand the worldview of nativespeakers.
The image of a horse appears in miscellaneous contexts in the
works of the majority of British writers. In the process of analysis the
realization of the lexical unit “horse” and its synonyms was studied in
95 texts of XVII-XX centuries. Approximately 2000 examples of
contextual usage of the mentioned lexical units were singled out.
In the English language there are 32 lexical units denoting a
horse: horse, bronco, charger, cob, colt, courser, dobbin, equine, filly,
foal, gee-gee, gelding, hack, hinny, hunter, jade, mare, mount, mule,
mustang, nag, palfrey, piebald, pony, punch, racer, roadster, roan,
skewbald, stallion, steed, stud (as stated in dictionaries). Only 14 of
them are regularly used in British literature. The frequency of their
usage is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Lexical Units Denoting a Horse in British Literature
LEXICAL UNIT
%
HORSE
80.8
JADE
6.1
MULE
4.3
MARE
3.1
STEED
1.4
COLT
1.1
PONY
0.6
STALLION
0.6
FILLY
0.6
FOAL
0.5
PALFREY
0.3
CHARGER
0.2
COB
0.2
NAG
0.2
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The concept of “horse” arises in 6 types of context. In 47% of the
situations it characterizes people: their mental state, character and
appearance. Social relations are shown in approximately 11% of
examples, political ideas in 5% and philosophical ideas in 6%. That can
be amazing but the image of a horse is found much more often in the
descriptions of the objects of civilization (accounts for 21%) than in the
descriptions of nature (makes up 10%). It leads us to the conclusion that
a horse is viewed by the British more as a cultural phenomenon than a
natural one. The table below represents the types of context in which
the lexical unit “horse” and its synonyms are used in British literature.
Table 2. The concept of “horse” in Various Types of Context
TYPES OF CONTEXT
%
People
47
- mental state
20
- character
19
- appearance
8
Social relations
11
Political ideas
5
Philosophical ideas
6
Objects of civilization
21
Nature
10
As it can be seen from the table, in the majority of situations a
horse is used to characterize people. This animal has always been close
to human beings: in the past it helped in the fields and was used as the
means of transport, since ancient times it has been the best friend of a
person and it’s not surprising that people compare the characteristics of
the others with the ones of a horse.
Various traits of character are often delineated through the
qualities of a horse. Speaking of a strong man, A.C. Doyle compares
him with a cart-horse: This fellow is a perfect savage, as strong as a
cart-horse and as fierce as the devil. Not only does the image of a horse
appear in the descriptions of strong men, but also strong women: the
woman stood five feet ten in her shoes and was as strong as a horse (J.
Conrad). A horse also turns out to be the symbol of diligence. It is
shown in the book “Hard Times” by Ch. Dickens when a hard-working
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character says that he is “a Mule”: I am as bad as you in that respect;
and I am a Mule too, which you're not. If father was determined to
make me either a Prig or a Mule, and I am not a Prig, why, it stands to
reason, I must be a Mule. In this context the word “Mule” is endowed
with negative connotation because the context provides it with the
meaning “workaholic”. The word “mule” bears negative connotation in
the majority of situations. It is explained by the fact that a mule, as a
combination of a horse and a donkey, has taken the largest number of
characteristics from a donkey and not from a horse, which is considered
to be an animal with positive qualities. In the following example the
lexical unit “mule” is used in the metaphorical epithet to show how
stupid the person is: I ask you, am I responsible if a mule-headed friend
sends him back in such a manner as to disturb the peace of mind of a
regiment of Her Majesty’s Cavalry? (R. Kipling). The word “horse”, on
the contrary, appears in the contexts that represent clever characters: It
isn't sentiment but it's horse sense (H.G. Wells). The expression “horse
sense” means ordinary practical knowledge of the best way to deal with
people and situations.
Next, the image of a horse discloses the mental state of
characters. A scared person is often compared with a frightened horse
or colt: You rear like a frightened colt, because I use a word to which
your Christianity ascribes a deprecatory meaning (S. Maugham).
Nothing is really able to express strong feelings of indignation but the
image of a hard-held horse: Our Sahib answered to those false words as
a horse of blood answers to the spur (R. Kipling). Another example
shows that the image of a warhorse can help to create a humorous
description of a person in anger: Gazing, he remembered Lady
Dunstane saying of her once, that in anger she had the nostrils of a
war-horse (G. Meredith).
In addition to all those contexts in which mental state and
different traits of character are described there is the group of
expressions depicting appearance. The word “horse” is frequently used
to portray beautiful and elegant people: I had a coat that Weston has
never equaled. To say that it fitted me is not to express it. It was on me
– like the hide on a horse (A.C. Doyle). In contrast, the lexical unit
“mule” has negative connotation: But the Colonel said that he must go,
and he was replaced by a washy, bay beast, as ugly as a mule (R.
Kipling).
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The image of a horse also appears in the context of social
relations. For instance, it reflects love and desire to be close to each
other: How she loved to listen when he thought only the horse could
hear (D.H. Lawrence). A horse also symbolizes devotion: You see, Sir
John, we stayed for you, as one horse does for another (J. Swift). The
simile either demonstrates friendly relations between the characters, or
does it show the relations between horses. In this regard, their devotion
to each other bears testimony that a horse is a noble creature.
Furthermore, British writers turn to the image of a Horse in order
to personify the objects of civilization: Amongst her companions
moored to the bank, and all bigger than herself, that ship looked like a
creature of high breed - an Arab steed in a string of cart-horses (J.
Conrad). Personification is achieved both by lexical and grammatical
means. First, the words “companions” and “creature” do not normally
denote objects but people and animals only. Secondly, the pronouns
“her” and “herself” are used instead of “its”, “it” which is a
contradiction to grammatical norms. Ultimately, the ships are turned
into the living beings by means of the following juxtaposition: a
splendid ship – an Arab steed; ordinary ships – cart-horses.
Finally, a horse is one of the finest images to create the most
extraordinary pictures of nature: Vehement breath of waters amid
seasnakes, rearing horses, rocks. In cups of rocks it slops: flop, slop,
slap (J.Joyce). The waves at sea are compared with rearing horses. This
metaphor is not a unique association of the author, it is common for all
British people for they are used to the notion white horses which means
waves at sea with white tops.
Analysing the cultural concept “Horse” in each epoch separately
(XVII-XX cent.) we can see that the context in which the concept
“horse” acquires particular metaphorical meaning depends on the
literary period.
The image of a horse can be observed in the philosophical
conceptions of the book characters as philosophical ideas penetrate the
literature of the Age of the Enlightenment: I soon after produced
another work, entitled, The Trojan Horse. This was an allegorical
work, in which the church was introduced into the world in the same
manner as that machine had been into Troy. The priests were the
soldiers in its belly, and the heathen superstition the city to be
destroyed by them (H.Fielding).
121
The words denoting a horse are frequently used in the
descriptions of the mental state of characters in Sentimental literature. It
is explained by the fact that representation of the inner world of a
person was the central aspect in the books of this literary epoch: There
is not time for a man to be sick in it, replied he - What a cursed lyar!
for I am sick as a horse (L.Sterne).
Speed and strength were of primary importance in the epoch of
Romanticism: Leicester was spurred to emulation by the success of the
young courtier's exhibition, as the veteran racer is roused when a highmettled colt passes him on the way (W.Scott). Later, in the period of
Realism, such qualities of a horse as wisdom and nobility were brought
to the forefront: Nothing is nobler than a horse (J.Galsworthy); or It
was a clever, well-bred pony (W.M. Thackeray).
In the works of realists a horse often appears in a political
context. That’s not surprising as many books of this period are filled
with political ideas: I had rather be an English horse or ass, than on
these terms a Scot, to square my will by their inscribed conditions
(A.Ch. Swinburne).
Time flows, nothing stays the same forever, and there is no such
generation that is just the same as the previous one. No wonder, then,
that the image of a horse is treated differently in each epoch. And
literature is the best source to reflect the changes of the world
perception throughout centuries.
To sum it up, a horse has always been a significant image in the
British culture and it is disclosed in a wide range of contexts: in the
descriptions of nature, objects of civilization, social relations, political
ideas, philosophical ideas and people (their character, mental state and
appearance). The image of a horse comprises such associations as
strength, speed, diligence, wisdom, grace, love, devotion. A mule, on
the contrary, bears negative characteristics (stupidity and ugliness).
The descriptions of the objects of civilization dominate the descriptions
of nature and it leads to the conclusion that a horse is viewed by the
British more as a cultural phenomenon than a natural one.
122
PRESENTATION FEATURES OF THE SUBJECT –
THE PROPER NAME
IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN PROVERBS
L.V. Grichenko
Russian Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia,
rgrichenko@yandex.ru
Numerous works of domestic and foreign scientists have been
devoted to the description of the representation means of a person
functioning in a sentence as a subject of speech or action, as a subjectsubject, a subject- definition or a subject-object (N. Arutunova, G.
Frege, R. Carnapa, J. Mill, G. Zolotova, V. Vinogradova, E. Paducheva,
N. Onipenko etc.). These works are aimed at defining nominative and
referential language of these units, their semantic, communicative and
functional, stylistic and linguocultural potential.
However, the task of identifying the national specific character
and universality of the representation of the subject in proverbs requires
further study. Relevance of the chosen subject is determined, in our
opinion, not only by the central role of the subject and the predicate in a
sentence: "the statement establishes a link between the human world
and thinking about the world. It unites the heterogeneous objects: the
subject - a representative of a person ... The task of the subject is to
identify the subject of speech, the task of the predicate is to indicate the
signs which are important for the purposes of communication" [2,
p.120]. But it is also determined by the nature of proverbial sayings,
insufficient state of knowledge of the subjects-proper names in the
proverbs. Of particular relevance to this issue is the aspect of crosscultural study of proper names, subjects, which demonstrate the
national specific character and universality of representation, use and
function.
As they happen to be not the most frequently used means of
naming the subject in proverbs in both languages, proper names,
however, are the elements of the content, which manifest both national
identity and the universality of the languages, proverbs pools and
linguistic cultures. Referring in this study to the dictionary "English
proverbs and their Russian equivalents" [6] and "Proverbs of the
Russian people" [4], we discovered the versatility and country-specific
123
representation of subjects-proper names directly linked to the cognitive
and linguistic cultural perceptions of both nations and cultures.
The undertaken analysis suggests with a certain degree of
confidence that the national identity of use and methods of subjectsproper names representation in Russian proverbs is, first, their more
frequent use compared with English language; secondly, the use of
diminutive forms of proper names, and third, a wide variety of proper
names (Ermak, Kasian, Zahar, Foma, Ilya, Ananya, Jacov, Marfa
Avdei, Sawa, Yegor, Matvey etc.): With nobody else around Foma is a
nobleman; Matvey is skinny, can’t feed his guests; Yarema, Yarema,
you’d better stay at home, sharpening your spindle (На безлюдье и
Фома дворянин [4, 1, p. 189]; Худ Матвей, не умеет потчевать
гостей [4, 1, p. 299]; Ерема, Ерема, сидел бы ты дома, да точил
веретена [4, Vol. 2, p. 12]). The above finds its direct confirmation in
the thesis of R. Brown and M. Ford, according to which “the frequency
degree of personal names is consistent with the well-known semantic
and psychological law. In language groups the degree of lexical
differentiation within a semantic field increases proportionally to the
importance of the field for a given community” [1, p. 238], as well as
in A.Vezhbitskaya, T.V. Larina’s opinions, etc. In this case, the focus
of the Russian linguistic culture on a more intimate contact, informal
communication, free expression of emotion and expression, shortening
the distance appears to be determined by language features and is fixed
in the lexis.
This tendency, in our opinion, is most distinctly reflected in
Russian proverbs with the use of diminutive forms of proper names
with suffixes of value judgment, which are characteristic of colloquial
and emotional speech. These forms can express both warm and
affectionate, and dismissive, depricative, and sometimes rude attitude:
Upon his will Fomushka could marry a widow; The priest won’t
deceive Fedor, and Fedor won’t tell the truth to the priest (Вольно
было Фомушке жениться на вдовушке [4, Vol. 3, p. 410]; Поп
Федьку не обманет, а Федька попу правды не скажет [4, Vol. 3, p.
31]). As it can be seen, diminutive forms of proper names in Russian
proverbs pool are characterized by the variety of semantics and
functions, which is directly related to the content of proverbs. As a rule,
they express axiologically marked (negative / positive), ironic attitude
to the person who gets in the relevant situation, that results in
124
ironically-patronizing or friendly attitude on the part of the speaker. A
feature of these sayings is, as a rule, the desire for rhythmic structure,
the use of multi-level repeats, including word-building, the formation of
contrast, etc.
In this case, the representation ways of axiological orientation of
a proper name in Russian language lies on the formation level both in
the system characteristics of the language, and in lingo culture where “a
style of interpersonal relationships prevailing in the society is reflected
in the use of names” [3, p. 47]. In this case, the national specific
character of English personal names is their relative stability within the
proverbial fund. According to A. Vezhbitskaya, the use of the
expressive word formation in Russian language is explained by the fact
that "In Russian cultural tradition, a crucial role is played by the degree
of intimacy of personal relationships ... The moral extremism of such
categorization of names, as well as its emotional intensity is very
typical of Russians ..." [3, p. 49-50]. The above is reflected in the pool
of Russian proverbs, reperesenting as a nationally-labeled
conventionally fixed linguistic cultural reflection of reality, and the
foundations of the nation.
The variety of proper names as well as the use of diminutive
forms is not typical of the English proverbs pool. Despite the fact that
the use of proper names, depending on the function in the sentence can
express the attitude to the 3rd person or the 2nd, or even 1st (using
proverbs in respect of the speaker himself), English linguistic culture
tries to avoid refering directly to a person by the name, which fully
corresponds with such English character traits as self-restraint, lack of
conflict and circumlocution. This fact is reflected directly in both the
English proverbs and English linguistic culture so that if a subjectproper noun is used then it should be a precedent name or as close to it
as possible in terms of semantics and / or functioning.
Thus, when dealing with rare examples of the subjects-proper
names use, in English proverbs one should mention, first of all, their
historical, biblical and cultural reference which undoubtedly determines
their precedent nature, and secondly, their conventionally fixed
associative and axiological marking. For example, the proverb: Arthur
himself had but his time [6, p. 39] dates back to the days of King Arthur
and ascertains the fact that even great men are mortal, and the proverb:
Carton waits for all [6, 71] is based on Greek mythology and the story
125
of Charon, the Carrier of dead souls across the river Styx to the realm
of the dead.
These examples suggest that to name a person in the English
proverb, we often have to deal with the precedent names (celebrities,
biblical, historical characters) who represent "a kind of complex
symbols, which when used in communication do not actually appeal to
the denotatum (... referent), but to the set of distinctive features of this
precedent name "[5, p.172], which also have certain fixed ethnic,
linguo-cultural associative and axiological background: Caeser's wife
must be beyond suspicion [6, p.74]; Bacchus has drowned more men
than Neptune [6, p.42].
Among the subjects-proper names, especially those frequent in
both linguistic cultures we can be define a group of names relating to
the precedent names Jack, Jill, Ivan, Vasiliy, Marfa. For example, a
popular English name Jack, is most often associated with a cheerful,
agile, cunning and roguish guy who often appears in English proverbs:
Jack is good as his master [6, p. 179]; Every Jack has his Jill [6, p.
106]. In its semantics and functioning, it is clearly related to the
precedent names.
The universality of both proverbial pools is, in this case, their
willingness to use their own subjects-proper names that have a strong
folk tradition: (Jack Frost, Spring-Heeled Jack, Jack-in-irons, Jack-alantern, Jack-with-a-lantern, Ivan the Fool). These names in both
linguistic cultures can fairly be included in the category of precedent
folk names, as they perform the functions of reference and symbolic
character and reflect the axiological conventionally-fixed idea about the
subject.
In our opinion, this situation is not only because of proverbs
belonging to small folk forms, but also due to the fact that the task of
proverbs is to introduce the subject which is the most familiar to the
representatives of each linguistic culture. In this case, the name of a
person (the subject) corresponds to a certain pattern of behavior,
character traits, axiological marking, which the representatives of the
nation look up to. Essential to the frequent use of names, approaching
in its semantics and operation to the precedent names is the fact that the
name itself does not carry information value. Using the person’s is not
the most important in this case, but the associative field, conventionally
fixed axiological marking, assessment, motivation, or the general
126
edification embodied in the proverb, applicable as the standard of
conduct by all representatives of the nation.
Furthermore, the versatility of subjects and proper names use in
both languages, in our opinion, lies generally infrequent application of
the proper names for naming the subject. This feature of the proverbial
pools of the two languages is due to two major trends of construction
and operation of the proverbial text - the desire for metaphor and
generalization at the same time.
Thus, the representation and function of subjects-proper names in
the proverbial pools of both languages demonstrates both versatility and
national identity, determined by language and linguo-cultural features
only. Not only the frequent use of subjects-proper names due to the
proverb’s desire for metaphor and generalization of the subject can be
seen as universal, but also the use of subjects-proper names, which
have a vast folk tradition. The use of diminutive forms of subjectsproper names and their great diversity is national-specific for Russian
language; for English language it is the application of precedent names.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
References
Brown R.W., Ford M. Address in American English // Language
in Culture and society. – New York, Harper and Row. – PP.234244.
Arutunova N. D. Language and a Human’s World. – Moscow.:
«Yazyki Russkoy Kultury», 1999. – 896 p.
Verzhebitskaya A. Language. Culture. Learning. Edited by M. A.
Krongauz. – Moscow.: Russkiye Slovari, 1997. – 416p.
Dal’ V. I. Proverbs of Russian People in 3 Volumes / V. I. Dal’.
– Moscow.: Russkaya Kniga, 1993. – 2070p.
Kraskyh V. V. “A “Native” among the “Strangers”: a Myth or
Truth?” – Moscow.: ITDGK “Gnosis”, 2003. – 375p.
Modestov V. S. English Proverbs and Sayings and Their Russian
Equivalents. – Moscow.: Russkiy Yazyk Media, 2007. – 467p.
127
MAIN TACTICS OF THE DEFENSE COUNSEL SPEECH
IN COURT
V. I. Kukovska
Chernivtsi Yu. Fedkovych National University, Chernivtsi City,
Ukraine, E-mail: vita354@rambler.ru
At the present stage of its development linguistics sees the
problem of speech interaction between different communicants as
belonging to those of paramount importance and highest topicality,
which is proved by a large number of works in the field of discourse
theory. The necessity of such research, as I. B. Morozova points out, is
motivated not only by purely linguistic needs of studying speech
communication in general, but is also determined by the practical needs
of applied linguistics to make verbal communication effective [3, p.
70]. A special place among the discourse studies is occupied by the
analysis of institutional communication. I. V. Stetsula, G. Kres, M.
Serio, I. Kowalewska et al. investigate the peculiarities of political
discourse; E. Hess-Lytich, R. Strilmann, G. M. Jaworska et al. – of
scientific discourse; A. Tsykurel and R. Wiedemann and others
concentrate on medical discourse; V. K. Babaev, D. Meyer, A. F.
Cherdantsev, L. Fuller dedicate their papers to legal discourse. It is
believed that the interpretation of discourse not only as a linguistic, but
also as a cultural and social phenomenon necessitates taking into
account both its national and linguistic characteristics.
The objective of the given paper consists in determining the basic
communication tactics of the defense counsel speech in the judicial
discourse in English.
Judicial discourse is known as a special kind of legal discourse of
a strong institutional nature. It is understood as “a verbal-sign
expression of the communication process during a trial, which is
analysed
in the socio-historical, national-cultural, and specific
situational context with a regard to the communicants’ personal
characteristics and intentions. At the same time, the goal of this process
is to solve a legal conflict and change the legal situation” [1, p.14]. In
her paper “Judicial Discourse: speech behavior of a judge” T. V.
Dubrovska states that judicial discourse can be considered a discourse
of some particular legal proceedings or their parts. The term itself can
also function as a general notion to encompass several discourses the
128
analysis of which can help to single out the typical characteristics and
general laws of the judicial communication structure [1]. She believes
that judicial discourse falls into a number of varieties depending on its
function and the language subject. The defense speech, in its turn, is
regarded as an integral part of judicial discourse.
The barrister’s speech is a sort of oratorical speech which is
defined as “a type of monological speech used in situations when the
speaker addresses a numerous audience with a purpose of persuasion”
[5, p. 176]. Therefore, it is peculiar to it, as to any other special type of
oratorical speech, to have an influence on the audience in terms of their
making the right verdict. In legal literature, the defense speech is
understood as a speech in the judicial debate which analyses the
evidence, reasons the charge and the qualification of the crime, and
gives the propositions as to the punitive measures, and other issues
relevant for the proper resolution of the case through the eyes of the
accused one [2, p. 43].
To make his communicative influence on the audience
successful, the defense counsel uses an argumentation strategy and
employs various types of tactics to discredit the position of the
opponent. According to I. I. Pirog, the realization of pragmatic
instructions through argumentation is considered a strategic process
that involves selecting certain arguments by the addresser, their
structuring in accordance with the selected argumentative tactics and
providing their language realization [4, p. 85]. The analysis of practical
linguistic material makes it possible to conclude that during the defense
process the barrister uses a variety of tactics and their forms, the most
productive of which are the tactics of prosecution witness discredit and
of prosecution evidence discredit.
As an example the defense speech by the attorney M. Feldman
in the case of abduction and murder of a child can be observed where
he employs the tactics of discrediting the evidence charges. Since the
prosecution has no direct evidence against his client, the barrister gives
his own interpretation of the circumstantial evidence, which is intended
to justify the defendant: «If there's two reasonable interpretations of
the evidence, here it is again. The case is entirely circumstantial. The
prosecution is obligated to try and find some interpretation of the
evidence that's consistent only with the prosecution theory and
inconsistent totally with the defendant's theory. And each fact which is
129
essential to complete a set of circumstances, that trilobal carpet fiber
must not only be proved beyond a reasonable doubt, but I want you to
look at it to see whether or not it's not only beyond a reasonable doubt
such a fiber, but that it's beyond a reasonable doubt inconsistent. That
it absolutely has to match that word.»
The defense attorney M. Geragos in his defensive speech uses
the tactics of the prosecution evidence discredit as well. In case of Scott
Peterson killing his wife and son the barrister points out to the jury that
the prosecution put forward the theory of gentle murder because his
opponent has no indisputable evidence linking the defendant to the
murder: “The reason for that, the reason they came to this theory is
because they have this «theory of the soft kill». And the reason for that
is because they've got no evidence, because if he -- the whole problem
what they've got is, if there is no evidence -- there's no blood, there's no
poisoning, there's no knife with blood on it, there's no gun, there's no
nothing that shows how she was killed -- then you've got to come up
with this theory of a soft kill.»
Another type of the discrediting communication tactics is
shown by T. Lenamon in the case of two murders. In his speech, the
defense counsel questions the testimony of the main witness of his
opponent and stresses that it is highly possible for the man to give a
false testimony. This way T. Lenaman discredits the prosecution
witness: «But, essentially, as you saw from Mr. Arciszewski, who is a
liar, an acknowledge liar – and, yes, Miss Doerr, you are right, I am
going to call these witnesses liars, and I’ve supported that through my
cross-examination over and over and over again».
The above-said allows us to draw a conclusion about the
successful communication tactics in the barrister’s speech in court. To
achieve the assigned goal the barrister employs the tactics of the
prosecution concept discredit and provides his own theses, which gives
a possibility of a positive outcome for the defendant, and results in
finding him or her not guilty.
Bibliography
1. Дубровская Т. В. Судебный дискурс: речевое поведение
судьи (на материале русского и английского язиков) / Т. В.
Дубровская. – М. : Изд-во «Академия МНЭПУ», 2010. –
351 с.
130
2. Молдован В. В. Риторика: загальна та судова / В. В.
Молдаван. – К. : Юрінком Інтер, 1999.- 320с.
3. Морозова
И.
Б.
Манипулятивная
природа
коммуникативного шума в диалоге / И.Б. Морозова. –
Науковий вісник Східноєвропейського національного
університету ім. Лесі Українки. — Серія: Філологічні
науки. − Луцьк : Східноєвропейський національний
університет ім. Лесі Українки, 2013. — № 18 (267). — С.
70-74.
4. Пірог І. І. Аргументативні тактики в сучасному німецькому
публіцистичному аргументативному дискурсі / І. І. Пірог //
Вісник Харківського національного університету. Серія:
Романо-германська філологія. – 2010. - № 930. – С. 85 – 90.
5. Шумилина Т. Н. Темпоральные компоненты ораторской
речи английского языка (экспериментально-фонетическое
исследование)
/
Т.
Н.
Шумилина
//
Вісник
Севастопольського національного технічного університету.
Серія: Філологія. – 2010. - № 102. – С. 176 – 182.
THE METHODS AND FORMS OF FOLK’S NAIVE VIEWS
ARCHIVING ABOUT DEVIL AS A FOREIGNER
IN THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN FOLKLORE
IN XVII-XIX CENTURIES
О. V. Marunevich, D. G. Manzhos
Taganrog State Teacher Training Institute named after A.P. Chekhov,
Russia, oks.marunevich@mail.ru
Each nation has its own vision of the world. This idea is the basis
of the concept of the ethnic structure of the world, formulated by
R. Redfield [7]. Each nation also has its own historical memory, which
is a marker of belonging to a particular ethnic group, the awareness of
its difference and similarity comparing with other ethnic groups.
According to the studies of the philosopher - cosmologist
M. Eliade "memory of the true and authentic historical event or a
character is stored in the folk’s memory no more than two or three
131
centuries" [15, с. 28], then the event is assimilated to the category of
the mythical action (fighting with giants in English folklore, enemies as
giants in the tales of Russian north, etc.). Continuing Eliade’s thought,
we can assume that within a certain period of time mythic memory goes
into nothingness and then only a few fragments of some obscure events
occurred in the distant past and overgrown with incredible allegories
remain. Thus we deal not with a myth, but with the hypothetical facts
instead. They represent the periods of time of not the mythical memory
in the form of mythical tales, epics, legends and fairy tales, which
describes a real event, totally embellished because of its remoteness in
time. This is the time when humanity lost its historical memory about
the reality of the events taking place once upon a time. So it lead to
their globalization and subsequent preservation in the naive
consciousness of an ethnic group, i.e. firm European peasantry's beliefs
about the identity of Devil and evil forces with the representatives of
other nations:
Then Jos's native servant arose <...> then the maidservants got
up, and meeting the dark man in the passages, shrieked, and mistook
him for the devil (Thackeray).
- Не знаешь, не видишь разве, что за человек? Ты только на
рожу-то его погляди, на ухмылки его анафемские полюбуйся, да на
весь его обычай поганый, на хрюк его свинячий, на глум-то его
скаредный обрати внимание, сделай милость. Тем только от
черного и отличается, что хвоста да копыт нет <…>, сущий
испанец (Сологуб).
The same ideas can be easily found among traditional Russian
proverbs and sayings: Бог создал Адама, а черт – молдавана;
Зырянин рыж от бога, татарин рыж от черта; Первого
черемиса леший родил, Жиды да черти одной шерсти; Бесы и
жиды — дети сатаны [11], Бог сотворив цапа, а чорт - кацапа
[14, c. 257].
This fact can be explained that in the folk legends Devil is an
"ancestor" of a nation. According to Ukrainian legend, once the devil
decided to make someone like himself. So he put some resin and
various witch's potion and began to cook. The first whom he cooked
was a Ukrainian. Having decided that he was "undercooked", Devil
continued the process and within short period of time he cooked a
Polish, the next was a German, then a Tatar. The Devil decided that
132
after waiting a little bit more; he would get really someone like himself.
But he overlooked the boiling, so the last person who came was a Jew,
cunning and reasonable, able to trick the devil himself. In Russia in the
XVIII-XIX centuries Ukrainians were commonly nicknamed the devil's
heads. According to the legend, one day the Lord and St. Peter came
down from heaven to earth, and heard a terrible noise in the reeds: the
Devil was fighting with a Ukrainian. St. Peter "reconciled" the rivals by
riving their heads away. When the Lord put him to shame for such
harsh measures, St. Peter placed the heads back, but he confused them,
so a Ukrainian got the Devil's head. The Galicia's legend says that
gypsies are the descendants of a woman and the Devil. According to the
Hutsul (Carpathians Highlanders) story a women and the Devil were
Vlachos' parents.
The identity of the devil and a foreigner also indicates with the
existence of similar stories about the events on St. John' Day. In XVIIXIX centuries folk in Russia, Ukraine and other Slavonic countries
strongly believed that fern flower found on St. John' Day (Ivan Kupala's
night) could open all the treasures to its owner. So the legend says that
once a man was lucky to find this flower at last, but then it was taken
away by the old Jew according one version, and by the Devil according
to the second one.
It should be noted that the Russian naive consciousness
traditionally identified the Devil and Hebrews (Jews): Около жида
потрёшься — бесовского наберёшься, Служба жиду — на
радость бесу, На жида и сам Бог не угодит. The last proverb
emphasizes not only that the Jews are always hard to please, but also
their "special", disdainful attitude toward God and religion: Бог и
жида хранит, а жид Его бранит; От жида и Бог много раз
плакал; Что Богу угодно, то жиду непригодно; Что Богу грешно,
то жиду смешно; Чтут жиды жидовского бога Мамона.
Mammon is one of the gods of the pagan pantheon, who was a
patron of the rich. In the Christian tradition he is associated with the
Devil. In the Apocrypha Mammon is one of the representatives of the
demonic forces opposed to the Lord and the angels. This image was
caused due to folk's rethinking the Gospel one of Mammon (god of
wealth). In this connection the mention of Mammon "беззаконном,
мамоне насыльном и нахожем" (lawless, sent and spelled) dangerous and demonic creatures - is found in spells, historical and
133
literary works, i.e., in the "Prayer of the Archangel Michael on the
Osprey" (the end of the XIX century) is spoken about the cursed evil
spirit. Besides serving Mammon was always opposed to the service of
Christ - to work for unrighteous Mammon [12, c. 323]. Therefore, the
Russian proverbs make a certain link between the evil spirit and the
Jews: Бесы и жиды — дети сатаны; С жидом знаться — с бесом
связаться; Нет беса в доме — прими жида; Жид в хату — ангелы
из хаты; Жид, как бес — никогда не покается; Жид не силой
берёт, а искушением.
In Kolyma dialect the evil spirits of a forest are called Yids [10,
с. 51]. It is also interesting to mention that in the Orel region dialect Yid
nominates a sparrow [13, c. 118], and in Lancashire there is an adage A
spink and a sparrow are the devil's bow and arrow [6, p. 187].
Ukrainians also correlate the links between the triad Jew - the Devil - a
sparrow, because sparrows are called there чортово насiння (devil's
seed). Moreover, the peasants believe that the sparrows, like the Jews
and the Devil do not like lard, so someone who wants to drive the
sparrows away from sowing should smear hands with sanctified during
sowing [9].
Lithuanian proverb says Чужим духом всегда воняет (Alien
spirit always stinks). A similar Russian proverb says Каков жид,
такова и его вонь (Like Yid, like his stench) In Middle Aged Europe
there was a widely spread superstition that Jews had distinct and
unpleasant odor, which they had received as punishment for the
crucifixion of Jesus. The first epithet "malodorous" to the Jews was
given by the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, who "was vexed with
malodorous and often rebellious Jews" (fetentium et tumultuantium) [1,
c. 316]. According to the conception of a medieval man, saints breathe
pleasant fragrance and smell, while the evil spirits and Satan exude a
stench. The stench is the Devil's distinctive: the image of a decaying
flesh evidence of diabolical machinations. This issue often arises in
demonological literature and fiction. Thus, in Poland there is a belief
that water-spirits appear in the form of a Jew. True stories tell how a
fisherman caught a water-spirit from the river Narew and it was a "little
Jew in a yarmulke and a dressing gown, who was muttering something
in Hebrew". Then the water-spirit tore the network and jumped into the
water, leaving the smell of sulfur [2]. Thus, in folk's perception the
134
specific "odor" is one of the elements of infernality, which also brings
evil spirits and foreigners together.
As for English language, even the euphemistic name of the devil
- Old Nick etymologically goes back to the foreigner. Oxford English
Dictionary mentions that Nick is a derivative from the name Niccolo,
the name of famous Italian politician Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527).
In American historian P. Strathern's opinion, in the minds of most
people Machiavelli and Devil are virtually synonymous [8]. And
according to widely spread belief of the clergy of that period the Devil
himself was the author of the most famous work of the thinker "The
Prince", so soon he became identified with the devil literally. Thirty
years after his death, his name was known in England. By the end of
the XVI century his name was familiar to a wide range of public,
W. Shakespeare used it in the comedy "Merry Wives of Windsor": Am I
politic? Am I subtle? Am I a Machiavel?
Devil's connection with the name Nick (Michael) can also be
seen in a number of beliefs existing in the counties of England: On Old
Michaelmas Day the Devil throws his club over the bramble bushes as
he marches over the land, making the blackberries unfit for eating. No
Sussex person ever picked the berries after October 11th. The old
Sussex saying "as black as the Devil's nutting bag" is associated with
the superstition that it is extremely unwise to gather nuts in autumn on a
Sunday because that is when Old Nick is himself out nutting [6].
By the way, the traditional residence of evil spirits - Hell is also
associated with other countries, mostly neighboring: Финляндия –
чертова сторонушка [11], If anyone doubt of purgatory let him go to
Scotland and his doubt will be dispelled [3, p. 239]. In some parts of
Germany until the middle of the XIX century people consider England
to be another word for the nether world, world of the dead, which is
also reflected in the language. German peasants use such expressions as
the following: How the bells are ringing in England! (used during the
funeral procession), How my children are crying in England! (used by a
mother, yearning for her dead children) [5, p. 177]. At the same time,
own country, region, and county are thought to be the only righteous:
There are more saints in Cornwall than there are in the Heaven [4, p.
1], Славится Москва невестами, колоколами да калачами,
Матушка Москва белокаменная, златоглавая, хлебосольная,
135
православная, словоохотливая, В Москве сорок сороков церквей
[11].
Thus, most of the features prescribed by naive mind to the other
ethnic groups have mythological basis. Rating foreigners as hostile and
dangerous creatures dates back to archaic beliefs that all those who
came from the outside and do not belong to the nearest community,
represent the "other" world; they are strangers and possess supernatural
properties. In traditional Russian and English folklore evil spirits are
the first outsiders, so their similarity to foreigners is obvious.
References
1. Ammianus Marcellinus // Greek and Roman authors on Jews
and Judaism. T. 2. Moscow. 2000.
2. Baranowski B. W kregu upjorow I wilkolakow. Lodz, 1981
3. Baring-Gould S. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. London,
1877.
4. Courtney M. Cornish Feast and Folklore. Penzance, 1890.
5. Hardwick Ch. Traditions, Superstitions, and Folklore (chiefly
Lancashire and the North of England). London, 1878.
6. Latham Ch. Some West Sussex Superstitions. London: Taylor
&Francis, 1878.
7. Redfield R. The Little Community: Viewpoints for the Study of
a Human Whole. Uppsala and Stockholm, 1955.
8. Strathern P. Machiavelli in 90 minutes. Chicago: Ivan R.Dee,
1998.
9. Белова О. Евреи и славяне. Народная магия в регионах
этнокультурных контактов // ruthenia.ru
10. Богораз В.Г. Областной словарь колымского русского
наречия //Сб. ОРЯС. Спб., 1909. Т. 68, № 4.
11. Даль В.И. Пословицы, поговорки и прибаутки русского
народа: Сборник в 2-х т. СПб.: Литера, Виан, 1997.
12. Мифологическая энциклопедия. М.: Книга и бизнес, 1998.
13. Словарь орловских говоров. Ярославль, 1989. Вып. 3.
14. Чубинский П.П. Труды этнографическо-статистической
экспедиции в Западнорусский край. Спб., 1872. Т. 1.
Легенды, загадки, пословицы, колдовство.
15. Элиаде М. Миф о вечном возвращении // Космос и
история. Избранные работы. М., 1987.
136
ENGLISH LEGAL ANTONYMS IN CONTEXT:
COORDINATED, ANCILLARY, AUTONOMOUS AND
COHESIVE ANTONYMY
A. Mynzak
Chernivtsi National University, Chernivtsi, Ukraine,
mynzak@yandex.ru
There exist several criteria of selecting antonyms: lexicosemantic, grammatical and functional. The latter one is the most
notable and is based on the regular opposition of antonyms in language
(lexicon) and speech (text) [6; 7]. It is regarded as the most essential
criterion because antonyms can not exist and can not be coined without
text. The plausibility of this criterion has also been proved by
psycholinguistic experiments [1]. The opposition of two words is only
possible in a sentence i.e. context. A context wherein a word is used
with its antonym and is directly opposed by it is an antonymic context.
The issue of antonymic contexts has long been discussed in linguistic
literature, e.g. “Co-occurrence and Antonymy” by Fellbaum [2]. The
author provides a number of common syntactic frames of co-occurring
antonyms listed below:
(both) x and y
x as well as y
x and y alike
neither x or y
(either) x or y
now x, now y
from x, to y
Fellbaum points out: “When antonyms occur in these frames,
they usually constitute the most salient points at either end of a
continuous scale, which expresses an attribute. Referring to the salient
antonymic values of that attribute can have the effect of denoting the
entire range of values, even if the antonyms may not be endpoints of
the scale” [2, p. 290].
Similar contexts have been singled out by V. Komissarov [7].
The main drawback of these classifications is that they are based on
formal and syntactic criteria, i.e. various conjunctions and adverbs are
used to unite two antonyms in one single context. Such antonymic
contexts can not be fully applied to elucidate the functional aspect of
antonyms in text. So in order to group legal antonyms we employed a
classification which is mainly based on semantic criterion. It is
presented in S. Jones’ investigation “Antonymy: A Corpus-based
137
Perspective” [3]. The author applied semantic relations between
antonyms in a sentence to distinguish the classes of opposites. In the
process of analysis 10 classes of antonymic contexts have been singled
out: coordinated (50,3), ancillary (13,5%), autonomous (11,3%),
cohesive (5,5%), negated (4,6%), transitional (4,2%), conflicting
(3,8%), comparative (2,7%), distinguished (2,1%) and minor classes (2
%) of antonymy. The data for the research (5102 contexts) was
retrieved from the Corpus of Contemporary American English [5]. We
have to admit that Jones’ classification was supplemented by two
classes (Autonomous and Cohesive Antonymy). Below a short
overview of coordinated, ancillary, autonomous and cohesive antonymy
is presented.
When an antonymous pair in the database was found to signal
inclusiveness or exhaustiveness of scale, it was assigned to the class of
coordinated antonymy, e.g: ... including in the form of contaminants,
invasion by nonindigenous species, habitat degradation and
destruction, legal and illegal fishery resource harvest levels, and sea
lamprey predation (Owen R. “Essential Tort Law”). In this sentence
legal and illegal reaffirms the inclusiveness and identifies the scale
(wealth) against which this inclusiveness is measured. In another
illustration: ... we find that we have included within the definition of
investment
contractual
rights
by
reference
to
all
property, tangible or intangible, acquired in the expectation ... (United
States Law Journal, 2000, Vol. 26, P. 107) antonyms
tangible or intangible serve as an optional attribute of property. This
exhausts the scale in question and, once again, shows antonyms
functioning in a ‘coordinated’ fashion – they work in unison, creating
no overt element of contrast, and encompass all points on their given
scale [3, p. 61]. Coordinated antonymy is the most frequent class (2574
contexts, 50,3%). In addition it is common for both types of antonyms
(affixal and root). Some antonyms (domestic – foreign, lay –
professional, legal – illegal, tangible – intangible, natural – unnatural,
dependent – independent etc.) are predominantly used in coordinated
context of antonymy. On the whole affixal rather than root antonyms
tend to be used mainly in this type of context. Coordinated antonyms
are usually conjoined by and or or. In general terms, those linked by
and can be seen as inclusive; those linked by or as exhaustive [3, p. 63].
A variation on this framework occurs when X or Y is preceded by how.
138
This creates a gauging mechanism against which a given concept can
be measured, e.g.: Anyone who wonders how sound or unsound they
are must consider carefully and dispassionately the arguments offered
in their support and the counterarguments advanced by their critics
(Owens K. “Law for non-law Students”). The antonymous pair in the
sentence above exhausts its given scale, but does so in a different
manner from those X or Y contexts examined previously.
Sentences which contain ancillary antonymy (13,5%) feature
two contrasts: one arising between antonyms and one arising between
another pair of words or phrases. The latter contrast is often closely
related to the former, and it seems that the antonymous pair was partly
responsible for generating (or at least affirming) this new opposition,
e.g.: But if the accused raises the defence of diminished responsibility
or automatism the prosecution will be allowed to rebut with evidence
of insanity (Barker D.L.A. “Law Made Simple”). The legal antonyms
the accused – the prosecution (A-pair, because the two units are both
antonymous and ancillary), that could be found in a dictionary, are
linked to another contrast of the sentence raises the defence – rebut
with evidence (B-pair, because it is the second contrast of the sentence).
B-pair is a more important contrast of the sentence, while A-pair is one
of a number of factors which contribute to the overall contrastive nature
of this sentence.
A sentence is undoubtedly a center of antonymic context where
antonyms perform the functions of negation, transition, comparison,
distinction, contrast etc. An antonymic pair represents one whole, so in
a sentence two antonyms will also work in unison, e.g.: The fast track is
important
because
it
means
that
Congress
must approve or disapprove any resulting agreement by a single up or
down vote (United States Law Journal, 1991, Vol. 17, P. 23), where
opposites approve – disapprove constitute a predicate of the sentence.
However, there is a number of instances (11,3%) when antonymic
contexts have different characteristics i.e. they perform distinct
syntactic functions. Such antonymic context is called autonomous. To
investigate such cases syntactic analysis was applied (sentence
subdivision into subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial
modifier). This will help to reveal syntactic correlations between
opposite notions in a sentence. In the process of investigation several
patterns have been singled out. Let’s review the most common ones. In
139
speech antonyms are mainly used to denote a quality of an object,
hence in a sentence they are represented by attributes. Consequently,
many patterns include it. A frequent pattern is one that includes an
attribute accompanied by a predicate, e.g.: Held: that the Y company
acted with the lawful object of protecting and extending their trade and
the means used were not unlawfull (Barker D.L.A. “Law Made
Simple”). In this context antonym lawful is an attribute (modifier) of
object, whereas unlawful is a part of compound predicate. Besides these
antonyms belong to different clauses of this sentence. This helps to
distribute the contrast throughout the whole sentence skipping a chance
to concentrate it in one clause. A less frequent type of autonomous
antonymy is a pattern represented by attribute and object, e.g.: The
injustice of permitting a felony punishment on conviction for
conspiracy to commit a misdemeanor is described by the late Hon.
Grover M. Moscowitz (United States Law Journal, 1997, Vol. 29, P.
121-123). A noun felony in this context is used as an attribute because it
is a part of N+N constriction felony punishment. However, the most
common are the subject-object correlations between antonyms in a
sentence, e.g: They might likewise have expected that a general
requirement that the punishment fit the crime would invite later
generations to formulate their best moral theories of proportionality
(Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, 2004, Vol. 28 Issue 1,
P.119). A subject punishment is directed towards object crime. These
relationships can be represented schematically:
Draft 1
SUBJECT
PREDICATE
OBJECT
А1
А2
the plaintiff
is indicting
the defendant
The Position of Antonyms in Actant Framework
This actant framework consists of three parts: subject plaintiff
which is a bearer of an action; predicate expressed by is indicting; the
action of the subject is directed towards an object defendant. Such
distribution of antonyms is typical for the terms that denote various
subjects of law, e.g.: judge – criminal, offender – victim, plaintiff –
140
defendant, adult – juvenile, solicitor – solicitee, assignor – assignee,
appellant – appellee, appointor – appointee etc. They are widely used
in legal field to express the relations between legal entities.
Antonymic relations between language units can be employed
to contribute to text cohesion – grammatical and lexical links within a
text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning [4, p.
41-42]. Cohesive antonymy (5,5%) is based on the opposite meanings
of structural elements of text. The position of opposites in text can be:
a) contact, i.e. they are located in one sentence; b) remote, i.e. in two
different parts of text (sentences). Cohesive antonymy is only possible
when antonyms are located remotely. Below a short overview of the
major subtypes of cohesive antonymy is provided. In text antonyms are
mainly introduced consecutively, e.g.:
Draft 2
Consecutive Introduction of Antonyms into Text
In such a case two opposites will be situated in two consecutive
sentences of the same text (s1, s2), e.g.: A primary victim is one who
participates in the events, in that he is in fear for his own safety or he
puts his own safety at risk by acting as a rescuer. In such a case, ... . A
secondary victim is one whose own safety is not at risk and he must,
therefore, prove the factors set out in (a) and (b) below (Owens K.
“Law for non-law Students”). Moreover, there is no sharp and vivid
contrast between the two sentences. There exists another pattern of
cohesive antonymy which combines contact and remote position of
antonyms:
141
Draft 3
Referential Position of Antonyms in Text
In the introductory sentence (s1) the antonyms (X,Y) are
allocated with the help of coordinated antonymy. The next sentences
(s2, s3) provide the explanation of antonyms (X,Y) introduced in the
first sentence, e.g.: There are two types of discrimination: direct and
indirect. Direct discrimination is openly discriminatory and cannot be
justified. Indirect discrimination is neutral on the face but
discriminatory in effect ... (Barker D.L.A. “Law Made Simple”). The
antonyms direct – indirect in this piece of text perform representative
and explanatory functions. The initial sentence executes representative
function by introducing antonyms into the text. In the next two
sentences one can find the explanation of these terms by means of
definition. Although the antonyms are located remotely, the contrast
between the sentences is present due to initial antonymic context.
The cohesion that operates on opposite meanings is frequently
used to consolidate sentences based on:
1.
condition (17%) with the help of conjunction that introduces a
hypothetical situation. Parallel grammatical construction may
take an active part in the formation of such coherence;
2.
time (20%), when antonyms are associated with some time
period;
3.
definition (30%), when antonyms are introduced into the text
consecutively. Afterwards their definitions are provided;
142
4.
contrast (33%) that helps to oppose the antonyms which are
situated remotely. Lexical indicators (although, versus, but,
however, opposite to etc.) are frequently used in such cases.
Consequently, antonyms are not isolated and restricted units of
speech. They are widely used to support structural and semantic
organization of text.
Lexical antonymy is not just a conventional part of vocabulary. It
is always incorporated into the text to denote various relations between
opposite notions: coordination, ancillary, autonomy and cohesion.
References
1. Charles W.G. Context of Antonymous Adjectives / W.G. Charles,
A.M. Miller // Applied Psycology. – 1989. – №10. – P. 357-375.
2. Fellbaum C. Co-occurrence and Antonymy / C. Fellbaum //
International Journal of Lexicography. – 1995. – №8. – P. 281-303.
3. Jones S. Antonymy: A Corpus-based Perspective / S. Jones. –
London; New York: Routledge, 2002. – xvi, 193 p.
4. Mettinger A. Aspects of Semantic Opposition in English / A.
Mettinger – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. – 205 p.
5. The Corpus Of Contemporary American English (COCAE)
[Electronic resource]: 410+ million words, 1990-2010 / Brigham
Young University;
M. Davies. Provo, UT, 2007 – Mode of
access: http://www.americancorpus.org.
6. Бобух Н. М. Антоніми в українській поетичній мові:
Монографія / Н. М. Бобух. – Полтава: РВЦ ПУСКУ, 2007. –
321 с.
7. Комиссаров В. Н. Словарь антонимов современного
английского языка / В.Н.Комиссаров. – М.: Международные
отношения, 1964. – 288 с.
143
ON THE ISSUE ABOUT THE USE OF ILLEGIBLE SETS
FOR STRATIFICATION OF LEXICAL UNITS
IN THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE
O. A. Shatun
‘Taganrog institute named after A.P. Chekhov (branch establishment) federal
state municipal educational institution of higher education ‘Rostov State
Economic University (RSEU)’, city of Taganrog, Russia,
shatun_olga@mail.ru
Terminology research in linguistics has got a long history,
however, it is far from being exhausted. In particular, systematic
vocabulary of the language of science is actively being discussed (K.Y
Averbuch, A.C Gerd, V. P Danilenko, Y.A Klimovitsky, Z.I
Komarova, V.M Leichik, R.G Piotrowski, V.N Prokhorova, V.A
Tatarinov, A.D Hayutin, etc.). There are at least two points of view on
the systemacity of terminology. Thus, V.M Leichik considers that the
terminology, which has developed spontaneously and was not in order,
and it cannot be considered systematic. B.N Golovin believes that a
random cluster of terms doesn’t exist, since the world, some parts of
which it reflects, is systematic and it is only possible to talk about
different degrees of systemic of particular terminology systems. At the
same time, the terminology is characterized by double systemacity:
system of scientific concepts and system of language, a subsystem of
which it appears to be.
If to consider the vocabulary of the language of science in terms
of its consistency as subsystems of the common-literary language, it has
been discovered that it is quite heterogeneous in its composition. It
contains specific terms, which constitute the subject of author or of a
scientific direction; interscientific (industry) terms which are used
within the interdisciplinary complex; general scientific terms that
represent the names of generalized, basic concepts common to the
whole complex of sciences; the general scientific language that
describes the logical relationships and provides logic, consistency and
clarity of expression, and the words of common language.
Schematically, this can be presented as following (see picture 1):
144
higly specialized lexis
interschientific terms
general scientific terms
general scientific
lexis
common lexis
Picture 1. Lexis stratification of scientific language
However, upon closer examination, it becomes apparent that the
boundaries of these striations are diffusive. The phenomenon of
terminologisation and determinologisation occur in language and some
words appear in different stages of the process, making them difficult to
unambiguously refer to a particular stratum. In addition, individual
lexical units can operate as common then as general scientific terms
that addressed the problem of the delimitation of the polysemy and
Homonymy. Known ways to distinguish these phenomena (lexical,
morphological and semantic) cannot be considered completely reliable.
In some cases, synonyms to different values of the words are not
synonymous relations among themselves and have not yet parted with
homonyms of word-formation. Therefore, differences in the definition
of borders of Homonymy and ambiguity are fairly common, and this in
turn affects the quality of lexicographic descriptions.
However, under closer examination it becomes clear that the
boundaries of these stratums are diffusive. The phenomenon of
terminologisation and determinologisation occur constantly in the
language and some of the words are in different stages of these
145
processes, which makes their unique reference to a particular stratum
difficult. Apart from that, individual lexical items can function as both
common items and common scientific terms, which addresses the issue
of delimitation of polysemy and homonymy. Known methods for
distinguishing the effects (lexical, morphological and semantic) cannot
be considered completely reliable. In some cases synonyms for
different words’ meanings do not come into synonymous relations
between themselves, and homonyms still don’t split while wordbuilding. Therefore, discrepancies in the definition of the boundaries of
homonymy and polysemy are fairly common, and this, in its turn,
affects the quality of lexicographical description.
Besides, the transferring of classification on the base of other
languages, such as English, requires a comparison of the volume of
individual lexical semantic units of the number of scientific terms. For
example, the Russian сила correspond to the English force and
strength; English technology - техника, technical term - not a
technical term, but term in general. But these are quite simple examples
of the mismatch of semantic volumes. Very often quite significant
discrepancies are unnoticed on the surface. For example, the meaning
of the term science in the Russian language - a sphere of human
activity, the function of which is development and theoretical
systematization of objective knowledge of reality; one of the forms of
social consciousness including both efforts to achieve new knowledge
and its result - the amount of knowledge that underlies at the base of
scientific picture of the world; the designation of separate branches of
science. System of sciences is relatively divided into natural, social,
humanitarian and technical sciences.[1] The equivalent of that term is
defined in the English Science - knowledge about the structure and
behavior of the natural and physical world, based on facts that you can
prove, for example by experiments [ 2, p. 1142 ] . As it can be seen
from the definition, the English term is only valid (and exclusively) to
indicate instrumental research disciplines (chemistry, physics, etc.), the
data of which are verifiable and much narrower semantic space
compared to correlating term of the Russian language. That is why to
define humanities, which cannot be described as science from an
English mentality point of view, terms humanities or humanites have
been introduced. The introduction of additional terms let remove
146
lacunar sphere in the semantics of the word science, and "grow" the
semantic scope of the term in the English language.
In this case it is impossible to distinguish linguistic phenomena
strictly and to create an unambiguous classification in accordance with
a characteristic set of differential features for each stratum. The
presence of a large number of events in the language combining
features of different units and, therefore, not fitting into the strict
boundaries of traditional classifications, stimulated the search for
concepts that take into account transitional effects. Precisely
transitional cases represent greatest interest to researchers because they
provide an opportunity to describe a "living" language, and formulate
the laws of its development.
One of the ways to describe these phenomena may be the use of
field theory, which allows the transitional phenomena. In linguistics
field is called to be some arbitrary non-empty set of language elements.
In the interpretation of V.G Admony field is characterized by the stock
elements connected by system relations: the central part – the core
elements of which have a complete set of features, determining this
group, and the periphery, which elements do not have all the
characteristic features of the field, but may also have some
characteristics of neighboring fields which may be several. The further
distance from the core the weaker dominant features are. Optional
characteristics appear [3]. Therefore, the peripheral elements have an
incomplete set of features and can simultaneously belong to several
fields, combining their features.
In appliance to the study of the meaning of words, in linguistics
component analysis method is used in which linguistic meaning is
divided into minimum units. Most of these units are called semes. In
particular, the following development of analysis is possible:
1. Selection of word and its graph.
2. Choice of lexical-semantic variants (using particular
dictionaries).
3. Identification of the types of lexical meanings (directfigurative, motivated, unmotivated, free-bound).
4. Building synonymous, homonymic, antonymous paradigms
for individual LSV.
5. Building thematic paradigm.
147
Lexico-semantic analysis of a specific nominative unit allows us
to construct its meaning microstructure organized under the laws of the
vocabulary of the language and to determine the lexical-semantic
position. However, at present, no theory can be considered strictly
scientific, if it has not been verified by mathematical methods and is not
described by formulas. Mathematical justification of the linguistic
concept of a field is the fussy-sets theory.
The logic of fuzzy sets has been proposed in 1965 by Lotfi A.
Zadeh for the study of linguistic variables. " We call a variable to be
linguistic whose meanings are words or sentences of a natural or
artificial language" [4, p. 7]. Linguistic fuzzy sets usually are set by
their description. The essence of fuzzy sets description comes down to
what is generally indicated canon, feature or property and by that
determines the identity of the object to the subject set. Some subsets
can be distinguished by certain subfeatures inside the set. In literature
we find this record:
𝑛
𝑥
B= ∑
𝜇(𝑥)
𝑖−1
where B – fuzzy set; µ(x) – membership function; xi – i-е meaning of
standard scale
Membership function defines a subjective level of confidence of
an expert in the fact that the specific value of the standard scale
corresponds to a fuzzy set.
To describe fuzzy sets the definition of fuzzy and linguistic
variable is introduced. Fuzzy variable is defined by a set (N, X, A),
where N - is the name of a variable, X - a universal set (domain
reasoning), A - fuzzy set upon X. The set of admissible meanings of the
linguistic variable is called a term-set. Elements of term-sets can be
defined by words of ordinary language, without the use of numbers,
which is more natural for human beings. Psychologists have found out
that almost all numerical information in human brain is verbally reencoded and kept in the form of linguistic terms. The concept of
linguistic variable plays an important role in fuzzy inference and
decision-making based on approximate reasoning. But this does not
mean that the linguistic variable cannot be specified by a numeric
value.
148
Using data from the seme analysis described above, it is possible
to determine the number of stratum, which a lexical unit and the degree
of relatedness to each of them belong to. The most interesting results of
the study are expected in the research of polysemous units.
Thus, the theory of fuzzy sets allows us to characterize
transitional phenomena of language with a help of linguistic variables.
Linguistic variable has acceptable values of term-sets, which are set by
both numerical information and linguistic terms. Everyday words are
more acceptable for a man, but the use of numerical values obtained in
seme analysis suggests an obviousness, uniqueness and persuasiveness
of conclusions which together comprise what is traditionally regarded
as a scientific objectivity.
Literature
1. Great Encyclopedic Dictionary. Electronic resource
[http://dic.academic.ru/contents.nsf/enc3p/]. The IP address was
checked 11.09.2013.
2. Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2000.
3. Admony V.G The syntax of the modern German language:
The system of relations and system of construction. - L., 1973.
4. Zadeh, L. The concept of a linguistic variable and its
application to the adoption of approximate solutions. – M., 1976.
149
SECTION 8. Jurisprudence
PUNISHMENT AS THE TYPE OF COMPULSORY
COMMUNITY SERVICE FOR JUVENILES ACCORDING
TO THE FOREIGN COUNTRIES LEGISLATION
Andrew Ashin1, Natalya Simagina2
1
candidate of law, assistant professor
of the Department of Criminal law and Procedure
The Vladimir State University named after Alexander and Nicolay Stoletovs;
2
assistant of the Department of Criminal law and Procedure
The Vladimir State University named after Alexander and Nicolay Stoletovs
anyaovsyanikova@yandex.ru
In opinion of R. David, «try to limit legal science within borders
of one state and expound and develop this science without ideas and
experience of science of the other states – means to limit the
opportunities of knowledge and activity. The jurisprudence as social
science can't be studied properly only in purely national plan» [1, P.
33].
The main feature of criminal law in the majority of foreign states
is the humanization of legislation in the field of juveniles’ treatment,
mitigation of punishment or introduction of special types of punishment
for this category of persons.
The term "alternative punishment" appeared for the first time in
the European legal literature. Criteria of reference punishment to
alternative are:
1)
another mechanism of impact on the convicted, than
isolation from society;
2)
status of punishment as basic; is applied instead of
imprisonment.
It is necessary to pay attention that "alternative punishment" was
gained the popularity in the second half of the XX century. Generally, it
is considered that imprisonment which was alternative to cruel and
brutal punishment earlier, didn't promote reformation of convicted and
their social adaptation.
Practically in all countries the name of a considered measure of
punishment literally is translated as compulsory community service.
150
Compulsory community service as a type of punishment was
implemented for the first time into Criminal Code of Switzerland in
1971 and was applied only for juveniles aged from 7 till 18 years. After
compulsory community services were appointed as the main
punishment for juveniles and additional for adults in some cantons of
Switzerland. That’s why; the criminal legislation of Switzerland was
the first in the West to recognize compulsory community service as a
main type of punishment [2, P. 91].
Among the Scandinavian countries the first compulsory
community service as a type of criminal punishment was implemented
in Denmark (in 1982) and Norway (in 1984). Since 1990 this type of
punishment has been applying in Finland, and since 1991 – in Sweden.
In Denmark, Finland and Sweden compulsory community service was
implemented gradually: at first as experiment in a number of areas, and
then - on the territory of all country. It should to notice, that in Sweden
this type of punishment within the first 8 experimental years was
appointed only to offenders aged till 21 year [3].
It is important to pay attention that compulsory community
service in West Countries doesn't mean the sources for the budget
replenishment. The main objective of this type of punishment is
educational influence on convicted who gratuitously works for good of
the community; thereby they try to justify the trust given them and
atone the damage of a crime.
Usually, the nature of performing works is defined by court or
the service executing punishment, in coordination with self-governing
authorities or the organizations. The samples of such activities:
- the cleaning and decoration of parks, gardens, squares, streets;
- the tree planting;
- the painting and repairing of fences;
- laying of gardens and flower beds;
- the decoration of public buildings;
- the production of probation service of consumer goods for sale
in workshops;
- vegetable growing and their packing for senior citizens;
- the ministration for senior citizens and afflicted persons [4,
P.74].
Further, we will study the application of compulsory community
service in some foreign countries.
151
In the criminal code of Czech Republic the compulsory
community service is alternative to imprisonment and can be awarded
as the only sanction, and in combination with others (for example, the
monetary sanction, a proscription, etc.) [5].
In the USA the compulsory community service can be stand as
one of the conditions of sentence service in the type of probation.
System of punishment in Great Britain is that the juveniles
offenders not only put into the closed institutions and point the
conditional sentence, but also the measures unconnected with isolation
from society can be implemented for them, according to the issue of the
relevant orders, such as:
 the petition to send up to Collegiate organ on juvenile affairs;
 the petition to amends;
 the petition to pass the rehabilitation program.
The petition of great interest is to pass the rehabilitation program.
This type of the petition is the list of 15 feasible constraints with
requirement for performance of voluntary works among them (for 1617 juveniles). The overall time of this kind of work shouldn't be less
than 40 and more than 240 hours. As an example, there can be works
in "hospice", in football club, in church, in recreation center for senior
citizens, and work with local initiative groups [6, P. 47].
In the criminal legislation of Sweden compulsory community
service may be of two types:
1)
compulsory community service with supervision;
2)
compulsory community service with conditional
sentence (assigned amount of hours).
Assigned amount of hours can't be less than 40 and more 240
hours, depending on degree of the perpetrated crime. At the same time,
the court defines fictitious term of imprisonment (i.e. term in case of
disruptive behavior of convicted) [7].
In Finland compulsory community service is appointed instead of
conventional imprisonment, according to Art. 1 of the Law of 1996 №
1055 «About compulsory community services». 50% of places for
implementation of works are provided by municipalities, 40% – by
non-commercial organizations; participation of the state in this process
is minimized (2%). It should be mentioned, that till 1996 the uniform
152
system of criminal sanction for full aged and minor persons acted in
Finland [8, P.146].
Unlike the Russian legislation, there is only one type of
punishment applied for juveniles in Germany is imprisonment. As a
rule, imprisonment is appointed in the case of serious crime
commission by the juvenile (murder, robbery with aggravating
circumstances) or, when rehabilitation of this person is impossible
without application of this punishment.
The compulsory measures of educational character are:
 to place the duties for public apology and achieve
accommodation with complainant;
 to compensate the damage caused by efforts of the juvenile;
 probation of parents and other person worthy of trust;
 compulsory community services and other measures [6, P.51].
According to S. Egorov and V. Tychinsky the popularity of
punishment in the type of compulsory community service is explained
by possibility of their application to the most widespread criminal
offence and to those persons who after completion of sentence can to
tale full role in society life, owing to the young age [9, P.26].
Due to the above matter it is possible to make the following
conclusions.
First of all, in a number of foreign countries this type of
punishment is considered as the main (Armenia, Holland, Latvia), and
in some others – as an additional type of punishment in the range of the
basic (Spain, Kazakhstan). Some time it occurs that in the criminal
legislation of the foreign states classification under the main and
additional types of punishment. The compulsory community service is
provided as alternative type of punishment (Lithuania, the Czech
Republic).
Secondly, terms of compulsory community service is various. As
a rule, the maximum term is approximately from 200 to 300 hours, and
minimum – from 20 to 50 hours.
Interesting feature is that in some countries compulsory
community service isn't obligatory and appointed at request or by
agreement of convicted.
153
It is important to note that this type of punishment doesn't
provide supersession unserved part of punishment gentler type of
punishment and release on parole.
In case of malicious evasion from serving punishment they are
replaced, as a rule, with imprisonment. Though, there are such types of
punishment as arrest, custodial restraint and penalty.
Literature
1.
David R. Main legal systems of the present / R. David.
M., 1967.
2.
Criminal law of the foreign states. General part : study
guide / Edited by I.D.Kozochkin. M., 2003. – 576 pages.
3.
Voronova E. Creation of probation service for juveniles
in Russia [Electronic resource] // Juvenile judiciary in Russia Publications
and
performances.
URL:
http://www.juvenilejustice.ru/documents/doc3/ss/vr.
4.
Borodina A. Application of punishment in the type of
compulsory community service in the Russian law : Ph. D. thesis in
Juridical Sciences / A. Borodina. – M., 2011 - 233 pages.
5.
System of probation in the Czech Republic [Electronic
resource] // Questions of juvenile justice. URL: http://
http://juvenjust.org/index.php?showtopic=1190.
6.
Shilovsky A. Compulsory measure of educational
character: state value and future development / A. Shilovsky. – M.,
2009. - 59 pages.
7.
Dvoryanskov I. Application of alternative types of
punishments in Western Europe, the USA and Russia (comparative law
research) / I. Dvoryanskov I., V. Sergeyeva, D. Batalin. – M., 2004. –
90 pages.
8.
Legislative Review of the Scandinavian and Baltic
countries on probation service (criminal supervision). Series of
«Human right». St. Petersburg. 2005 – 243 p.
9.
Egorov S. Foreign experience of an execution of the
punishment in the compulsory community service / S. Egorov, V.
Tychinsky // Vedomosti of correctional system. - 2004. - № 5. – P. 22
– 27.
154
THE PROBLEMS OF FRAUD QUALIFICATION
IN THE BANKING FIELD
O. Ruzevich, A. Krasilschikova
Ruzevich Oleg Ruslanovich, Ph.D., the Head of the Department of Criminal
Law and Procedure Law Institute, Vladimir State University named by
Alexander G. and Nicholai G. Stoletovs,
Krasilschikova Alla, Graduate of the Department of Criminal Law and
Procedure Law Institute, Vladimir State University named Alexander G. and
Nicholas G. Stoletovs
anyaovsyanikova@yandex.ru
Recently, the cases of fraud, sometimes with identifying the
concept of "fraud" and "theft", are often reported in the media.
Let us consider what the difference is between these two
concepts, and what difficulties arise in the definition of crimes as theft
or fraud, the examples of crimes in the banking sector.
In the words of the historian N. M. Karamzin: "This is a
consequence of the past. To judge the first we should remember the
last. "That is why, in considering the proper training and sharing of
such crimes as "theft" and "fraud" it would be better to begin the
consideration of these concepts starting with the development of the
Russian law.
The first mention of fraud in the Russian legislation can be
attributed to the Articles of Laws in 1497, but especially the signs of
fraud in individual crimes are not isolated but treated as a kind of theft.
A Code of Law of Ivan the Terrible in 1550 already establishes
criminal liability for fraud. The Article 58 of Laws 1550 establishes the
following rule: "A crook has the same penalty as the thief. If someone
has suffered from deceiver and does not report it (to the state), a lawsuit
disappears, and in any case the crook should be beaten with the whip.
"[4, p. 45], i.e. the concept of fraud and a liar is identified. As you can
see from this article, the legislator does not share the concept of "fraud"
and "theft" by identifying them, but to use the term "fraud" does not
designate it as a definition.
Further, the liability for fraud has been established be the
Council Code of 1649, where Art. 11 and 15 identified as violent fraud
associated with deception. But, Art. 11 Sec. XXI of this legislation
merely repeats the provision of Laws, establishing liability for fraud,
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but more severe than the Law Code of 1550: "... and a crooker gets the
same decree as the thief gets for the first theft (beat whip, cut off the
left ear and jailed for two years). "
Under Peter the first’s rule the term "fraud" was not applied at
all, as evidenced by the Military articles in which theft is committed by
the means of deception, qualified as theft. For the first time, the legal
definition of fraud was stated in the decree of Catherine II from April 3,
1871 "On the court and the penalties for theft of different genera and
about the establishment of houses of workers in all provinces."
According to paragraph 5 of the Decree "theft fraud appears, if
somebody is in the Market or otherwise throng and takes out from
somebody’s pocket, or deceits, or takes away suddenly, or cuts dresses
on the floor, or steals the gimp, or picks cap, or buys without paying
money absconding, or deceits, or sells fabrication, or gives a fake for
the authentic, or gives the short weight or measurement, or assigns what
does not belong , without the consent of whose it is. "
In this case the legislator highlights, as an alternative, this
essential feature of fraud as a deceit, that we can say that there are the
tendencies distinction between "theft" and "fraud."
Nowadays, the Russian Criminal Code divides the concept of
"fraud" and "theft". Article 158 of the Criminal Code of the Russian
Federation (CCRF) determines that the theft is the secret larceny of
another's property, but also when fraud is the theft of another's
property. Article 159 of the Criminal Code provides that "fraud - it is
theft of another's property or the acquisition of another's property by
fraud or breach of trust." How, then, is it possible to distinguish these
two related elements of crime?
The qualifying bodies of a theft and fraud are very similar. The
main object of a criminal assault is the property of another, in both
cases. The subject and the subjective side is almost the same. The main
difference is the objective side. Comparing the compositions of theft
and fraud, it should be noted: the objective aspect of theft (Article 158
of the Criminal Code) is characterized by the fact that the subject
withdraws from the possession of another's property against his will,
without his consent and does it secretly. It means that theft there does
not have such feature as a voluntary transfer of property of the victim,
the offender, according to the definition is given in the narrative
dispositions of article 158 of the Criminal Code, secretly takes
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possession of another's property. [3] Whereas with the implementation
of fraud the victim himself the owner of things due to the use of
deception or guilty of his trust, removes the property from their
possession, passes it to the offender, provides the latter in respect of the
property entitlement of ownership, use, management and disposition
even if the property is transferred to the ownership .
From the above, it can be concluded that the detection of fraud or
breach of trust is one of the criteria by which the bodies of the crimes
"fraud" and "theft" should be limited.
It seems that the concept of "fraud" and "theft" in the Russian
legislation is separated, and that is so hard to determine the qualifying
structure. In a "fraud" an individual is deceived, in “thief” an individual
gets the property stolen without the participation of the individual.
However, the difficulties have arisen in the qualifications for specific
crimes such as the crimes in the banking sector, particularly the crime
involving bank payment cards.
Distribution of plastic cards has naturally led to a large number
of fakes. Here the question arises, if the offender took advantage of a
fake or someone else's plastic card whether it's a scam? After all, he
does not deceive the owner of funds, fraud or employee Trade
Organization or employee of the bank is exposed. Could it be just
stealing? In practice, the courts face such difficulties. As a result of
27.12.2007, the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian
Federation shall issue Decree № 51 "On judicial practice in cases of
fraud, embezzlement," which clarifies the offense with bank cards.
In particular, the paragraph 13 of the above Regulation explains,
" embezzlement of someone’s funds does not constitute a fraud through
the use of pre stolen or fake credit (estimated) card, if the issuance of
cash carried by an ATM without the authorized employee of a credit
institution. In this case, the deed must be qualified by the relevant part
of Article 158 of the Criminal Code.
The theft of other people's funds held in bank accounts by using
stolen or fake credit or payment cards should be classified as fraud only
in those cases where a person by fraud or breach of trust misled
authorized employee of credit, trade or service organization (for
example, when using a debit card to pay for goods or services in a
shopping center or a service, the person shall sign a receipt for the
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purchase instead of the legitimate cardholder or makes a false passport
in his name) "[1].
Thus, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, first pointed
out that fraud cannot be qualified as a criminal act without the
participation of an individual (including ATM cheat or not to abuse his
trust). Second, regardless of the fact that the owner of the means by
plastic card is one individual qualifies fraud and with the participation
of other individuals (such as employee fraud, credit, trade, or other
organization).
In 29.11.2012, the Federal Law № 207-FZ "On Amendments to
the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation and Certain Legislative
Acts of the Russian Federation" was accepted, which confirmed the
above findings of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.
This law introduced articles that reflect the characteristics of
fraud in a particular area, particularly in banking. Due to the nature of
banking crimes, such a division is considered quite acceptable.
Thus, the legislator, in confirming the above Supreme Court of
the Russian Federation, identified the subjects of the fraud with bank
payment cards.
However, the selection of articles on fraud in their specificity is
not always perceived positively. So, Koretsky D. A. and Kurinova Y. I.
note that "explain the modification of the criminal law of fraud (the
selection of individual items) is very difficult. After all, if the break to
its founding logic, we should introduce a "daughter" articles in other
formulations, for example, you can select separate pocket, apartment,
car theft, rape or compounds, depending on the place of execution (in
the park, in the house, in the attic, etc.). It is quite clear that this is a
dead end and the absurd way that undermines the universality of the
criminal law ". [2]
One can quite agree with the authors of the article, but not
completely. The fact is that fraud, particularly in the banking and
insurance sector, (that and allocated separate article), is very specific.
Fraud in this sphere is involved many organizations and individuals.
For example, in the crimes of plastic card the owner of money is the
same person, the cardholder is another person, a cheat, as a rule, is the
third person. According to this specificity the Supreme Court of the
Russian Federation explained that the deceit of employee or
commercial lending institution with a payment of a credit card is a
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fraud, despite the fact that the owner of the cash is not deceived (i.e.,
with little need it can be brought under a theft). In this connection, the
establishment of a clear notion of plastic card fraud in the criminal law
for the proper training is a step forward rather than back.
Of course, the difficulty of separation of fraud and theft occurred
not only in fraud with bank cards. With the theft of securities, including
bank certificates the problems with the qualifications can also be
observed. But here, the Russian Supreme Court came to the aid of the
lower courts.
In particular, the paragraph 10 of the Resolution of the Plenum of
the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of 27.12.2007 № 51
explains, "a secret theft of securities does not constitute a fraud, it
means such securities on which the right may be certified by them to
carry out any of their holder (bond bill, the action, the bank deposit
book to bearer or other documents related to the number of the law of
securities). Deed, in these cases should be classified as theft of
another's property.
The following implementation of rights certified secretly stolen
bearer securities (i.e. the receipt of cash or other property), is the
disposal of stolen property, and does not require additional
qualifications as theft or fraud. "
In this connection, the theft of bearer securities will be qualified
as theft, even with the implementation of the above securities. When
registered securities offender will have to forge their documents, a fact
that will be linked to fraud.
Thus, theft and fraud have much in common. Proper qualification
depends on the rules of criminal law that must be applied and,
therefore, affects the fate of an infringer. Banking is a very versatile
and specific. Today, the division of theft and fraud in the banking
sector with a view to the proper application of criminal law helped the
Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian
Federation № 51 dated 27.12.2007 "On the judicial practice in cases of
fraud, embezzlement", and later adopted by the Federal Law № 207-FZ
"On Amendments to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation and
Certain Legislative acts of the Russian Federation." Of course, not all
bank crimes are covered by the Plenum of the above, and Federal law,
however, some of the most common crimes today (in particular with
the use of plastic cards) was underdone the modification for
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qualification. The complexity of certain specific to a particular
economic activity requires constant improvement of the criminal law,
and in this case, we believe that the legislature has chosen the right path
forward.
List of literature
1. Постановление Пленума Верховного Суда Российской
Федерации от 27.12.2007 №51 «О судебной практике по делам о
мошенничестве, присвоении и растрате» // СПС «Консультант
плюс», 2013.
2. Корецкий Д.А., Куринова Я.И. «Почему взяточники и
расхитители превращаются в мошенников?» // «Законность». №5.
2013.
3. Мархеев
Д.
«Актуальные
проблемы
уголовной
ответственности за мошенничество. Вопросы квалификации
мошенничества» // СПС «Консультанат Плюс», 2013.
4. Титов Ю.П. Хрестоматия по истории государства и права
России. М., Проспект, 2012.
SUBJECTIVE RIGHTS ON ACCOMMODATIONS IN RUSSIA:
LEGISLATIVE REGULATION
AND TRENDS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
S. I. Suslova
Irkutsk Institute of Law (affiliate) of the Russian Law Academy
of the Russian Federation Ministry of Justice, Irkutsk, Russia,
svetsuslova@yandex.ru
Numerous scientific studies of subjective rights on
accommodations in the Soviet period laid the theoretical foundation for
understanding these issues in contemporary Russian law. The minimum
number of subjective rights that existed in that period, determined by
the total state ownership of real estate units, however, prompts the need
to assess the current system in the Russian subjective rights on
accommodations, as well as the trends of their scientific study.
Evaluation of legislation. Analysis of the Russian civil and
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housing law (Chapter 18, 35 of the Civil Code of the Russian
Federation, Sec. II Housing Code of the Russian Federation) suggests
that at present time, an individual may possess more than twenty
different subjective rights on an accommodation. In addition to
property rights one should mention the subjective right of the
accommodation owner's family member, the right of a tenant by social
and specialized renting and the his family members' right, the right of a
tenant under a commercial renting contract and the rights of people
constantly residing with the tenant, the right of the temporary occupant
according to all existing rent contracts and loan contract, the right of the
borrower and his family member, the right of the legatee and the right
of his family members, the right of a person receiving a rent and his
family member's right, the right of a sub-tenant under social and
commercial rent, the right of a member of a housing and housingconstruction co-operative. Some of these subjective rights were
generated by the Soviet legislation and are reproduced in modern legal
acts virtually unchanged (the right of a tenant under a contract of social
renting or temporary tenants). Others represent a reversion to the prerevolutionary Russian schemes (the legatee's right). In reforming the
civil law, it was proposed to use the scheme of usufruct. Considering
these facts one should pay attention to the issues that still can not be
worked out at the legislative level.
First, it is the lack of a clear approach to the system of property
rights and their relation to the rights of obligation. The open list of
property rights promotes the controversial assumptions of the nature of
various subjective rights on accommodations and the implemented
protection methods by the law enforcer.
Second, it is the existence of the cases within the norms of the
law, in which the accommodation rights arise by court ruling without
stating which subject right arises in this case. In other words, a person
acquires (or maintains) the right of residence without specifying
opportunities and oughts acquired in this case. However, in accordance
with legislation in power the court has the right to make such a decision
in two cases, in accordance with Part 4 of Art. 31 Housing Code (to
preserve the residence rights of the former family member of the
owner), and in accordance with Art. 687 of the Civil Code (in the case
of termination of the commercial tenancy contract for cause).
Third, in many cases, the legislation confirming the base of the
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subjective right, does not define its content, i.e. those legal options,
which are attributed to the holder. Thus, in particular, Art. 33 Housing
Code, which establishes the legatee's right to reside in the
accommodation, determines only the possibility of state registration of
this right, and Art. 34 Housing Code, confirming the right of the rent
recipient on residing in the accommodation, makes it possible to
establish the rights and responsibilities of a person living under the rent
contract by agreement of the parties.
Fourth, constantly balancing between the interests of the owner
of the accommodation and other persons with derivative subjective
rights on the accommodation, the legislator applies the right enshrined
in the Housing Code (Article 1) concerning the deviation from the
principle of equality of parties of housing relations. As a result, the
content of subjective rights of the specific categories of persons is
changed, which deprives them of the basic features that define the
essence of the subjective right. A striking example is the situation with
the right of the family members of the accommodation's owner: up to
March 1, 2005 the holder of the subjective right was not deprived of the
right to use with the change of the owner, hereupon the legal resolution
of this situation is exactly the opposite. Currently, in the Project of the
Civil Code, which passed its first reading in the State Duma, the right
of a member of the owner's family is to be called usufruct, returning the
features of the resale right on that object. Such instability of subjective
rights, due to the discretion of the legislator, cannot be assessed
positively.
These, and other aspects associated with inadequate legislation,
require a more thoughtful approach to the study of these issues at the
theoretical level.
Research. The tenant's and his family members right under the
social contract of tenancy were the main subjective rights that were
studied in detail by the Soviet scientists. Modern studies of these issues
are quite diverse and include the basic subjective accommodation
rights. In this respect, the greatest interest is the description of the
subjective right of accommodation owners as well as renting
relationships (social, commercial, specialized). However, we should
note that the vast number of works emphases the description of the
interaction of the initial subjective rights (generally, property rights)
and derivative subjective rights. The issues of several subjective rights
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collision with each other is virtually not considered. However, this
direction of research, in the current state of the housing policy in
Russia, is one of the most challenging.
First of all, it is about the study of subjective rights
encumbrances. We propose to define dependability of subjective rights
that produce encumbrances, which can be both vertical (subordinate)
and horizontal (unsubordinated) levels. The direst dependence (the first
level) is the relationship of property rights and another subjective right
emerging on its base. The holders of direct dereliction rights include:
tenants (in all types of rent contract); borrowers, the owner's family
members, legatees, the recipient of rent, members of cooperative until
full payment of the shares. This is the dependence of the vertical level.
The relationship between derivative subjective rights forms the
horizontal relationship. The origin of these rights is the right of
property. However, being stated on an object, the following subjective
rights act as encumbrances not only for the right of property but also
in relation to each other.
The indirect dependence (of the second level) is the relationship
of derivative rights and other subjective rights emerging on its basis.
The latter (indirect derivative rights) include: temporary residents,
subtenant, the tenant's family members under social and specialized
contract; the family members lodged by the owner's family members,
the borrower's family members, members of cooperative families, the
subtenant's family members, permanent tenants under the contract of
commercial rent. The dependence of the horizontal level is also
possible with indirect relationship.
It should be noted, that despite a rather detailed research on
particular issues concerning encumbrances being results of the
subjective rights interaction under vertical dependence, the horizontal
dependence has not been studied thoroughly. The simultaneous
occurrence of the subjective right of the legatee, or the rent recipient, or
the owner's family member, the borrower (direct derivative rights) or
temporary tenant and subtenant (indirect derivative rights) requires the
understanding of possibilities emerging in this case, and the
consequences of such situations. As noted above, this task is
complicated by the fact that the legislation is often silent about the
possibilities that emerge for the holders of derivative subjective rights.
In addition, the detailed analysis of practical cases demonstrates that the
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civil law is not able to take into account the whole specifics of the
housing relations.
Let us illustrate the following with the example of a loan
agreement. Imagine a case in which the accommodation was given to
an individual under the loan agreement. At the same time there is one
more commercial rent contract with another individual, which is
permissible by Part 1 of Art . 700 of the Civil Code , which provides for
the right of the lender to transfer things in gratuitous use of a third
party. After that, the owner dies, and under the terms of the will the
legatee can settle in the accommodation. However, neither the loan
agreement ( Part 2 of Art . 700 of the Civil Code ) nor the commercial
rent contract ( Part 1 of Art . 675 of the Civil Code ) terminates. Each
of the mentioned subjective rights holders can own and use the
accommodation, everyone has the right (following the agreement
procedure with the owner, and in some cases, in the absence thereof) to
settle other individuals, each endowed with a certain set of oughts. The
difficulty of solving this situation associated with a complete lack of
legal regulation of these relations, is also complicated by the following
factors: a ) the lack of statutory features included in the legatee's right;
b) the rule of Part 1 of Art . 700 of the Civil Code, indicating that when
the lender transfers the property to such a person in gratuitous use (in
this case, to the tenant under the commercial rent contract), this person
acquires the rights under the previously signed contract of
uncompensated use. The latter provision raises serious confusion. A
literal interpretation of this provision means that the tenant is now in
the owner's role, who has the right to terminate the contract with the
borrower, and has the right to claim repair and overhaul from him. He
becomes a person whose agreement one should get when settling in
other persons in the accommodation. The inadmissibility of this scheme
in the accommodation sphere seems more than obvious. Thus, this
particular conclusion corresponds with the more general considerations
concerning the need for a special legal regulation in the gratuitous use
of accommodations within the housing legislation. In this respect, the
emphasis should be placed not on their gratuitousness, but on the use of
the accommodations for living.
This particular example demonstrates the need to expand the
approaches to the study of the issues of subjective rights on
accommodations in Russia.
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SECTION 9. Psychological science
THE VALUES OF A MODERN PERSON
N. G. Makarova
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia,
natali-mak@bk.ru
The problem of values in the modern world is not just relevant,
but also very important for any researcher. Values are the basis of a
personality and the direction of an individual and his way of life, the
quality, the environment and more. The values refer to the moral and
ethical aspects are formed in childhood, when a child becomes a
reference point for his parents and close friends and then a reference
group of friends. Skomorohova M. I. writes about it the following:
"Modern psychological and educational research shows that the
orientation of primary school children on moral values occurs in
connection with the formation and development of the child as a whole
person. The issue of moral values formation, the system that
encourages the development of the spiritual needs of students, helps to
accelerate their socialization, integration into society, of particular
relevance "[2, p. 3]. It is written that the values help the child to
painlessly integrate into society, learn to build communication skills
with the direction of the setting values. When a child is inculcated the
true and correct values from the childhood, then they may be left as his
guide in life situations during his adulthood. Generally, if a child
demonstrates the values acceptable in the community, then he will look
back at them during his life. Furthermore, as expressed in the work of
Skomorohova M. I. : "The value orientations are formed over a
lifetime, but most of the sensitive development of moral value
orientations is the age at which there are mechanisms of world and selfcognition" [2, p. 12].
Considering the values of the past century, it is safe to say that
the emphasis was on youth spiritual aspect, and material values were
not taken into account at all. The current generation of young people is
more focused on the material aspects because of the new requirements
of society which force people to pay attention and follow them if they
want to be accepted by society.
165
Currently, the issue of wealth is very important for young people
who are trying to meet the needs of the community that allow some
young people to be successful, please yourself, to have what they need
and to meet their own needs. And, as reflected in the work of N. V.
Sidorova: "a fragile state of society is the end of the XX and XXI
century began broadcasting generates the new meanings of life and
values, and the Institute of Education at the same time plays a special
role being a reflection of the deep foundations of culture" [1, p. 7]. In
other words, the environment, culture, institutions of different kinds
take part in the formation of values for each individual and for the
whole group of people. Society defines some rules and standards that
should be targeted to each person to meet generally accepted standards
set by the public. However, there are situations in which a person does
not find a harmony of himself, even if his requirements are fully
satisfied. In this case, it is connected with the fact that in spite of the
material world every person aims to the development of spiritual, moral
and ethical side of his personality in varying degrees, conscious or not.
And, as noted in N. V. Sidorova’s work: "Today we need the
knowledge of ourselves more than ever, our place and our way in the
future, which can cover the mind, emotions and the belief that human
life has meaning" [1, p. 3]. This shows that the values and their
definition give a human integrity, the basis of the individual and the
meaning of life, the guide of which they are. Defining the concept of
values it can be distinguished that they represent an essential for a
person that determines the importance of attitude and personality credo.
Despite the current conditions and requirements for a person at a
certain stage of its development any person wants to focus on the
spiritual side. As noted Skomorohova M. I.: "At the present time,
humanity is beginning to make sense, why it lives for, its roots. In this
situation, the problem of ideological orientation of human, awareness of
its place and role in society, the meaning and purpose of personal
activity, responsibility for his actions become principal. The undoubted
factor in the further development of social progress can only be a
spiritually evolved person, a characteristic feature of which is the
constant focus on the universal values of kindness, compassion,
willingness to help in distress, conscience, etc. "[2, p. 11]. The new
approach to the study of values is that values allow a person to know
himself, to determine the presence of the existing qualities of the
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personality, discover your own inner peace. As reflected by V. V.
Znakov and G. V. Zlevskii in the book about the value orientations:
"The knowledge and the emergence of values is possible without
changing the subject: the transformation itself opens to him a different
view of the world in which the other not the previous values are
significant. In turn, the values have the opposite effect on a person: they
are not only light up his inner world in a new light, but also round off
the very subject (of course not final and temporary, which implies
further development) "[3, p. 7]. In other words, values are always
associated with changes, transformation of the personality, which affect
a significant aspect of meaning, in which the man is reviewing its
existing paradigm, world outlook, beliefs, and focuses on the verges of
re-emerging formations, improving his previous image. A rush to
achieve self-realization and self-improvement can be achieved by
forming the spiritual values of the individual. As noted by V. V.
Znakov: "At such moments, a person understands his integrity in his
entirety surrounding: he perceives and understands not only material,
but also the common aspect of being [3, c. 89 characters].
Moreover, E. V. Galazhinskii notes: "The difference between the
meanings of the values is reflected in the fact that the last states the
accordance of items not with the actual needs but with the possibilities
of man that become "tense" through the values” [3, p. 129]. In this case,
the meaning is related to more simple options to adapt the individual in
society, compared with the values that are more powerful and
meaningful for the individual. The meaning may reflect on the presence
of a person, and values affect the future and the past life and human
activity.
In any case, the values line up to the individual in the sense of
significant events that define their generation. It demonstrated in the N.
E. Harlamenkova’s work: "... an expression of his relationship to a
meaningful object in the form of self-determination and its approval is a
key mechanism of formation of subjective or personal values in the
process of becoming a human individual experience" [3, p. 150]. So, it
turns out that the experience of each individual plays a huge role in
shaping the value orientations of the person who sets the direction
where there is a movement toward the individual.
Values can be linked with the interests, and it is possible to see
what is currently fascinated by this or that person. The interests
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represent the values but in a small size. Considering the interests of the
person, you can imagine the direction of the individual and it is possible
to determine his future prospects.
Thus, considering the values can distinguish some essential
characteristics of them. First of all, the presence of values gives a
person the opportunity to develop in the direction of self-improvement
and strive for personal integrity, which further leads to its
harmonization. Moreover, the values give meaning to the objects or
subjects that are important for the individual and shaped by individual
experiences and environments of varying degrees of interaction of the
person with them.
List of literature
1. Сидорова Н.В. Онтологические основания ценностей и
ценностных ориентиров: автореф. канд.философ.наук:
09.00.01 /Сидорова Н.В. – Якутск, 2010. – 25 с.
2. Скоморохова М.И. Ориентация младших школьников на
нравственные ценности в процессе обучения: дис.
канд.педаг.наук: 13.00.01 / Скоморохова М.И. – Иркутск,
1997. – 171 с.
3. Ценностные основания психологической науки и
психология ценнлстей / Отв. Ред. В.В. Знаков, Г.В.
Залевский. – М.: Изд-во «Институт психологии РАН»,
2008. – 344 с.
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ATTRACTIVE FEMALE – MODERN VIEW
ON CLASSICAL FENOMENON
D. Pogontseva
Southern Federal University, Russia dashapgn@rambler.ru
Appearance discrimination is prevalent and widespread. At the
present stage we can notice a growing number of studies on the role of
physical attraction and the visual attractiveness or unattractiveness as a
factor influencing the behavior of people in various fields of life
(advertising, judicial decisions, employment, elections, etc.), as well as
phenomena of categorization and discrimination aimed against the
appearance of another .
Lookism is a fairly new phenomenon in Russia, while in
America one of the first studies related to this issue was conducted in
the 1980s. Under lookism one refers to any discrimination under the
influence of different and varied evaluations of what is considered to be
beautiful or not beautiful. This is one of the most common themes in
European research - the study of the stereotype “beautiful - is good”. As
noted by J. Olson and K. Marshuetz (Olson, Marshuetz 2005) beautiful
people always get more benefits - from a higher social assessment to
higher salaries. Through a theoretical analysis of this problem the
authors note that almost all works on the attractiveness of appearance in
one way or another affect the issue. They prove that as such a
stereotype exists it often has an impact on all other evaluations.
In modern Russian psychology there are few studies on
discrimination against people in appearance, with those that are being
often associated with ethnic and racial characteristics. But ageism is
considered within the framework of questions on recruitment, or
discrimination against older people (the problems of pensioners). In
Russian studies gender discrimination is quite often studied by, for
example, AP Pyatov (2004), VS Rozhkov (2006), A. Smirnov (2005)
and others, but the problem of appearance, as a factor in the evaluation
and practice of discrimination has not been touched upon. At the same
time a number of studies on various types of discrimination based on
appearance evaluation (lookism, ageism, etc.) do exist in the Russian
society. Also, it should be stressed that discrimination based on
outward appearance is reflected in a number of foreign works within
Russian psychology but this topic is just touched upon. These works are
169
fragmented without evaluating the phenomenon holistically. On this
basis, we can talk about the relevance of research into lookism for a
better understanding of the Russian reality. In our work devoted to the
study of representations of women in the sense of a ‘beautiful woman’
we interviewed 170 women in two age groups: conventionally referred
to as ‘young’ (85 people aged 17 to 21 years) and ‘mature’ (85 people
aged 30 to 55 years). We have proposed a series of questionnaires,
including those directly or indirectly linked to the problem of ageism
and lookism.
We asked the subjects to indicate the age range (‘from’ and ‘to’)
which can be attributed to a ‘beautiful woman’. Respondents were
presented with a scale ranging from 5 to 90 years with gradations of 5
years. In the analysis of the results we found that a beautiful woman is
described as a woman between the age of 18.7 (sample average) to 55.6
years.
However, analysis of each of the group proved that for the young
girls theage range was from 16 to 30 years, while in the ‘mature’
bracket this was from 20 to 60 years This conclusion is also backed up
in light of Spearman’s correlation analysis, in which it was found that
there is a direct correlation between age and such characteristics as the
lower limit of age of a beautiful woman (r = 0.32; p <0.05), the upper
limit of age of a beautiful woman (r = 0.21; p <0.05). Thus, the older
the woman, older than those in the representation of the ‘Pretty
Woman’, the older is her ideal of female beauty. This thesis is also
confirmed by other data obtained by us. In our study we asked
respondents to name the woman who is their ideal / standard of female
beauty. In stipulating the ideal of a ‘beautiful woman 52 females
provided us with names of famous actresses / singers.
In our study we analyzed the connection between the age of
women participating in the study, the age of their ‘ideal female beauty’
and the age range which they attribute to a beautiful woman. In this
analysis we found a direct correlation between the age of the study
participants and the age of their ideal female beauty (r = 0.5; p <0.05).
We also analyzed the age of the women identified as the ideal and the
age range to which the study participants used the concept of the ‘Pretty
Woman.’ We found that only 52% of women fall into the specified
range while 48% are older than the upper limit of the age of ‘a beautiful
woman.’ It should also be noted that among these ideals the young girls
170
named actresses, known for their roles at an early age (Audrey
Hepburn, Marilyn Monroe). Thus, we can assume that the
manifestation of ageism in the women’s views on female beauty is
more common among young girls.
Considering lookism, as a specific, discriminatory treatment of
the other, depending on their appearance, we have identified a number
of issues that may somehow reflect this phenomenon. Thus, one of the
sets of questions included questions about the height and weight of
beautiful women. In foreign studies it is noted that people who are too
short or very tall are considered less beautiful, while people of average
height and weight are evaluated as more attractive. In our study we
found that a beautiful woman is described as a woman of medium
height from 158 to 175 centimetres, with weight ranging from 48 to 64
kilos which also reflects this trend.
We have also analyzed the responses to questions related to the
numerical description of the height and weight of beautiful women.
Participants of the study reported on the line: there were 2 lines one
showed weight, another height and people note/choose a section of this
range of height and weight. Based on the height and weight of this
‘beautiful woman’, we calculated the BMI, calculated by the formula
‘weight divided by height squared’. This index is interpreted in
accordance with WHO recommendations. Thus, we have identified four
groups of respondents: 75% of study participants indicated a ratio of
height-weight which is ranked as the ‘norm’, 14% reported
underweight, 7% - for overweight and 4% for noticeably underweight.
Moreover, among older women 85% reported the ratio of height and
weight within the ‘rules’ and 9% - as underweight, but near normal and
6% - as overweight. At the same time, among young girls only 78%
reported a normal ratio of height and weight, while 22% gave a
relationship with severe deficiency or underweight. It should be noted
that even those responses that belong to the ‘norm’ at the bottom of the
range and reflect the state border must have been just - bordering on
‘underweight’.
We also analyzed the answers to the question: what were
necessary characteristics in the description of the figure of a beautiful
woman (from the anorexic thin - to obese). Thus, 45% of older women
indicated that the figure of a beautiful woman was ‘one shaped to look
like an hourglass or a guitar’, 35% - chose the response ‘a slim figure’
171
13% - sporty, 5% - a full ‘body’, 2% - indicated that a beautiful woman
‘has a very thin figure’. Young girls picked ‘slim’ and ‘curvy figure’
(39% for each one) 12% - ‘sporty figure’ 3% - ‘very thin’ and ‘full
figure’, and 2% "anorexic in thinness" and ‘full-size’. Thus, we can
assume that young women are largely under the influence of media
broadcast stereotypes about the weight of a beautiful woman and
probably would discriminate against women who have a full figure. Yet
in order to talk about discrimination itself one would have to carry out
additional studies.
Also, we asked five questions which were based on the foreign
studies cited above. Respondents were asked to assess how this or that
characteristic applies to a beautiful woman, where 1 corresponded to
the answer ‘absolutely not true’, and 10 points to ‘fully compliant’. So,
we asked our subjects to rate statements such as ‘Beautiful women are
more happy,’ ‘Beautiful women are more experienced because of their
appearance,’ ‘A beautiful woman has more friends,’ ‘A beautiful
woman has more enemies,’ ‘Most beautiful women are jealous.
The findings were as follows: ‘Beautiful women are more than
happy’ – resulted in an arithmetical average of 6.7 points, ‘Beautiful
women are more experienced because of their appearance’ - 6.2 points,
‘Beautiful women have more friends’ - 6.7 points, ‘Beautiful women
have more enemies’ - 6.2 points,‘Most beautiful women are jealous’ 7.5 points. These results as well as the frequency distribution of the
responses suggest that the majority of the survey participants believe a
beautiful woman to be happier (71%) when compared with other
women; beautiful women to be more experienced because of their
appearance (64%), often jealous of those around them (81%), having a
lot of friends (68%) and enemies (57%).
Describing the relationship of beautiful women in the workplace
1% of respondents did not answer, 11% believe that beautiful women
‘are respected and do respect other people at work,’ 65% of
respondents indicated that ‘ some people love them and some do not,’
18% find that beautiful women ‘have the same relationship with all
their colleagues’ and 5% of respondents believe that a beautiful woman
‘is not liked by her colleagues.’
Thus, we can assume that our findings show the relevance of the
topic and go in line with the Russian mentality. As V.A. Labunskaya
(2010) states ‘appearance is becoming one of the most important means
172
of building typologies, selection and recognition of certain social
groups, strata, describing lifestyles. Appearance ... becomes a way of
visual communication and stratification.’ Thus, appearance is a factor
of discrimination.
References
1.
Olson I. R., Marshuetz Ch. (2005). Facial
Attractiveness Is Appraised in a Glance. Emotion, 5, 4 , pp. 498-502
2. Labunskaya V., A. (2010). "Visible Man" as a sociopsychological phenomenon . Social psychology and society. 1, pp.2639.
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES
TO UNDERSTANDING MENTAL REFLECTION
Elena Polianichko
Kyiv University named after Boris Hrinchenko, Kiev, Ukraine
pony2006@ua.fm
Depth psychology is focused on understanding the mental in its
entirety (the conscious-unconscious), which opens up the prospects of
psychodynamic and phenomenological approaches to diagnostic and
corrective procedures based on the analysis of mental content. The
motivations of the individual to the activity (specific tasks) in the
psycho-correction do not reduce the level of spontaneity to display
different lens of mentality in their continuum ordering at a deep level.
Psychodynamic approach is based on the initiation of spontaneous
activity of the subject promoting self-presentation of mentality in the
materialized forms. Evidence of motivation of the respondent in this
kind of knowledge is the spontaneous activity. It exacerbates the deep
knowledge of aspects of mentality of the respondent in a dialogic
interaction with a psychologist.
The actuality of the problem is due to the lack of scientific and
theoretical, methodological and practical aspects of the presentation of
the results of deep knowledge of the mentality in its ability to reflect
reality. In this context, the problem is exacerbated by the mediation of
the experience of the subject of archetypal symbols.
173
It is important to note that with the research function of the
position the reflective understanding of mentality in its entirety (the
conscious-unconscious) depends on the disclosure of the functional
characteristics of mental, in his subjectivity. We stand in solidarity both
with K. G. Carus, that "the key to the psychology of consciousness is in
the unconscious," and with K. Jung - the truth "never lies within the
boundaries of consciousness; it also includes unlimited room
unconscious."
In content, the mind is a subjective reflection of objective reality.
"Reflection is an interaction in which some phenomenon or its effects
are reflected in the other." Mental reflection is perfect (presented
properly) while subjective is peculiar only to the subject and depends
on the internal prism of perception. All stages of genesis according to
A.N. Leontiev are accompanied by sensual relationship: the emotional
tone of feelings until a "sense of subject." The moment of knowledge in
the "co-knowledge" stresses of the external world which is reflected in
mentality. The subjectivity of mental is possible through the retreat
from reality by the behavior of the subject of psychoanalysis.
According to the hypothesis of NAPS of Ukraine Academician
T. S. Yatsenko, subjectivity of mental reflection is caused by the
"objective (ideal) reality of the laws of functioning of the unconscious".
[1] Individualized subjectivity manifests itself in the archetype,
subordinate to the general laws of mental functioning.
The problem of objectivity remains relevant in scientific
knowledge, especially in the psychoanalytic and depth-psychological
approaches in relation to the specific subject of the study: a holistic
mentality in its conscious and unconscious manifestations. Modern
research conducted in the format of a psychodynamic paradigm (T. S.
Yatsenko) opened the prospect of mental cognition in its entirety using
the metaphorical-rendered assets (pictures, stones, modeling dough in
the process of self-presentation, toys and other knowledge models).
Psychodynamic theory suggests that the visualization of material
mechanisms is updated synthesis, selection, breeding on its
significance, abstracting from the concrete story that promotes the
knowledge of its meaning. The dominance of power centers introduced
in the materialized means opens the prospects of scientific research and
is the evidence base for the analysand in making diagnostic results and
their use in the correction. It allows the subject to make sure with his
174
personal material produced by its spontaneous and involuntary activity
in the priorities of the internal motive power and definite behavioral
pattern that may be relevant to a particular (everyday) situation which is
masked by expediency or professional interest. At the stage of
catalyzing the process of deep knowledge archetypal symbols
contribute to the integration of contradictions in the way of leveling the
struggles and antagonisms etc. The appeal of an archetypal image for
consciousness is evident in its dynamic aspect. Therefore, involuntary
deep knowledge of the subject's activity without the shaped material
and creating the conditions for spontaneous, according to
psychodynamic theory is difficult to implement. Thus, the archetype
affects both the processes of conscious and unconscious areas of
mentality in their spontaneous presentation. The archetype is not only a
product of individual experience, it is latent, unconscious and universal.
In the archetypes K. Jung sees the shape attitudes, perception and
cognition which are inevitable and the determining a priori condition of
all mental processes.
The leading component in the energy initiation of any behavioral
act is the motivation that carries a certain emotion. The dominant
motivation manifests itself indirectly and disguised in the spontaneous
activity of the subject. "Unrequited" the conscious and the unconscious
in the process of visualization in figurative and symbolic forms is
maintained by the archetype. The last one has pre perinatal information
and the ability to integrate with the mechanisms of symbolization (hint,
condensation, displacement, location, etc.), as well as a psychological
defense system in its basal and peripheral forms. Mental reflection of
objective reality allowing distortions indicates ownership of the process
of psychological defense mechanisms. According to Freud, the purpose
of psychological defense is the weakening of intrapsychic conflict
(stress, anxiety) caused by the contradiction between the unconscious
instinctual impulses (id) and internalized demands of the environment
(the superego) as a result of pro-social education of the individual.
Freud associates with the protection of the basic functions of the mind:
a device to trim and regulation that is actually means that protection is
an integral part of the process of mental reflection, including waiting
for results.
In the aspect of the stated problem psychodynamic theory and the
method of active social and psychological knowledge is particularly
175
important, the results of which synthesizes the "Model of the internal
dynamics of mentality" [2].
According to T. S. Yatsenko, psychological defense has a
"dispositional character and is a holistic education including both the
work of the consciousness and unconscious aspects." With the
introduction of the concept of "disposition" the explanation of the
determinants of psychological protection was made possible that allows
you to deeply and systematically examine the internal structure of the
subject's predisposition to the "protective" behavior. "The disposition of
psychological protection depends on the previous experience of the
subject and has a complex hierarchical structure, and functioning on the
emotive, behavioral and cognitive levels" [3, p. 155].
In psychology, the cognitive level of mental functions is related
to the conscious sphere. In psychodynamic theory (T. S. Yatsenko)
hypothesis suggesting the involvement of the cognitive perspective to
the unconscious sphere, specifically, asymmetric key which points to a
diametrically opposite direction of energy, respectively, the logic of the
unconscious ("a different logic"), compared with the logic of
consciousness.
In the pro-social perspective, the cognitive level is set by the
ideals of "I" and the normative values. The actual act of mental
expression always has a "point of intersection" horizontal (base
defense) and vertical (situational defense) which requires disclosure of
the contents in a dialogic interaction with the subject to demarcate
conscious and unconscious aspects. Semantic (notional) lens of the
basal forms of psychological defense is set be the oedipal dependence
of the subject, the pulses of which are dominant in the implicit
structuring of mentality.
“Nonesxperimental” according to its own latency inherent logic
influences the direction of the dynamics of involuntary behavior of the
subject, thus forming the major trends in the behavior of the subject. At
the same energy priorities of " nonesxperimental " seek to implement
through the basal form of protection in terms of integration with
situational protection operating mainly in pro-social way to maintain
focus on the adaptation of the subject.
Basic protection is an individual experience through "
nonesxperimental ", g. e. hides and turns into insignificance subjectindividualized specifics which is inherent in every defensive "pa". At
176
the forefront is the integration of emotive signs, as late effects
(adversity) the person throughout his life. In these processes, the
"dominant" plays an important role (A. A. Ukhtomskii) as a force
capable to control all mental activity of a man.
We rely on the approval of academician T. S. Yatsenko,
according to which the objective determinants of the subjectivity of
mentality is in the unconscious. The tendency of mentality is free from
the participation of consciousness and energy priorities made by "
nonesxperimental " and they are dependent on the "latent processes
created by the internal laws immanent inheriting from the mental in
relying on domination of the residual stresses of emotive centers of
repression '[4]. Thus, the effect of the archetype of mental reflection on
the process involves a deep analysis of the behavior of the material in
its entirety allowing to define the logic level of consciousness and
unconsciousness.
Psychodynamic theory is based on the assumption that the scope
of the conscious and the unconscious have both autonomy and
relationship. The most important problem of depth-oriented
professional psychologist is the ability to predict the probability of
individual features of intrapsychic relationships, where archetype helps
in its merger with the mechanisms of symbolization.
List of literature
1. Яценко Т.С. Проблема глубинного познания психики субъекта в
визуализированной самопрезентации [Текст] / Ежемесячный
научно-практический журнал Общероссийской профессиональной
Психотерапевтической Лиги, Психотерапия № 10 (118) 2012г.
P.22-30.
2. Яценко Т.С. Основи глибинної психокорекції: феноменологія,
теорія і практика [Текст] / Т.С. Яценко. – К.: Вища шк., 2006. –
382p.
3. Яценко Т.С. Психологические основы активной подготовки
будущего педагога к общению с учащимися [Текст] : дис. докт.
психол. наук.- Киев, 1989. – 359 p.
2. Теория и практика глубинной психокоррекции: Шестая
авторская школа академика НАПН Украины Т.С. Яценко [Текст]:
сост. В.П. Андрущенко, А.В. Глузман – К.: Изд-во НПУ имени
М.П. Драгоманова, 2012. – 226p.
177
SECTION 10. Political science
THE SYSTEM OF RUSSIAN FEDERATION FOREIGN PUBLIC
INSTITUTIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF NATIONAL SECURITY
E. S. Barsova
VPO "Kuban State University" Krasnodar, Russia, e.barsova @ mail.ru
Modern states have chosen the path of stability and conflict
prevention with a help of international institutions: create a universal
system of security based on cooperation by the international law.
Participation in international institutions is a necessary element of the
national security system, which reveals an aspect of foreign policy
activities of state institutions. This topic has a high degree of relevance,
however due to the closure of object particularly the activities of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs it is difficult to analyze. In our view, it is
important to fill the resulting gap: foreign policy of the state institutions
should be reflected in scientific research, particularly with regard to
domestic public policy. As researchers note: "an analysis of" political
wrong side "of Russian foreign policy - a fairly new thing" [1, c.141].
This combination (in the context of foreign policy aspect of domestic
public policy) can reveal the essence of many phenomena (including
national security) which with the domestic political conditionality is
under considerable influence of the environment, thus cannot be
considered as a closed system research one level of internal or external.
Briefly, foreign policy of the state institutions can be designated
as the provision of diplomatic means of national security, national
sovereignty, territorial integrity and national interests of the Russian
Federation in the international arena. Foreign policy activity is related
to the strengthening of the position of the state in the global political
process of innovation development and implementation of the
modernization of national security, which are expressed in
technological improvement and expansion of contacts.
In the conditions of globalization national security is at the
coordination of the interests of world politics, it is carried out with the
active participation of international political institutions. From the
Russian Federation's strategic course state political institutions are
being implement in this direction and classified as follows: 1) the
178
higher organs of state power of general competence, endowed by the
Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation, along with the other
powers in the area of foreign policy (the President of the Russian
Federation, the Government of the Russian Federation, the Federal
meeting), and 2) a specialized state foreign body (the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation), and 3) state, which is not a
specialized implementation of the foreign policy of the country, but
endowed with the laws of the foreign individual mandate (Security
Council, the Federal security Service, the Ministry of Defense, the
General Staff of the Armed forces RF, etc.). Also, public institutions
asking for foreign policy can be divided into domestic- this includes all
of the above agencies, and foreign - embassies, representative offices of
international organizations, operating continuously, as well as the
various delegations to international organizations, the existing limited
period of time. Then the main role is played by the President of the
Russian Federation - he formulates the basis of public policy including
foreign and the main coordinating role assigned to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, which is one of the first institutes of the Russian state.
As explained by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia Sergey
Lavrov, "in accordance with the Constitution of the foreign policy of
the country is implemented by the President. Ministry of Foreign
Affairs is engaged in its practical implementation. In this case, our
ministry
provides
leadership
external
information,
make
recommendations. But the basic decisions are taken naturally in the
Kremlin "[2, p.9].
It should be noted that the institutional structure of the
government agency providing national security in the context of the
foreign policy of the Russian Federation corresponds to the system of
political decision-making institutions. The head of the state is the
President who makes foreign policy decisions - according to the
Constitution, govern the foreign policy. The President shall issue
appropriate orders, strategic policy documents that are addressed to the
Federal Assembly to explain the state of the course, and also provides
representation of our country in the international arena. The
government under the Constitution of the Russian Federation intended
to implement measures to ensure the country's defense, state security,
and implementation of the foreign policy of Russia. In this case, apart
from the Foreign Ministry, which is the part of the government and, as
179
already mentioned, to perform the basic functions of coordinating the
foreign policy, participation in the political decision-making on these
issues take almost all ministries. The specialized and the most
important ministries in the field of national security are: the Foreign
Intelligence Service, the Ministry of Defence, the Federal Security
Service, the Federal Border Service, Ministry of the Interior. Between
the President and the executive structures are presidential
administration (it includes the Office for Foreign Affairs) and the
Security Council. The Department of foreign policy is primarily
engaged in the analysis of information about international events – the
data from all channels is gathered here: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
other ministries, the Foreign Intelligence Service, the General
Intelligence Directorate, many analytical structures. The Department of
foreign policy studies appeals to the President for International Affairs,
prepares the President's speech on international issues and participates
in the development of foreign policy strategy, prepares visits and
interacts with the ambassadors. In turn, the Security Council is
preparing a decision of the President of the Russian Federation on the
development strategy of the country, providing the vital interests of the
individual, society and the state from external and internal threats, a
unified state policy in the field of national security.
The Federal Assembly, as a representative and legislative body,
is endowed with a wide range of powers to determine the foreign policy
agenda and implementation tasks. The Federal Assembly shall form
committees and commissions, organizing parliamentary hearings for
political decision-making, considering ratification and denunciation of
international treaties. However, experts note that the Parliament is not
fully using its own potential in the field of foreign policy of the state:
"The Federal Assembly is not yet turned into a generator of major
foreign policy initiatives in serious counterpart, and in some cases - and
in a constructive opponent executive in charge of international affairs"
[3, p.223-224].
The international governmental organizations are the main form
of international institutions. The state authorities of the Russian
Federation are building a system of contacts with them , the main tool
of interaction are representative of the Russian Federation at the
international ( inter-state , inter-governmental) organizations ,
coordinated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . In accordance with the
180
presidential decree of November 8, 2011 N 1478 "About the
coordinating role of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian
Federation in the conduct of a single foreign policy of the Russian
Federation," the Ministry of Foreign Affairs must "ensure the
participation of representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
Russian Federation and members of diplomatic missions and consular
posts institutions of the Russian Federation in foreign states ,
representatives of the Russian Federation to international organizations
, regional bodies - the representative of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of the Russian Federation on the territory of the Russian Federation in
the Inter-ministerial committees, working groups and other bodies
whose functions are related to the implementation of international
activities , as well as in delegations formed to participate in
international events affecting the foreign policy interests of the Russian
Federation " . [4]
The Permanent Representative of the International Institute and
the leaders of the various groups (delegations, groups of experts,
representatives of the federal bodies of executive power, Russian
government agencies, organizations, corporations and businesses,
representative of the Russian Federation) have a special role - they are
personally responsible for implementation of the Mission tasks and
perform the necessary functions.
All fields marked with state institutions of the Russian
Federation in the context of national security cooperate with
international institutions, to a greater extent with the UN, OSCE, EU,
NATO, CIS, CSTO, SCO, EurAsEC, which can be divided into two
groups. The first group is the most influential international institutions
with political centers in the West (UN, OSCE, NATO, EU), the second
- regional institutions (CSTO, SCO, EurAsEC, CIS). It is important to
note that these are the very institutions of education, despite the fact
that some of them are reflected in the title of "organization". The
Institute is wider than the organization, it represents not only the
"establishment", but also "determination" (from the Latin. Institutum),
reflects trends in the world politics, its focus on collaboration, minimize
or reduce the intensity of political conflict.
Thus, national security cannot be provided only by domestic
political means. It is linked to the global political process - the
interdependence of states, as well as supplied by the availability of
181
guarantees for national sovereignty, territorial integrity, and national
interest of the public institutions in the world. It is established that a
foreign policy activities is attracted by a wide range of public
institutions, their responsibilities are defined, developed a system of
interaction among themselves and with other international institutions.
State institutions of the Russian Federation together define the strategic
objectives and fulfill its objectives.
List of literature
1. Салмин А.М. Изнанка внешней политики: внутренние
факторы в системе связей, обстоятельств и проектов РФ. //
Полития. – 2001. - №5.
2. Diplomat. – 2004. - №8.
3. Россия между Западом и Востоком: мосты в будущее. –
М., Международные отношения, 2003.
4. Указ Президента РФ от 8 ноября 2011 г. N 1478 «О
координирующей роли Министерства иностранных дел
Российской
Федерации
в
проведении
единой
внешнеполитической линии Российской Федерации» //
Информационно-правовой портал ГАРАНТ. Режим
доступа: URL: http://base.garant.ru/12191547/ (дата
обращения 2.09.2013).
182
SECTION 11. Ecology
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE PRESENT
STATE OF THE INFORMATION
S. S. Rodionov
State University of Land Management, Moscow, Russia,
stanislavrodionov@hotmail.com
In this new information state unit of culture (BEYONDgenetic )
has a predominant influence in the behavior of the person who is the
subject of management in "The Man - The natural environment ."
Consider what the new information state .
If we consider the species , in terms of information and algo ¬
rhythmic support, then in this case , every multicellular species can be
classified into one of two categories:
- Species, in which information and algorithmic support of adult
behavior is completely programmed genetically ( genetic code ) (these
plants , mollusks, coelenterates , insects) - it is transmitted in ready to
use form is inherited from generation to generation on the basis of the
genetic mechanism of the type and installed in the body during the
execution of the genetic program of development of the organism ,
from the moment of formation of the zygote ( the first cell of a new
organism ) ;
- Species, in which information and algorithmic behavior of
adults includes two components:
1. genetically caused ( genetic code ), which ( as in the first case)
is transferred to a ready-to -eat form from generation to generation and
is set during the execution of the genetic program of the organism ;
2 . individually built up by individuals in the course of
interaction with the environment throughout its life ( people). BEYONDgenetic information (basics of sociology , Volume 3 .
Seconds. 9).
Attributable second category types are different from each other ,
the volume fraction ratio and information.
In fact , the second part is, all the information culture that is
individual to the biological life process .
183
For clarity , the distribution of information and algorithmic
support depict as information modules.
Figure number distribution of information and algorithmic support
of biological specimens (plants, mollusks, cnidarians, insects, etc.)
Figure number distribution of information and algorithmic support
of biological specimens (human)
Conclusion: information and algorithmic support of human
behavior has two components (modules): genetic (genetic code) and
BEYONDgenetic (information culture or culture in general
(Wednesday). Under the totality of culture is not genetically inherited
in ready-to-eat type of information that is passed from older to younger
184
generations on the basis of social organization (oracle: the social and
political technology institute, 2009, with 23.)
Over time, technology has increased the frequency of updates.
Currently, replaced by several generations of equipment and technology
in a generation. Over the lifetime of one man multiple changes taking
place in the surrounding world (changes in the information society
status). There is an increase in the importance of the influence of
human behavior BEYONDgenetic module over genetic. Man must
constantly develop, update all the new knowledge and skills.
Figure Changes in the ratio of frequencies of genetic information and
BEYONDgenetic
Ug - refresh rate of genetic information
Uc - refresh rate BEYONDgenetic information
People's
behavior
has
become
increasingly
define
BEYONDgenetic module . The described phenomenon is known as the
ratio between the frequency of genetic and BEYONDgenetic
information.
185
Culture is the carrier of another (other than instincts,
unconditioned and conditioned reflexes ) of the form of socially
determined behavioral information that each person receives the
information environment of the society. ( Dead Water h 1 )
In this new information state unit of culture ( BEYONDgenetic )
has a predominant influence in the behavior of the person who is the
subject of management in "The Man - The natural environment ." This
means that is necessary to form the vector control purposes on the
factors that influence the process of achieving the goals and objectives
of the introduction of the vector into an appropriate vector ¬ purposes
of the subject -oop pa ¬ ¬ ¬ to laziness , as well as recognition of new
factors increase t.e.dlya quality of management , it is necessary to list
the medium vectors goals in complete control functions.
Literature
1. IP USSR Dead Water Part 1, Historical and philosophical
essay M. NEI " Academy of Management ", 2004 , s.490
2 . IP USSR Principles of Sociology , staged courses material ,
Volume 3 . - M. NEI " Academy of Management ", 2011 - 528s .
3 . Sufficiently general theory of management courses material
Staged Department of Applied Mathematics - Control Processes , St.
Petersburg State University , 2007, s.403
4 . Oracle : the social and political technology institute , 2009 ,
p.38 . Policy Brief .
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THE STRATEGIES OF MODERN SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT
Proceedings of the II International Scientific–Practical Conference
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