Aberystwyth University
Department of Sport and Exercise Science
Investigating the Youth to Senior Transition in Sport: From Theory to Practice
By
ROBERT MORRIS
April 2013
A thesis submitted to the
Department of Sport and Exercise Science
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
i
Abstract
This thesis extended knowledge of the youth to senior transition in an elite sport
context (football) through examining athletes’ and supporters’ (coaches, parents, sport
physiologists, sport psychologists, physiotherapists, and a sport therapist) perceptions of the
move. In the process, the thesis evaluated the effectiveness of Stambulova’s (2003) model in
explaining sport based transitions. The use of a qualitative research design allowed the
opportunity to explore participants’ perceptions of the youth to senior transition in sport from
their own perspective (see Patton, 2002). By carrying out qualitative enquiry, Patton (2002)
argues that researchers are able to understand and capture other people’s points of view
without predetermining their thoughts and feelings or being constrained by the fixed focus of
many quantitative research methods. To help achieve the overall aims, Study 1 identified
coaches’ beliefs regarding the (a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers that athletes
experience and utilise as they move to senior sport. Participants (12 males), aged between 29
and 71 years from professional football clubs in the Scottish or English Premier League, were
interviewed. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and thematically content analysed.
Results indicated broad consistency with the demands, resources, and barriers highlighted in
Stambulova’s (2003) model, including, for example, athletes’ motivation level, as
determinants of transitional experiences. The study also suggested that those providing social
support have differentiated roles to fulfil in the transition from youth to senior sport (e.g.,
parents provide emotional rather than technical support). Additionally, rather than the youth
to senior change being a single major transition for some young players, series of transitions
over their whole career were perceived to influence their response when moving up to the
first team. Finally, coaches suggested that there is a need for dynamic balance between
resources and barriers throughout the process for optimal outcomes, supporting Stambulova’s
(2003) model of transition.
ii
To explore the broader social context in which athletes transition, Study 2 examined
supporters’ (including parents, and sport science support staff) perceptions of the transition
(a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers athletes experience and utilise as they move from
youth to senior sport. Supporters (12 males, 4 females), aged from 25 to 58 years, were
interviewed. The supporters interviewed included parents (n = 6), sport physiologists (n = 2),
sport psychologists (n = 4), physiotherapists (n = 3), and a sport therapist (n = 1). Interviews
were recorded, transcribed, and thematically content analysed. The results parallel those in
Study 1, and confirmed emerging suggestions in the literature that those providing support
have specific roles to fulfil in the youth to senior transition and when they try to fulfil other
roles, inappropriate exchanges take place that may have a negative effect on how successful
athletes transition.
Developing the concept of transition as an on-going process evidenced by Study 1,
Study 3 examined players’ and coaches’ perspectives of the change longitudinally. Previous
research had tended to employ a retrospective methodology. This study aimed to add to the
knowledge on the youth to senior transition through reducing the limitations associated with
such retrospective methodologies, by tracking athletes through the move. A total of 56 (40
player and 16 coach) interviews took place with 11 players (aged = 18 – 20 years; M = 18.9,
SD ± 0.83) and 4 coaches (aged = 46 – 60 years, M = 52, SD ± 7.2) over a one year period
before and after athletes were, or were not, offered a senior team contract. All participants
were male. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and thematically analysed in two ways.
First, athlete participants were grouped together based upon common themes they identified
in the first interview. Each group of athletes was then tracked over the period of the study to
identify if they highlighted any changes in demands, resources, and barriers, and their
experiences as they moved to senior sport. These data were complimented by coaches’
perspectives of how well athletes appeared to be coping with the process of transition to
iii
senior sport. Second, common themes across the dataset were identified. Three groups that
reacted differently to the transition were identified: avoidance, reactive coping, and proactive
coping groups. Each group reacted in different ways to the transition (e.g., the avoidance
group did not want support from others even though it was offered to them, the reactive
coping group actively sought out support from others after transition, and the proactive
coping group actively sought help when they felt they required it prior to, and throughout, the
transition period). Eight themes were identified in a cross group analysis of all the data. For
example, it was found the across all groups that the factors associated with transition may be
constantly in flux, which may mean that there are periods where athletes are panicking about
moving to senior sport and there are a number of elements associated with the move
adjusting, followed by other periods where athletes are calm about the process and less
aspects are unstable. This may have implications for the resources athletes require at different
time points throughout transition.
In order to begin to test the efficacy of conceptual models predicting athlete transition,
Study 4 focused on two professional football clubs’ youth to senior transition programmes,
and assessed if there was any evidence that the factors Stambulova (2003) identified may
contribute to successful transition to senior sport. The specific aims of the study were to (a)
explore the degree to which two clubs addressed demands, resources, and barriers associated
with the youth to senior transition, (b) identify any initial evidence to support the hypothesis
that factors listed in Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain transition outcomes
and guide intervention development, which could justify future experimental research, and
(c) highlight any additional factors which may promote successful transition to the first team.
Patton’s (2002) three steps for conducting a case study were followed in each club: (a)
assembling the raw case data, (b) constructing a case record, and (c) writing a final case study
narrative. In addition, a cross-case analysis was completed. Data collected included
iv
documents, relevant websites, semi-structured individual interviews, group monthly
meetings, and email communications. Interview participants’ (n = 17) mean age was 34 (SD
± 12), with four respondents being coaches in the youth teams, two respondents being first
team managers and coaches, two respondents being players who have recently transitioned to
the first team, four respondents being players in the current youth set up, two sets of parents
(two male and two female participants), and one respondent being a sport physiologist. Data
were thematically analysed. The results revealed that many of the factors highlighted in
Stambulova’s (2003) model were being interpreted and utilised differently across the
organisations. For example, one organisation actively tried to help players deal with demands
and barriers associated with the change, while the other organisation felt players who were
able to manage the difficulties associated with transition on their own would be most
successful in senior sport. Additionally, if Stambulova’s (2003) model has validity when
explaining the youth to senior transition in football, it would be expected that there were
dissimilar outcomes in two clubs that treat players differently. It appeared when combined as
part of an overall youth to senior transition programme, the package highlighted in
Stambulova’s (2003) model may have a positive influence on overall levels of player
development and retention. Study 4 is theory testing, and this initial evidence supporting such
differences in outcomes could justify a full experimental study, and may lead to improved
design of career transitions programmes to better support athletes.
The current PhD extends knowledge of the youth to senior transition in sport. The
findings of the thesis contributed to an adapted version of Stambulova’s (2003) model of
transition being proposed, to better explain the youth to senior transition in elite sport. Two
factors which may contribute to transition experience, individual aspects and environment
have been identified. The model has also been made more flexible to signify the dynamic and
on-going change in demands, barriers, and resources athletes experience may influence how
v
effectively they cope with transition. Finally, the outcome of the youth to senior transition
athletes may experience as a result of their ability to cope has been adjusted. The adapted
model highlights athletes may experience a successful transition, unsuccessful transition or
exit transition. The results have implications for the training and education of athletes on the
demands, resources, and barriers of transition, as such knowledge may help athletes
successfully transition to senior sport. The findings may also have implications for the ways
in which athletes may seek or use social support. For example, the findings may help coaches
and practitioners put appropriate support mechanisms in place to help athletes prior to, or
during transition, who could have resource deficiencies which may negatively influence their
move to senior sport. Finally, the thesis contributed to the wider psychological literature on
transitions and change by suggesting that society and social constructs may have an influence
on how effectively people may manage transitional demands and barriers. The findings of the
current thesis may allow those undergoing transitions to draw parallels between their
experiences and those of the sample studied in the current work, which may mean they have a
better understanding of the factors associated with moving to a new environment and how to
manage the demands and barriers which may make it difficult.
vi
Declaration
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xi
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my two supervisors, Dr David Tod and Dr Emily Oliver, whose
knowledge and expertise has been invaluable throughout my PhD. I am grateful to have had
two fantastic supervisors who encouraged me, even when it all seemed impossible. The
Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Aberystwyth University, fellow postgraduates
and staff, your support has been immeasurable.
To all the participants who have made this research possible, thank you. It has been
fascinating listening to all your stories and perspectives on the transition from youth to senior
sport.
Finally, I wish to thank my family and friends. I could not have done it without you.
xii
Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... i
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................. vi
Aberystwyth University E-thesis Deposit Agreement .......................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ xi
Contents ................................................................................................................................................ xii
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................ xv
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................xvi
Chapter One ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Significance and Structure of Thesis ............................................................................................ 9
1.3 Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................... 11
Chapter Two.......................................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Theoretical Perspectives ............................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Interventions for Transition ........................................................................................................ 26
2.3 Research Findings in Athletic Career Transitions ...................................................................... 38
2.4 Summary, Unsolved Issues and Aims of Current Research ....................................................... 53
Chapter Three........................................................................................................................................ 58
3.1 Research Design.......................................................................................................................... 59
3.2 Data Collection and Analysis...................................................................................................... 62
Chapter Four ......................................................................................................................................... 77
4.1 Introduction to Study One ........................................................................................................... 78
xiii
4.2 Method ........................................................................................................................................ 79
4.3 Results ......................................................................................................................................... 81
4.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 95
4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 104
Chapter Five ........................................................................................................................................ 105
5.1 Introduction to Study Two ........................................................................................................ 106
5.2 Method ...................................................................................................................................... 107
5.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 108
5.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 123
5.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 132
Chapter Six.......................................................................................................................................... 134
6.1 Introduction to Study Three ...................................................................................................... 135
6.2 Method ...................................................................................................................................... 137
6.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 142
6.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 166
6.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 176
Chapter Seven ..................................................................................................................................... 177
7.1 Introduction to Study Four ........................................................................................................ 178
7.2 Method ...................................................................................................................................... 184
7.3 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 189
7.4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 204
7.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 214
xiv
Chapter Eight ...................................................................................................................................... 216
8.1 Overview of Thesis and Results................................................................................................ 217
8.2 Main Findings and Theoretical Implications ............................................................................ 218
8.3 Adaptations to Stambulova’s (2003) Model of Transition ....................................................... 224
8.4 Strengths ................................................................................................................................... 228
8.5 Delimitations and Limitations ................................................................................................... 229
8.6 Practical Implications................................................................................................................ 231
8.7 Future Directions ...................................................................................................................... 233
8.8 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................................. 236
References ........................................................................................................................................... 238
Appendix A: Information Sheet and Consent Form Used in Study 1 ...................................................A1
Appendix B: Interview Schedule (Study 1) ..........................................................................................A4
Appendix C: Information Sheet and Consent Form Used in Study 2 ...................................................A5
Appendix D: Interview Schedule (Study 2) ..........................................................................................A8
Appendix E: Information Sheets and Consent Forms Used in Study 3 ................................................A9
Appendix F: Interview Schedules (Study 3) .......................................................................................A15
Appendix G: Information Sheets and Consent Forms Used in Study 4 ..............................................A23
Appendix H: Interview Schedules (Study 4) ......................................................................................A26
xv
List of Tables
Table 3.1. Phases of thematic analysis…………………………………………………….....68
Table 5.1. Demands of transition…………………………………………………………...111
Table 5.2. Internal and external resources to aid athletes through transition……………….114
Table 5.3. Perceived role of social supporters………………………………………………116
Table 5.4. Internal and external barriers to transition………………………………………120
Table 6.1. Avoidance group………………………………………………………………...148
Table 6.2. Reactive coping group…………………………………………………………...154
Table 6.3. Proactive coping group…………………………………………………………..160
Table 7.1. Interview details…………………………………………………………………186
Table 7.2. Data sources and detail information of data……………………………………..189
Table 7.3. A comparison between Stambulova’s (2003) model and the current thesis results,
and Organisations A and B………………………………………………………………….191
Table 7.4. Player development programme organisation comparison table………………..203
xvi
List of Figures
Figure 2.1. A developmental perspective on transitions faced by athletes at athletic,
individual, psychosocial, and academic/vocational levels…………………………………...17
Figure 2.2. Athletic career transition model………………………………………………….22
Figure 8.1. Adapted athletic career transition model representing the youth to senior transition
in football…………………………………………..……………………………………….227
1
Chapter One
Introduction
2
1.1 Introduction
To reach the top level of competitive sport, athletes make significant physical,
psychological, social, and financial investments until the point that participation is terminated
(Čačija, 2007). Additionally, athletes face numerous transitions throughout their sport career,
which can expose them to stressors (Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). Schlossberg (1981)
suggested transition is “an event or non-event [which] results in a change in assumptions
about oneself and the world, and thus requires a corresponding change in one’s behaviour and
relationships” (p. 5). For example, athletes may experience changes in competitive level,
coaches, and teams. Equally, athletes may also not experience a change which is expected,
such as when a player is expecting to move to senior sport but is released from their contract
with the organisation instead. The majority of career transition research has focused on the
retirement process. Such research (e.g., Alfermann, 1995; Allison & Meyer, 1988; Grove,
Lavallee & Gordon, 1997; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993; Swain, 1991; Werthner & Orlick, 1986)
has illustrated that retirement from sport is often a difficult experience, with approximately
15% of athletes experiencing serious psychological maladjustment, such as feelings of
depression (Wylleman, 1995). This literature also reveals that athletes cope better with the
process of retirement than they otherwise would have if they have been proactive in planning
for their future after sport. Also, Wylleman (1995) suggested that having a multidimensional
identity, that is defined not solely by sporting success, but also by social experiences and
successes outside the sporting domain, can help athletes adjust to retirement.
Although there has been a focus on career ending transitions (Stambulova,
Alfermann, Statler, & Côté, 2009), such as retirement from sport (e.g., Grove et al., 1997),
few studies have explored within-career transition in high level sport. As a consequence, not
much is known about the transitions elite and sub-elite junior athletes encounter, survive, and
conquer in typically challenging environments to become successful senior athletes.
3
Wylleman, Alfermann, and Lavallee (2004) suggested it is important to expand knowledge
about within-career transitions so that we have a greater understanding of the change
processes and the factors associated with them, which may mean that appropriate resources
can be put in place to assist athletic development. Previous research has suggested that this
youth to senior move may be challenging for athletes. For example, a study by Vanden
Auweele, De Martelaer, Rzewnicki, De Knop, and Wylleman (2004) found that as few as
17% of athletes who were junior national champions in their sport became senior athletes,
with a further 31% of athletes reporting stagnation in their development and becoming
recreational athletes. A further 28% were found to perform irregularly with a lack of
consistency in their performances, and 24% were found to drop out following this transition.
Additionally, Stambulova et al. (2009) have suggested that athletes frequently describe the
youth to senior transition as the most difficult change they experience in their sport career.
Pummell, Harwood, and Lavallee (2008), in the British context, have investigated the
factors affecting young athletes’ transitions from youth to senior level in event riding. Players
reported the transition into senior sport was a significant step up in both physical and
psychological terms, characterised by a greater pressure to perform consistently in senior
sport. Furthermore, many of the players recalled numerous additional demands, such as less
time to complete school work, which became apparent only once they had moved up to senior
sport. Pummel et al. (2008) discovered that external pressures from family members, friends,
teammates, and the riding organisation made the transition particularly difficult. Parents and
coaches were also found to be supporters to athletic development, with social support
received by their riders taking different forms, including emotional, technical, and tangible
support (e.g., transportation to and from events by parents). Riders also reported self-imposed
pressure to succeed in their careers. Those who made the transition successfully displayed a
high level of motivation and commitment to their sport. Riders were willing to give
4
significant personal investment in the form of time and effort and make sacrifices to become
prosperous, including missing out on school activities and social events with friends.
Bruner, Munroe-Chandler, and Spink (2008) found athletes making the transition
from youth to senior ice hockey were affected by their previous on-ice experiences, and the
level of sport they had competed at previously. Less exposure to elite sporting environments
as a junior resulted in a lack of perceived readiness for elite competition, with transiting
athletes reporting more difficulties adapting to their new settings than those who had prior
experience in senior sport.
The literature outlined above highlights that the youth to senior transition can be
difficult for many athletes, but there is a lack of knowledge of the factors pertaining to this
change, apart from a small number of studies (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008). The primary purpose
of this thesis is to examine the youth to senior transition in sport and the factors associated
with change from the perspectives of the athletes and supporters involved. To add to the
knowledge of transition and to achieve the primary function of the thesis, four aims were
devised, which are outlined below.
Much of the within-career transition research has tended to focus on athletes’
perceptions of the changes they have experienced (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press; Pummell
et al., 2008). Athletes’ perceptions of the factors associated with transition may be biased by
whether or not they experienced a positive or negative transition. Others (e.g., coaches) may
have knowledge of career transitions in sport as they may have helped a number of athletes
through the process, and formed understanding of factors associated with both positive and
negative transitional experiences. Asking these additional individuals about the change will
extend knowledge.
Grounded firmly in an idiographic perspective, athletes’ perceptions of transition is
also likely to add substantially to knowledge, given they are the ones moving into senior
5
sport. However, methodologically, much of the within-career transition literature has
employed retrospective interviewing (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008), which may have resulted in
memory distortion and retrospective recall bias having an effect on the validity of the data
presented (Levine & Safer, 2002). Consequently, research which reduces the effect of these
problems (e.g., tracking athletes through transition longitudinally), may provide a fuller
understanding of within-career transitions.
There have been a number of models of transition presented to explain the process of,
and factors associated with, career transitions in sport (e.g., Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994;
Stambulova, 2003). Few studies have, however, explored how well these models of transition
describe the youth to senior transition. Examining how accurately the models of transition
describe the youth to senior transition may help to provide an overall and integrated
understanding of the change, and may help supporters (e.g., sport psychologists) provide
mechanisms to assist athletes. Furthermore, no research has assessed the effectiveness of
models in predicting outcomes of within-career transitions in sport (i.e., athletes successfully
or unsuccessfully moving up to senior sport). Stambulova’s (2003) model appears to give the
most complete understanding of the youth to senior transition and is the only model which is
published in peer reviewed journals. It is the model which underpins the current thesis.
To add to the existing knowledge on the youth to senior transition in sport and help
achieve the overall purpose of this thesis, the aims of the current research were to:
(a) examine athletes’ and supporters’ subjective experiences regarding the youth to senior
transition in sport (Studies 1, 2, and 3);
(b) examine the demands, resources, and barriers athletes may experience moving from
youth to senior sport (Studies 1, 2, 3, and 4);
6
(c) examine ways in which factors highlighted in the first and second aims above parallel
and extend those raised in Stambulova’s (2003) model of transitions in sport (Studies
1, 2, 3, and 4); and
(d) identify any initial evidence to support the hypothesis that factors listed in
Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain transition outcomes and guide
intervention development, which could justify future experimental research (Study 4).
The previous studies on the youth to senior transition have not extensively examined
football. Football is a particularly interesting sporting culture to study, given the amount of
money invested in youth development and the demands placed upon young players as a result
(e.g., pressure from fans and media). These demands have become a particular challenge in
the professional football environment, where clubs aim to reduce the financial risks they take
by investing vast amounts of money in player development (Relvas, Littlewood, Nesti,
Gilbourne & Richardson, 2010). Furthermore, football clubs have and will become more
reliant on producing talented players through their own youth systems as a result of a recent
change in Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) regulations (2005), which now
requires teams to include four players from their own academy and a further four players
from academies of the same national association in their squads when participating in
European competition (UEFA, 2005). Given this unique culture, football is used as a medium
to study the youth to senior transition in sport in the current thesis.
As discussed, Stambulova’s (2003) model underpins the current work, and according
to her: “Successful transition is associated with effective coping, when the athlete is able to
recruit or rapidly develop all the necessary resources to overcome transition barriers and cope
with its demands” (Stambulova, 2009, p.70). This definition does not clearly distinguish the
outcomes of successful or unsuccessful transitions and appears performance focused, failing
to consider athletes’ psychological health and wellbeing. For example, the definition does not
7
help decide whether or not it is considered a successful transition when athletes perform well
in senior sport and has effectively coped with the transition demands and barriers related to
performance, but is experiencing symptoms of psychological distress, such as depression.
Similarly, an athlete may cope effectively psychologically with not being offered a contract
to move to senior sport. Generally, this definition is vague, and blurs wellbeing and
performance in one general definition.
Much of the previous research on within-career transitions (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in
press) has focused on how successful athletes are in senior sport. This narrow definition may
be appropriate for organisations who are focused on talent development and achieving a high
youth to senior transition rate which may help with financial gain (e.g., selling players who
have come from their youth system for financial profit). Contrastingly, psychological
governing bodies, such as the Health and Care Professions Council (2012), stipulate that
psychology practitioners should be concerned with enhancing the psychological health and
wellbeing of those they work with. This stipulation suggests that a definition of successful
transition which focuses on purely performance outcomes is limited because it may not
consider if athletes are psychologically healthy.
Acknowledging these contrasting standpoints, a definition which clearly combines
these aspects may be used to determine the outcomes of transition, with successful youth to
senior transition defined as when athletes are able to effectively cope with the demands and
barriers of transition and both perform competently in senior sport and attain positive
psychological health and wellbeing. Athletes who experience positive wellbeing but are no
longer in senior sport would be categorised as experiencing an unsuccessful youth to senior
transition, but a successful exit from sport transition.
Although, this definition of successful transition encompasses both psychological
health and wellbeing and performance, the main focus of this thesis has been targeted at the
8
performance element, because Stambulova’s (2003) model focuses mainly on the
performance outcomes of transition. All of the elements of Stambulova’s (2003) model are
geared towards performance (e.g., the internal and external resources she highlights are all in
relation to how it influences performance). One of the key aims of the current research is to
focus on assessing the effectiveness of Stambulova’s (2003) model in explaining
performance-related transition. It is acknowledged, however, that some athletes may
experience negative psychological outcomes although they are performing competently.
Although Stambulova’s (2003) model was not designed to explain the psychological health
and wellbeing element of transition, this model was selected as it was the most appropriate
for answering the research questions.
Additionally, it is also important to consider at what time an athlete has a successful
performance-related transition. As soon as athletes move up to senior sport, they may start to
show signs that they are performing well in senior sport (e.g., competing for and playing for
the senior team in competitive matches; showing heightened skill level). However,
identification of a single point in time at which a transition can be classed as successful is
problematic. For example, it may be the situation that some athletes who perform well in
youth sport may not subsequently perform well in senior sport despite being offered a one
year post academy contract. Subsequently they may be released at the end of this contact.
Contrastingly, athletes who may have struggled towards the end of their youth career but
were given a senior contract to assess if they could manage the demands associated with the
change may perform well and be offered further senior team contracts. Considering these
viewpoints, the final outcome of transition may be best judged by the coaches or managers at
the end of the first year in senior sport, where athletes may or may not be retained for future
performances. This is because coaches or managers are in the best position to judge the needs
of the organisation against the skills and ability of the player. In the current thesis, however,
9
successful transition was judged based upon coaches perceptions of how well athletes were
managing the transition to senior sport and performing at this level because they have
ultimate control over whether or not to release players at the end of their contract and the
current research was carried out over a period of time which did not include the one year post
transition time point.
1.2 Significance and Structure of Thesis
Following this introduction, Chapter 2 provides a literature review of the previous
research and theoretical frameworks to help form a rationale for the aims and studies to
follow. Chapter 3 encompasses a discussion of the methodology used throughout the thesis,
including research design, participant selection, data collection, and data analysis procedures.
Chapter 4 contains Study 1, an examination of coaches’ perception of the youth to senior
transition in sport (contributing to aims 1, 2, and 3 above). The purpose of Study 1 is to
identify what coaches believe are the transition (a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers
athletes experience utilise as they move to senior sport. The results of this study may expand
the knowledge of career transitions in sport by offering suggestions on the factors that
coaches believe are associated with transition, something which is understudied in previous
literature. Coaches may have experienced this shift over a number of years, and with a
number of different athletes, which may mean they are more objective in their opinion of the
youth to senior change.
Chapter 5 presents Study 2, an examination of supporters’ (including parents, and
sport science support staff) perceptions of the youth to senior transition (contributing to aims
1, 2, and 3 above). Specifically, the objectives of the study were to examine supporters’
perceptions of the transition (a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers that athletes
experience and utilise as they move from youth to senior sport. This study may advance
knowledge on the youth to senior transition because supporters may highlight specific roles
10
that they believe they fulfil during the change. This acknowledgement of roles they fulfil may
parallel or contrast the views of other key stakeholders in transition.
Chapter 6 outlines Study 3, a longitudinal examination of the youth to senior
transition in sport from the perspective of the athletes and coaches currently going through
such a change (contributing to aims 1, 2, and 3 above). A total of 56 (40 player and 16 coach)
interviews took place over a one year period, both before and after athletes, were, or were
not, offered a senior team contract. Interviews focused on the factors which may influence
transition and how they may change over the transition period. Study 3 advances knowledge
of the youth to senior transition by capturing the change process as it happens, and by
providing insight into how factors influencing change adjust during transition.
Chapter 7 presents the final study of the current thesis (Study 4) which focused on
two professional football clubs youth to senior transition programmes, and how these
interventions may be influencing talent development within their organisation (contributing
to aims 2, 3, and 4 above). A case study methodology was employed, with the aims of the
study to (a) explore the degree to which two clubs addressed demands, resources, and barriers
associated with the youth to senior transition, (b) identify any initial evidence to support the
hypothesis that factors listed in Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain transition
outcomes and guide intervention development, which could justify future experimental
research, and (c) highlight any additional factors which may also be important to promote
successful transition to the first team. This study may advance the knowledge on withincareer transitions in sport by highlighting whether or not the factors highlighted in
Stambulova’s (2003) model may be conducive to successful transition into senior sport in
applied settings. Finally, chapter 8 contains a general discussion of the thesis, including a
summary of the overall results, additions to Stambulova’s (2003) model to better suit the
youth to senior transition, potential applied applications, and future research directions.
11
Overall, the thesis findings may provide an insight into the athletic career transition
process, and the types of support available to athletes moving from youth to senior sport.
1.3 Definition of Terms
Coping: Constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific
external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of
the person (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Supporter: A provider of social support, including coaches, fellow players, friends,
and family (Rodrigues, 2009).
Social support: Refers to the social interaction between supporters and recipients,
aimed at inducing positive outcomes in humans and their world (Bianco & Eklund, 2001).
Transferable skills: Skills learned in one area of life that can be used in another area
(Murphy, 1995).
Transition: An event or non-event, which results in changes in oneself and one’s life,
behaviour, and relationships (Schlossberg, 1981).
Within sport career transitions: Transitions athletes face during their athletic careers
(Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004).
Youth to senior transition: Transition faced by athletes into the highest level of
competitive sport (Wylleman, Lavallee, & Alferman, 1999).
12
Chapter Two
Literature Review
13
2.1 Theoretical Perspectives
This chapter reviews literature examining career transitions in sport. Initially, this
literature review will explore existing models of transition, designed to explain the process of
change. Subsequently, interventions designed to support athletes in career transitions will be
discussed. Then existing research will be discussed, before gaps in the literature are identified
and the foci of the current research are highlighted.
2.1.1 Early Career Transition Theories
Early research on career transitions in sport by Haerle (1975) and Mihovilovic (1968)
focused on retirement from sport and found that athletes may experience negative responses
to such transitions (e.g., illness and family problems). This early retirement from sport
research was atheoretical. Subsequently, researchers tried to understand career transitions in
sport by comparing the process to a range of psychological and social models of transition,
including social gerontological models (e.g., Johns, Lindner, & Wolko, 1990; Rosenburg,
1981), thanatological models (e.g., Fortunatoe & Marchant, 1999), and transition models
(e.g., Schlossberg, 1981). These models were used to try and explain retirement from sport on
the assumption there were overlaps between the models and leaving elite sport (e.g., athletes
may experience a social death after leaving sport due to losing friends and support networks
built up during their career, similar to what is described in thanatological models of transition
after death of a relative or friend).
Some researchers (e.g., Johns, Lindner, & Wolko, 1990) tried to understand the
retirement process using social gerontological models. These models focus on the ageing
process and how the interactions between society and ageing may impact upon retirement in
the general workforce. Researchers (e.g., Lavallee, 2000; McPherson, 1980), however, have
argued that there is incompatibility between the social gerontological models and career
transitions in sport, because sport retirement may occur at a much earlier age in life. There
14
may be developmental and vocational needs that athletes require which retiring elderly do not
require (and vice versa). Social gerontological models do not consider these timing,
development, and vocational differences. As a result, these models may not fully explain the
retirement from sport transition.
Thanatological models, which focus on the dying process and psychological, social,
and physical reactions to death, have been used to explain the “social death” athletes may
experience after they retire from sport, particularly in instances of forced retirement (e.g.,
Zaichkowsky, King, & McCarthy, 2000). Researchers (e.g., Lavallee, 2000), however, have
argued that such models may be inappropriate to explain the transition process because they
do not consider the causes of difficulties athletes may experience post-retirement.
Additionally, athletes’ retirement may be considered a social rebirth, rather than a social
death which the thanatological models highlight (Sinclair & Orlick, 1994).
General transition models (e.g., Schlossberg, 1981) were developed to explain various
transitions that occur in a variety of contexts, including changes in individuals’ lives,
behaviours, and relationships. The models also explain how each aspect of transition interlink
(e.g., the transition demands and resources) to create a transition outcome. Such models
parallel a number of aspects highlighted in the sport transition literature (e.g., role change,
internal and institutional support mechanisms, and psychosocial competence) that athletes
may experience, particularly when retiring from sport. These extend previous models (e.g.,
social gerontological models) identified to explain career transitions in sport, because they
focus on the change as a process, rather than a singular event. Such models, however, are
limited in explaining sport transitions because they do not consider sport specific context and
components which may influence sport career changes (Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994).
Nevertheless, these models have formed a grounding from which sport specific models have
15
emerged. Subsequently, sport specific models of transition have been developed, designed to
describe and explain the process of change. These models are outlined below in more detail.
2.1.2 Conceptual Models of Career Transition in Sport
Although used to explain the process of career transitions, none of the models
discussed above have been able to adequately explain the change process. Schlossberg’s
(1981) human adaptation to transition model offers the best explanation of career transitions
in sport compared to other generic models because it highlights many of the factors which
may affect the outcome of a transition. However, Schlossberg’s (1981) model does not
describe sport specific factors associated with such changes, such as the influence of coaches.
With research showing transitions cannot be suitably explained by non-sport specific social
and psychological theories, since the 1990’s a number of sport-specific models have been
developed to describe and explain when and how transitions in sport occur. Researchers (e.g.,
Gordon, 1995; Sinclair & Orlick, 1994) introduced a modified version of Schlossberg’s
(1981) model discussed previously to make it more specific to the athlete career transition
process. Additionally, Taylor and Ogilvie (1994) developed a conceptual model of adaptation
to retirement among athletes, based upon their research, explaining the factors associated
with transition (e.g., causes of retirement, support available to athletes retiring) and how this
may affect athletes experience of change. These models were among the first sport specific
frameworks introduced to explain athletic career transitions. These models focused on
retirement from sport, and did not try to explain the factors associated with other sport career
transitions (e.g., the youth to senior change).
2.1.2.1 Developmental Model. Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) subsequently
introduced the development model to explain when normative transitions may occur in an
athletic career and highlighted that, in addition to retirement, there were a number of
transitions that athletes experience (e.g., the youth to senior transition) during their careers.
16
Normative transitions are those which are predictable and anticipated (Schlossberg, 1984;
Sharf, 1997), and include the retirement from sport transition (Stambulova et al., 2009). Nonnormative transitions, in contrast, are those which are unexpected, such as when an athlete
suffers a career-ending injury (Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). Wylleman and Lavallee’s
(2004) model was the first to describe a holistic approach to career transitions in sport,
highlighting within sport transitions (e.g., youth to senior transition) in addition to changes
athletes may experience outside of their sport (e.g., moving from school to university). This
model appears to give the most complete picture of the transitions that athletes may
experience throughout their lives and will be explained in detail below.
The model (Figure 2.1) takes a career-long perspective on transitions throughout an
athletic career, from a child starting a sport to athletic retirement. Wylleman et al. (1999)
suggested sport psychologists may help athletes if they take a holistic approach to the study
of transitions that athletes go through, incorporating other important transitions in their life
and not just their sport career, because research has shown changes in other areas of life may
influence an athletic career (Ewing, 1998). The model demonstrates this by including
different normative transitions athletes go through at athletic, psychological, social, academic
and vocational levels (Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). These factors are presented in four
layers.
2.1.2.1.1 Athletic Level. The athletic level of Wylleman and Lavallee’s (2004) model
proposes that there are four normative transitions athletes go through. The first is into
organised competitive sports, typically at the age of 6 or 7 years, known as the initiation
stage. For the next 5 to 7 years, youngsters take part in organised competitive sport and it is
typically only when they reach the age of 12 or 13 that they move to the development stage.
The transition from the initiation stage to the development stage is referred to as the move to
an intensive level of training and competition. Often around the age of 18 or 19, athletes
17
Age
10
15
Athletic Level
Initiation
Psychological
Level
Childhood
Adolescence
Psychosocial
Level
Parents
Siblings
Peers
Peers
Coach
Parents
Academic
Vocational Level
Primary
Education
Development
Secondary
Education
20
25
30
Mastery
35
Discontinuation
Adulthood
Partner
Coach
Higher
Education
Family
(Coach)
Vocational training
Professional occupation
Figure 2.1. A developmental perspective on transitions faced by athletes at athletic,
individual, psychosocial, and academic/vocational levels (Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004).
progress into the mastery stage (representing the highest or elite level of sport). The mastery
stage is when the athletes are competing at their highest level and when they dedicate the
most time to competition. The final stage is the transition from the mastery stage to the
discontinuation stage. According to Wylleman and Lavallee (2004), the discontinuation stage
follows retirement out of competitive sport and typically occurs between the ages of 28 and
30. These age ranges represent guidelines that may not apply to all sports (e.g., gymnasts who
may enter the mastery stage, and retire from sport, earlier in their career).
2.1.2.1.2 Psychological Level. The psychological level consists of three transitions
based upon Rice (1998). The first developmental level is the childhood level which occurs
until the age of 12. Childhood indicates the level to which a young athlete is ready for
structured competition, including their motivation to compete (e.g., the degree of their
interest and to what extent the decision to compete has been their own or a parents’ decision)
and cognitive development (e.g., understanding of their role, responsibility, and relationships
within their sport). The adolescence level of the model occurs between the ages of 13 to 18.
18
The final level is the adulthood stage, which occurs from the age of 19 onwards. During these
levels athletes are confronted with a number of developmental tasks including dealing with
new and more mature relations with peers of both sexes, identifying a masculine or feminine
role in society, accepting one’s physique, and attaining emotional independence from parents
and other adults. Athletes also start to develop an athletic identity. The authors argue that
athletes’ self-identity development in this level is crucial, as it can be positively or negatively
influenced by their degree of commitment to their sport and other life skill development. This
development of self-identity may have consequential outcomes. For example, if athletes lack
commitment to their sport, they may drop out.
2.1.2.1.3 Psychosocial Level. This level was based on the conceptual frameworks
Hellstedt (1995) and Coppel (1995) proposed detailing the development of the athletic family
and marital relationships respectively. Empirical research examining athletes’ interpersonal
relationships (e.g., Alfermann & Würth, 2001) also contributed to Wylleman and Lavallee’s
(2004) conceptualisation of this level. Athletes support networks generally consist of
coaches, parents and peers. Carlsson (1988) suggested the importance of coaches and parents
to athletes development. The quality of athletes’ relationships with coaches and parents was
one of the most important factors determining whether or not young talented tennis players
made it to professional level sport (Carlsson, 1988). Similarly, within elite sport, social
support was regarded as one of the most important factors and when athletes become isolated
from this support, it could be damaging to performance and the athletes health and wellbeing
(Rees & Hardy, 2000).
Research has shown that athletes’ social network is determined by the stage of their
athletic career (Wylleman & Lavallee, 2004). Until the age of approximately 13, parents were
the most influential people in athletic development. Siblings were ranked as the second most
influential people, and peers were also considered valuable. Between the ages of
19
approximately 13 and 22, the relationships with peers were ranked as the most influential in
athletic development. Second most influential were relationships with coaches, the first time
a coach was ranked highly. In contrast to previous levels, parents were ranked the least
influential. Between the ages of 22 until 29, when athletes are considered to be at, or close to,
their peak, Wylleman and Lavallee’s (2004) model considers only the relationship with a
partner, and the relationship with the coach to be influential. Finally, from the age of 29
(approximately) onwards when athletes are entering into the discontinuation stage, the
relationship with family is of primary influence. Of less importance was the coach
relationship, possibly because athletes are preparing for their life after sport.
2.1.2.1.4 Academic Vocational Level. The model mirrors the transitions into (a)
primary school at around the ages of 6 or 7, (b) secondary school at the ages of 12 or 13, (c)
higher education at ages 18 or 19, and (d) vocational training or a professional occupation
around the age of 22. Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) emphasised that the transition into
vocational training or professional occupation may occur at an earlier stage (for example after
school), but included it after higher education to reflect the typical developmental cycle.
Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) highlighted that non-normative transitions were
difficult to predict and as a result these were not presented on the model. In addition,
Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) advised that some of the normative transitions which are
predicted or hoped for may not always occur (known as a non-event). For example, due to a
lack of academic support, many athletes may not make the transition from high school to
higher education, and due to stagnating levels of sporting achievement many athletes may not
reach the next development stage.
Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) suggested that there may also be interaction among
the different levels in the model, with the possibility that more than one transition may occur
at one time which could have an adverse effect on athletic development. For example, when
20
athletes are moving from the athletic development to the mastery stage, transitions may also
be occurring in their academic level and may affect athletic development (e.g., from
secondary to higher education).
This model represents a step towards a holistic approach to athletic development,
because it suggests that other transitions external to sport need to be considered when dealing
with sporting career changes. For example, the model suggests that moving into higher
education may coincide with a movement into senior sport, meaning that the athlete may
experience additional stressors compared with times they may experience only one of these
transitions at a time. In contrast, there are some limitations to Wylleman and Lavallee’ (2004)
model. According to this model, transitions occur in a limited, specific time period. Lavallee
(2000), however, suggested there is awareness that retirement specifically can occur over
time and is a process. As a result, it is conceivable that the transitions may have a greater time
frame than outlined in the model. Additionally, although a number of transitions are
presented in the model, the specific demands of each transition may vary. As a result, it
becomes difficult to provide athletes with appropriate resources which will assist them
through specific transitions. Wylleman et al. (2004) acknowledged this lack of detail of each
transition and said that knowledge of specific athletic career transitions is needed so that
appropriate resources can be made available. Models which have tried to explain the factors
associated with specific transitions include Stambulova’s (2003) athletic transition model,
which was the first to try to highlight the factors associated with the various athletic career
transitions highlighted in Wylleman and Lavallee’s (2004) model. Stambulova’s (2003)
model is the only model of transition focusing on transitions across the athletic career which
has been subsequently issued in peer-reviewed publications and appears to describe the
transition process most clearly. Pummell (2008) presented a model of transition pertaining to
the youth to senior change. This model, however, does not appear to explain the process of
21
transition fully or incorporate aspects such as demands of transition, which previous research
has shown may influence change outcomes. Additionally, this model has not subsequently
been published in peer reviewed publications, which raises questions about its quality. Since
Stambulova’s (2003) model appears to offer the most complete picture of career transitions in
sport it will be explained in detail below.
2.1.2.2 Athletic Career Transition Model. Stambulova (2003) published the first
model of transition, designed to explain the process of a single transition that could be
applied across sport careers (e.g., youth to senior and retirement from sport). The model
predicted that a number of demands, resources, barriers, and coping mechanisms interact
throughout each sport career transitions. Stambulova’s (2003) model (Figure 2.2) was based
upon her research with Russian athletes (Stambulova, 1994) and incorporated ideas from
previous transition models (e.g., Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Schlossberg, 1981; Stambulova,
1997; Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994). These previous models has focused on the causes, processes,
outcomes, and consequences of transition, which Stambulova (2003) integrated into her
model.
Kadlcik and Flerm (2008) used the model to explore the process of retirement and
adaptation to retirement in athletes in the Czech Republic. Similar to Stambulova’s (2003)
model, Kadlcik and Flerm (2008) found that several factors influenced the transitional
process of the athletes, including demands, resources and barriers of transition. Each of the
factors had the potential to facilitate or debilitate the quality of the transition, acting as a
barrier or resource in the coping process (Kadlcik and Flerm, 2008). Furthermore, the
outcomes and consequences of the transition were found to have both positive and negative
effects on other areas of life, which was similar to what Stambulova (2003) proposed, and
supports the notion that the quality of adaptation to transition can vary (crisis-transition
versus successful transition; Stambulova, 2003).
22
Transition demands
Crises-prevention
interventions
Dynamic balance between
transition resources and barriers
Coping
Effective (= successful
transition)
Psychological
crises-coping
interventions
Ineffective (= crisestransition)
Need in intervention
Effective
Ineffective or no
intervention
Negative
consequences
coping
interventions
“Costs” for failure to
cope with the transition
Figure 2.2. Athletic career transition model (Stambulova, 1997, 2003).
Stambulova (2003) suggested that a transition is the athletes’ ability to deal with
specific demands which pose a conflict between “what the athlete is” and “what he or she
wants or ought to be” in their sport career. Each transition can be viewed as a process which
has a number of demands, barriers, coping resources, outcomes, and long term consequences.
2.1.2.2.1 Transition Demands, Resources, Barriers, and Coping. Stambulova (2003)
proposed that transitions come with a set of specific demands or challenges, such as higher
23
physical fitness in elite sport, which need to be overcome to transition in an athletic career
successfully. These demands can create a conflict between what the athlete is and what they
want to be. How effective athletes are at coping with the demands depends upon the dynamic
balance between transition resources and barriers they encounter (Stambulova, 2003).
Resources include internal and external factors which assist the coping process.
Internal factors, such as knowledge, skills, personality traits (e.g., conscientiousness), and
motivation can assist the coping process (Stambulova, 2003). Research (e.g., Murphy, 1995;
Pearson and Petitpas, 1990; Taylor and Lavallee, 2010) suggest the quality of adaptation to
retirement is dependent largely on the internal and external resources available to athletes to
help them overcome the cognitive, emotional, and behavioural problems which may arise.
External resources, such as the social and financial support available, can also have a
positive effect on the transition process (Stambulova, 2003). Social support, also including
family and coach support, can facilitate the transition process (Brown, 1985; Bussmann &
Alfermann, 1994; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993). For example, Botterill (1988) found that athletes
who retire can experience feelings of loneliness, a lack of social contacts, and difficulties
building new relationships outside of sport, if they do not have appropriate support
mechanisms.
Barriers interfering with coping processes can also be internal or external. Internal
factors, such as a lack of knowledge or skills, lack of preparation for transition, and
interpersonal conflicts can have adverse effects on transition. Researchers (e.g., Coakley,
1983; Petitpas, Champagne, Chartrand, Danish, & Murphy, 1997; Pearson & Petitpas, 1990)
suggested that preparation for transition, which may, for example, increase athletes
knowledge and skills, can help to improve the quality of adaption because it can remove
barriers to successful transition (e.g., a lack of knowledge or skill, and a lack of preparation).
24
External barriers include an absence of good training conditions, a lack of financial
and social support, and difficulties in combining sport and education or work commitments
(Stambulova, 2003). In one study, for example, when inadequate financial support was
provided, athletes felt bitterness towards their former employers, which they believed
contributed to a poor transition from sport (Kavanagh, 2010). Further, when athletes pursue a
sporting career they often abandon their education, leaving them with few or no professional
qualifications (Kavanagh, 2010), providing a barrier to obtaining new sources of income
(Werthner & Orlick, 1986).
Stambulova (2003) suggests that coping with transition requires the creation of a
dynamic balance between athletes’ resources and barriers, to counteract the demands of
change they experience (Stambulova, 2003). For example, when athletes have a plethora of
resources such as transition knowledge, skills, personality traits, motivation, they are more
likely to overcome barriers and move up to senior sport more successfully.
2.1.2.2.2 Effective and Ineffective Transition. Stambulova (2003) suggested athletes
have more successful transitions, or less successful transitions (Stambulova, 2003).
Successful transition is associated with effective coping, when the athlete is able to recruit or
rapidly develop all the necessary resources to overcome transition barriers and cope with its
demands. Stambulova (2003) suggested that when athletes are not able to deal with the
demands of transition they experience crises. When athletes experience crises they may
require assistance, which can include psychological interventions aimed at changing coping
strategies. Changes in coping strategies could positively influence the long-term
consequences of transitions (Stambulova, 2009). If interventions are unsuccessful or athletes
do not receive any psychological help, there will likely be negative outcomes (e.g., a decline
in level of sport performance, premature drop out, injury, overtraining, neuroses,
psychosomatic illnesses, and alcohol or drug abuse).
25
2.1.2.2.3 Types of Intervention. Stambulova (1997) suggested there may be three
kinds of interventions used to prevent transition crises: prevention, coping, and dealing with
negative consequences. Types of interventions to help deal with athletic transitions will be
explored in more detail in the next section (2.2) and will only be briefly discussed here.
Crisis-prevention interventions aim to prepare athletes to deal with transition demands
before or early in the process. Interventions at this early stage can involve assessment, career
planning, goal setting, education, counselling, mental and life skills training, and
strengthening the social support system available to athletes (Alfermann & Stambulova,
2007).
Crisis-coping interventions are used when athletes are in distress and are unable to
cope with the transition demands. This type of help can be in the form of cognitive
restructuring, stress management, and emotional expression (Alfermann & Stambulova,
2007). Alfermann and Stambulova (2007) suggest that the strategy used to help athletes deal
with transition is dependent upon the athletes’ situation and the expertise of the consultant.
Interventions focused on dealing with negative consequences are administered when
athletes fail to deal with transitions and have resultant negative outcomes, such as drug abuse.
Alfermann and Stambulova (2007) suggest that the failure to deal with the original transition
can lead to a new and more complicated transition which requires clinical intervention.
To summarise, since the 1990’s, and following the attempts to apply models from
other areas of psychology and sociology (e.g., thanatology models), there have been a
number of conceptual models presented to explain career transitions in sport. The models
focus on what factors help and hinder development at a sporting and holistic level. Generally,
the models have not been used widely to study within-career transitions in sport, with
research focusing mostly on the application of the models to retirement from sport. Research
which explores the application of such models to within-career transitions might help us to
26
understand the changes athletes’ experience throughout their participation in more depth,
offering suggestions regarding whether these models are suitable or not as conceptual
frameworks for applied work.
As discussed, Stambulova’s (2003) model appears to offer the fullest explanation of
the factors associated with the youth to senior transition, including demands, resources, and
barriers associated with the change. Additionally, Stambulova’s (2003) model also offers
suggestions as to the possible outcomes of transitions, and possible intervention that could be
used to assist in the change. For these reasons, Stambulova’s (2003) model is used in the
current research to inform the research background, aims, and questions.
2.2 Interventions for Transition
In the previous section of this literature review, types of interventions to deal with
transition were briefly introduced. Since the 1990’s, researchers have emphasized the need
for such programmes to help facilitate the process of change (e.g., Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994).
The interventions can be categorised into (a) crises-preventive interventions (e.g.,
Stambulova, 2010), (b) crises-coping interventions (e.g., Lavallee, Nesti, Borkoles, Cockerill
& Edge, 2000), (c) interventions to support athletes who experience clinical issues, and (d)
career transition assistance programmes.
2.2.1 Crises-Preventive Interventions
Preventive interventions aim to help athletes prepare for normative and non-normative
transitions (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007). This preparation is achieved by aiding athletes
to set realistic goals which bridge their past, present, and future (Stambulova, 2010). Athletes
are encouraged to discuss the key events in their past and present, which allows an analysis of
their strengths and weaknesses to take place and future goals to be set (Stambulova, 2010).
Alfermann and Stambulova (2007) suggested that preventive interventions can involve
assessment of athletes’ strengths and weaknesses, career planning, goal setting, education,
27
counselling, life skills development, and strengthening the social support system available to
the athletes. Specific career planning (e.g., Petitpas et al., 1997; Stambulova, 2010), lifestyle
management (e.g., Wylleman, Theeboom, & Lavallee, 2004), life skills training (e.g.,
Ahlgren-Bedics, & Monda, 2009; Danish, Petitpas, & Hale, 1993), identity development
interventions (e.g., Lally, 2007; Warriner & Lavallee, 2008) life development interventions
(Lavallee, 2005) and cultural adaptation interventions (e.g., Schinke, Gauthier, Dubuk, &
Crowder, 2007) have been proposed as preventive interventions.
Throughout the different types of preparation interventions, there are a number of
commonalities addressed. Firstly, the interventions help athletes to anticipate their normative
and non-normative transitions, and the demands associated with such changes (Stambulova,
2010). Predicting the type of transitions that may happen, for example, moving up to senior
sport, allows athletes to be better prepared than if they had not assessed the transitions.
As a second commonality, athletes are educated about transitions and the possible
problems they may experience. They are also taught about the possible ways to deal with
transitions, or skills which can be applied to other spheres of life after they retire from sport
so that they may find transferring into another job easier, for example. This building of
knowledge and skills appears to be a common element across the preventive interventions
(e.g., Danish et al., 1993; Lavallee, 2005).
As a third commonality among the preventive interventions, potential barriers to
transitions are anticipated. Athletes and support staff assess transitions and predict the most
likely obstacles to successful outcomes (Stambulova, 2010). By predicting potential barriers,
athletes are able to prepare for such problems they may encounter.
Finally, the interventions outline the development of new internal and external
resources to cope with forthcoming transitions. Internal resources can include, for example,
increased confidence and motivation to make the transition (Danish et al., 1993; Mayocchi &
28
Hanrahan, 2000). External resources include strengthening the social support network
available to athletes, such as family, friends, and peers (Stambulova, 2010).
Despite a wide variety of preventive interventions being available, there has been a
lack of research to evaluate some of these strategies. Lavallee (2005) and Stambulova (2010)
evaluated the effectiveness of life development interventions, and career planning,
respectively. Other interventions, however, such as lifestyle management, have received
limited evaluation. Lavallee (2005) assessed the success of a life development intervention on
athletes’ abilities to adjust successfully to retirement from sport. Lavallee (2005) used a
controlled experimental design, with the intervention group receiving a life development
intervention that Danish, Petitpas, and Hale (1993, 1995) proposed, aimed at improving
athletes’ coping resources to deal with transition. Prior to the intervention, both the control
and intervention groups were experiencing adjustment difficulties, as measured by the British
Athletes Lifestyle Assessment Needs in Career and Education scale (Lavallee & Wylleman,
1999) and the Transition Coping Questionnaire (Schlossberg, 1993). At post intervention, the
control group were still experiencing difficulties. In contrast, the intervention group reported
an increased coping resource pool and a greater number of life skills available to help them
deal with transition. The intervention group also perceived themselves to be more resourceful
to deal with athletic retirement and better prepared for their life after retirement (Lavallee,
2005).
Stambulova’s (2010) career planning strategy is a counselling framework mapping
out athletes’ past, current, and future situations. The end result involves a career and life
strategy to which athletes can adhere. Stambulova (2010) suggested career planning helps
athletes to self-explore and become more self-aware, whilst Petitpas, Brewer, and Van Raalte
(2009) reported that career planning was effective in increasing athletes’ self-awareness and
decision making. This framework was evaluated by Stambulova (2010) herself who presented
29
her own reflections on the framework and its strengths and weaknesses, and found that it
worked best with athletes who were older than 17 years because younger athletes may not be
mature enough to evaluate their situation holistically. Stambulova (2010) also suggested that
the framework should not be used during a first meeting between a client and a consultant as
athletes are asked to reveal a lot of personal information which they may find difficult if
rapport has not been built. Athletes were also asked to evaluate the programme and suggested
they felt better prepared for transition as they had a greater sense of control over their present
situation (Stambulova, 2010). Athletes also felt better prepared to carry out future career
planning on their own (Stambulova, 2010). Stambulova’s (2010) results, and those of
Lavallee (2005), although encouraging, need to be replicated with other interventions (e.g.,
lifestyle management) and more research is needed before practical implications can be
supported. If future research finds that these programmes do help athletes prepare for
transition across a greater range of sports and athletes, stronger conclusions about their
effectiveness can be gleaned which may mean such interventions could be implemented to
support a greater number of sportspersons.
In sum, there are a number of commonalities across the preventive interventions and
there has been some literature which has assessed the efficacy of these programmes. Overall,
a large proportion of the preparatory interventions focus on preparing athletes for retirement
and starting a new occupation, or balancing their sport and education or work (Alfermann &
Stambulova, 2007). There is, however, a lack of research assessing the effectiveness of some
interventions (e.g., cultural adaptation interventions) in helping athletes in transition.
2.2.2 Crises-Coping Perspective
Crises-coping interventions come in a number of forms, but generally start with some
form of counselling aimed at helping athletes explore their current situation, identify possible
coping options, and develop an action plan to help with negative transitions (Alfermann &
30
Stambulova, 2007). Individuals may also participate in group workshops which helps athletes
to meet fellow colleagues who have or are experiencing similar transitions (Alfermann &
Stambulova, 2007). Cognitive restructuring (Garfield & Bergin, 1978), account-making
(Lavallee et al., 2000), mentoring (Lavallee et al., 2000), stress management (Meichenbaum
& Jaremko, 1983), and education interventions (Stambulova, 2011) have been proposed as a
method to support athletes experiencing crises transition. The effectiveness of accountmaking, mentoring, and education interventions have been examined in relation to transitions
from sport and the findings in relation to these three techniques in supporting athletes’
changes are presented next.
2.2.2.1 Account-making. Account making has been proposed (Harvey, Weber, &
Orbuch, 1990) to help explain how people can cope with the distress of negative transitions.
Grove et al. (1998) and Sparkes (1998) have found account making is effective in helping
Olympic athletes retiring from sport. Account making is the act of explaining, describing, and
emotionally reacting to distressful or important situations or events (Harvey, Orbuch, Weber,
Merbach & Alt, 1992). This approach likens human minds to computer processors,
suggesting that both have inputs, outputs, memory stores, and a limited capacity to process
information at any one time (Sammons, 2011). When people receive negative inputs which
they find distressing, or are unable to cope with the amount of information needed to be
processed, the outcomes or behaviours exhibited may be stressful (Sammons, 2011). Grove,
Lavallee, Gordon, and Harvey (1998) suggest there are two main stages athletes may go
through when experiencing distressing transitions in sport resulting from negative inputs or
an overload of information which they need to process. Initially, athletes may experience
negative reactions such as heightened anxiety, and they may voice an emotional cry for help
(Lavallee et al., 2000). Following this initial stage, there may be denial, where athletes try to
forget about the transition and its negative consequences (Lavallee et al., 2000). Baillie and
31
Danish (1992) suggested that denial is a common coping strategy athletes use to deal with
negative transitions. When athletes retire, they often lose their primary social support
mechanisms, their colleagues, and as a consequence, they may not be able to deliberate about
stressful situations that require solving (Kane, 1995).
Resulting from the initial stage of reflection where athletes describe, explain, and
emotionally react to distressful or important situations or events, are narratives which
promote a relatively deep understanding of the situation and the person (Harvey et al., 1992).
Added to these narratives is the act of confiding, when people in distress disclose their
narratives to significant others, and can help in the recovery from a distressful situation
(Harvey, Orbuch, Chwalisz, & Garwood, 1991). Sparkes (1998), Pennebaker (1990), and
Uematsu (1996) suggested that written accounts allow for a better understanding of
distressful situations than individuals would have if they did not divulge this information.
Grove et al. (1998), however, proposed that regardless of how accounts are communicated
(either written or orally), the development of an account is crucial in dealing with the
cognitive-emotional-behavioural features of a career transition. Athletes who work through
the steps and confide may develop a greater awareness of their transition experiences, and
gain greater control over their thoughts and feelings compared to if they carried on without
this assistance (Harvey, 1996). Further, Lavallee et al. (2000) suggested athletes may become
motivated to help others in similar stressful transitions, which can help create a new identity
for their post-sport career.
Before using account-making coping strategies to help athletes in transition, there are
criticisms of the practice and its effectiveness which need to be considered. Firstly, athletes
vary in their aptitude to understand and articulate their experiences to confidents (Sparkes,
1998). Also, athletes may not feel comfortable describing their experiences in detail to others,
which can render the process difficult. It is imperative a strong relationship is built between
32
the confider and confidant before account making begins, because athletes are more likely to
be open and truthful to someone they have a strong relationship with (Sparkes, 1998).
Second, more research is needed to determine its effectiveness. For example, there is a lack
of research which has examined the process of within-career transitions, and how such
changes can be influenced by the account making procedure.
2.2.2.2 Mentoring. Mentoring is a close relationship in which a mentor guides,
counsels, and supports a protégé (Hardy, 1994; Kram, 1992), and can help athletes who are
experiencing a negative reaction when retiring from sport (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007).
Bloom, Durand-Bush, Schinke, and Salmela (1998) suggested optimal mentoring occurs
when there is a trusting relationship between the mentor and athlete, when the mentor is
interested in the personal development of the athlete, and when the mentor makes a conscious
effort to fulfil the needs of the athlete. Finally, an imitation of behaviour takes place, where
the protégé starts to replicate the actions and behaviours of their mentor.
Much of the research on mentoring has been conducted in educational settings.
Researchers (e.g., Borman & Colson, 1984; Cosgrove, 1986; Abell, Dillon, Hopkins,
McInerney, & O’Brien, 1995) suggested that student teachers benefitted from the mentoring
process, having better interpersonal skills, an improved knowledge of their workplace,
enhanced self-confidence, and a quicker development period in comparison to a control
group who were not mentored.
Within sport, mentoring has also been used successfully in talent and coach
development. Bloom, Salmela, and Schinke (1995) found that young coaches believed
mentoring programmes were the most valuable factor in their development, with more
experienced mentors offering them support and guidance about how and what to coach.
Similarly, Bloom (1985) reported that expert tennis players and swimmers were mentored by
their coaches at different stages of their development, giving support and guidance to athletes
33
in every aspect of their lives including their sport career and personal lives. Without this
mentoring, many athletes may experience negative transitions in their careers. Walton (1992)
also suggested that coaches could enhance the possibilities for developing prospects, by
providing help, support, and life skills which remain integral to the athletes throughout their
lives.
Few studies have focused on the effect of mentoring on athletes’ retirement from
sport. However, one study (Cockerill & Edge, 1998) found that athletes who received
psychosocial mentoring and career guidance may be able to adjust more easily to retirement
than participants who did not receive this support. This study offers support to the use of
mentoring to help with retirement from sport. Future research assessing the effectiveness of
this technique on the outcome of within-career transitions may allude to additional
interventions that may be used to support athletes. For example, if it is found that mentoring
does have a positive effect on athletes moving up to senior sport, athletes could be designated
a mentor in the senior team to help them.
2.2.2.3 Education Interventions. Stambulova’s (2011) mobilization model of
counselling athletes in crises-transitions is an education intervention to assist athletes during
change. Initially, information about clients and their career situations is collected (e.g., stage
of their career), before the problems identified are ranked in order of seriousness, with the
most serious issues dealt with first and peripheral issues dealt with subsequently. Stage three
and four of the model involve assessing athletes’ current coping strategies and barriers, and
offering alternative methods of managing these obstacles. Athletes are then encouraged to set
goals and action plans based upon how they wish to negotiate the transition (e.g., leave the
sport, or try and deal with the demands of transition). Finally, follow up sessions take place
where the process is reviewed to ensure that clients are receiving the best support available to
them and that the goals and plans they have set are achievable and relevant. Stambulova
34
(2011) offered her own reflections on the model of counselling and suggested that it would
only work with athletes who were able to reflect, analyse, make decisions and take
responsibility, thus it may not be suitable for less mature clients (e.g., youth athletes).
Additionally, Stambulova (2011) suggested that the sport psychologist may need to build an
effective working relationship with the client for the athlete to reveal personal information
which may help the intervention. After intervention, athletes who had experienced the
intervention also offered their opinions on the effectiveness of this model of counselling. The
athletes suggested that they had a greater awareness of the crises situation and what they were
experiencing, sense of relief and control over what was happening to them, and more clarity
on the solutions they could use to help themselves through transition (Stambulova, 2011).
To summarise, researchers have suggested interventions for supporting athletes in
crises transitions, including account making, mentoring, and education intervention. As
discussed previously, there is a small body of research verifying such interventions. Further
research on crises interventions would add to current knowledge by offering suggestions as to
the best techniques that could be used to support those experiencing crises transitions.
2.2.3 Clinical Intervention
Another type of intervention which may help when athletes are experiencing distress
in relation to transition is clinical intervention. The main difference between crises-coping
and clinical interventions is the level of symptoms with which athletes present. Clinical
intervention is needed when athletes experience clinical symptoms, which are much more
deep seated than those typically remedied by crises-coping interventions. Clinical symptoms
can occur at any point throughout transition (Alfermann & Stambulova, 2007). Possible
clinical issues that athletes may experience include, but are not limited to, depression,
anxiety, psychosomatic illness, neuroses, alcohol and drug abuse, criminal behaviours, eating
disorders, anger and aggression, grieving, and suicidal thoughts (Andersen, 2001; Cogan,
35
2000; Eyal, 2001; Petrie & Sherman, 2000). Although some research has examined mental
health issues among elite athletes (e.g., Hughes & Leavey, 2012), there has not been any
analysis of how athletes may be helped with these issues in the context of career transitions.
When clinical issues do arise throughout transitions and the sport psychologist is not
clinically trained, athletes should be referred to clinically trained professionals (Alfermann &
Stambulova, 2007).
2.2.4 Career Transition Assistance Programmes
Over the past 25 years, a number of large scale programmes have been implemented
and funded by various bodies including Olympic committees (e.g., United States Olympic
Committee, Canadian Olympic Association), sports institutes (e.g., Hong Kong Sports
Institute, Irish Institute for Sport, SportScotland Institute for Sport), and private sport
franchises (e.g., Philadelphia Flyers, San Francisco 49ers) to aid athletes in transition. The
targets for these programmes have varied, but include elite, professional, and college-based
athletes. Researchers (e.g., Stronach & Adair, 2010) suggested that individual development
and affording athletes the opportunity to carry out vocational and educational training is
positively associated with the quality of post-sport life.
Additionally, many of the programmes are designed to help athletes achieve an
integrated lifestyle throughout their sporting career, which has been shown to help athletes
achieve their sporting goals, cope better with injury and stress, and be more confident about
their life after sport (Price, Morrison, & Arnold, 2010). Price et al. (2010) found that 90% of
athletes believed their career was lengthened by engaging in activities away from their sport,
because it meant they were not overtraining and becoming susceptible to burnout. Moreover,
72% of athletes believed their level of athletic performance was enhanced by non-sporting
pursuits, because they had a balanced life which meant they had the opportunity to take a
break from their sport and maintain their high motivation levels to compete (Price et al.,
36
2010). Such opinions contrast those of many coaches who may believe that having nonsporting pursuits may distract athletes and negatively influence their performances (Ogilvie
& Howe, 1982).
Programmes were developed to expand athletes’ competencies (e.g., social,
educational, and vocational life skills). The United States Olympic Committee Career
Assistance Program for Athletes, Australian Institute for Sport Athlete Career and Education
Programme, British Olympic Association Athlete Career Programme, and the Scottish
Institute for Sport Performance Lifestyle Programme are all examples of such support
programmes. Despite contextual and delivery differences in each programme (such as what
support athletes can expect) there are numerous similarities in the programmes.
Generally, there are opportunities for counselling. Counselling focuses on the
negative responses exhibited by athletes, including those at risk of problematic transition
from sport, in addition to those who want to prepare for their careers post-retirement. Ogilvie
and Howe (1982) suggested that even though the career counselling programme at the San
Francisco 49ers was positively received by athletes, it was stopped because the coach was
concerned it was a distraction to the players’ performance. Ogilvie and Howe’s (1982)
research suggests ensuring coaches are educated about the benefits of such counselling
programmes may be important, because they can have an effect as to whether or not they are
implemented.
Workshops are offered to athletes in a number of the programmes. The range of topics
covered throughout the workshops include, but is not limited to, financial planning,
educational guidance, career planning, career transition education, and matching personal
skills and training to a career post-sport. Although most programmes have incorporated
workshops to assist athletes, there is a lack of research evaluating their effectiveness. Blann
37
and Zaichkowsky (1986) found that National League Hockey Players considered workshops
on personal strengths and skills and education and career action plans to be the most useful.
Many programmes provide direct assistance to athletes in finding employment and
education opportunities via links with companies (e.g., in the British Olympic Association
Olympic and Paralympic Employment Network) and education institutions. Some
programmes do not have direct support for athletes who want to gain employment or
education (e.g., Scottish Performance Lifestyle programme), but instead provide workshops
designed to assist athletes make their own decisions about gaining employment.
The United States Olympic Committee (1989) produced a manual on career
termination and future career development. The manual was produced to assist athletes to
understand the process of retirement from sport and develop a plan for themselves after their
sport career. No research has suggested whether or not giving a manual to the athletes was
effective for the United States Olympic Committee or other organisations. Research (e.g.,
Delinsky, Latner, Wilson, 2006) has highlighted the value of self-help guides in preparing
and educating people on different phenomena (e.g., mental illness), suggesting that such
manuals may assist athletes in transition. Research on the effectiveness of these guides in
helping athletes in transition in sport is, however, required, because the sport specific context
may mean that such intervention does not support athletes effectively.
In summary, there have been a number of programmes set up by organisations
designed to support athletes in transition. Despite research suggesting there is a need for such
programmes to support athletes to make successful transitions, there are a number of
problems associated with the introduction of this provision, including funding cuts and a lack
of resources (e.g., a lack of sport psychologists and administrators to run the programmes;
Anderson and Morris, 2000). This lack of provision may mean that many of the programmes
are not fully effective or properly administered. As such, understanding the value these
38
organisations place on supporting athletes throughout their career may be important because
it may demonstrate why they do not wish to fund such programmes.
Overall, this section of the literature review has discussed ways in which athletes can
be assisted to make successful transitions. As highlighted throughout, there is a lack of
research assessing the effectiveness of some interventions (e.g., lifestyle management
interventions), especially in relation to the youth to senior transition in sport. Research
supporting the use of interventions may help sport psychologists to implement successful
strategies which assist the transitional process, reduce the influence of negative factors, assist
in talent development, and may reduce the incidence of talent loss. In the next section of the
literature review, research on career transitions in sport will be discussed.
2.3 Research Findings in Athletic Career Transitions
Over the past 50 years, researchers have explored career transitions in sport, with the
majority of the literature focusing on retirement and related factors (e.g., Alfermann, 1995;
Allison & Meyer, 1988; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993; Swain, 1991; Werthner & Orlick, 1986).
Lavallee and Wylleman (2000) reviewed 132 studies on retirement from sport. Building on
this, Park et al. (2012) produced a systematic review using studies which were published until
the end of 2010 (n = 126) focusing on retirement from sport. Park et al. (2012) reviewed
studies from 1968 onwards, whereas Lavallee and Wylleman (2000) wanted to identify all
studies associated with career transitions in sport including those prior to 1968, which
accounts for the difference in the number of studies reviewed. Additionally, Park et al. (2012)
excluded some studies identified if they were inaccessible or lacked information (e.g., sample
characteristics, methods or findings).
Pummell et al. (2008) suggested that research on within-career transitions is lacking
in depth. Retirement from sport literature, however, could be used as a proxy to within-career
transitions in sport, providing some insight into the sport and non-sport factors possibly
39
influencing such changes. By reviewing retirement literature, correlates which may influence
the youth to senior change may be identified, to inform the current research programme and
questions. As a result, retirement from sport literature will be discussed in the next section of
the literature review, with research on within-career transitions discussed thereafter.
2.3.1 Retirement from Sport
Wylleman (1995) suggested that retirement from sport is potentially difficult for some
athletes, with approximately 15% facing serious complications throughout and after their
retirement. Park et al.’s (2012) systematic review identified a range of variables which can be
associated with the quality of athletes’ retirement from sport which will now be presented.
2.3.1.1 Athletic Identity. Park et al. (2012) suggested that 34 studies demonstrated
relationships between a strong athletic identity and a negative athletic career transition (or
role change). Athletes who have a strong athletic identity may experience identity
foreclosure, curtailing their personal development beyond sport, leading to identity crises on
retirement. Warriner and Lavallee (2008) and Lavallee and Robinson (2007) also found that
athletes who have a strong athletic identity, and were susceptible to identity foreclosure, were
more vulnerable to identity crises or confusion about what to do with their lives postretirement. Grove et al. (1997), and Kerr and Dacyshyn (2000), found that those retiring from
sport with athletic identity crises required up to one year longer to achieve a stable
psychological state post-retirement. Grove et al. (1997) found that athletes who have a strong
athletic identity are also likely to employ avoidance coping strategies, such as denial and
disengagement, which can have a negative influence on adaptation, rather than proactive
problem-centred techniques which can help with adjustment to transition.
2.3.1.2 Demographics. Athletes who were married received a higher degree of
perceived support from their partners, and they experienced fewer difficulties than those who
were not married (Fernandez, Stephan, & Fouqereau, 2006; McKnight, 1996). Huang (2002)
40
reported a number of differences experienced by Chinese and German elite level athletes in
their retirement, with Germans more likely to still participate in their sport at a recreational
level and Chinese more likely to work in sports-related positions. Gilmore (2008) found that
athletes who retired at a younger chronological age (e.g., many gymnasts retire in their late
teens or early twenties) found retiring from sport more difficult and more stressful than those
who were older because they were more likely to experience financial difficulties (e.g.,
footballers retiring in their mid-thirties).
2.3.1.3 Voluntariness of Decision. Another factor influencing the ability of athletes
to adapt is whether they retire voluntarily or not. Alfermann, Stambulova, and Zemaityte
(2004) reported that athletes having control over their decision to retire positively influenced
their experience. Alfermann et al.’s (2004) research suggested that planning for retirement
influenced perceptions of control, and consequently may positively influence retirement.
Alfermann and Gross (1997) also suggested that involuntary retirement can lead to a number
of negative psychological reactions, including anger, anxiety, and depression. McKenna and
Thomas (2007) reported that some athletes who had less control over their retirement process
experienced a sense of betrayal and social exclusion from their sport organisations.
In contrast, studies (e.g., Kerr & Dacyshyn, 2000; Stephan, Torregrosa, & Sanchez,
2007), found no relationship between the voluntariness of retirement and transition
experiences. Kerr and Dacyshyn (2000) found that five out of seven athletes they interviewed
experienced disorientation, void, and frustration, but that there was no clear differences
associated with whether or not their decision to retire was voluntary or forced. The fact these
studies, and the studies that found a relationship, focused on a variety of outcome measures
of successful transition, such as levels of anxiety or stress, may explain the equivocal results.
2.3.1.4 Control of Life. Research suggests that athletes who perceive they are in
control of their life are much more likely to adapt well to retirement from sport than those
41
who do not have perceived control of their lives (Park et al., 2012). Kerr and Dacyshyn
(2000) suggested that athletes who do not have perceived control over their lives experience
more negative emotions when retiring from sport. Negative emotions may have a hindering
effect on the retirement process, making it more difficult for the athletes. Webb, Nasco,
Riley, and Headrick (1998) suggested that college athletes who showed perceived control
over their lives experienced higher self-esteem, portrayed a more optimistic future outlook on
their lives, and enhanced life happiness.
2.3.1.5 Injury and Health Problems. Injury and health problems can sometimes be
related to the voluntariness of the retirement decision. When athletes retire due to ill health or
injury, transitional difficulties can be experienced (Gilmore, 2008). Park et al. (2012) found
ten papers which revealed a negative association between ill health or injuries and the quality
of athletes’ retirement. Athletes who have a physical impairment at the time of their
retirement require longer period of adjustment to their new life afterwards (Werthner &
Orlick, 1986).
2.3.1.6 Self-Perception. Kerr and Dacyshyn (2000) were among the first to report a
correlation between body image and the quality of career termination, reporting that athletes’
body image can be influenced by their retirement and their negative perceptions of their body
can be a source of distress during career transitions. Three other papers (e.g., Lavallee and
Robinson, 2007) have also suggested an enhanced perception of body image by athletes is
important to their quality of transition. Also, athletes with lower self-worth were found to be
more susceptible to distress and negative emotions (Stephan, Bilard, Ninot, & Delignières,
2003a), whereas others who had a high self-confidence were found to have a positive outlook
on their post-sport career (Newell, 2005).
2.3.1.7 Career and Personal Development. Park et al. (2012) identified nine studies
which examined the relationship between adjustment to retirement and athletes’ career and
42
personal development (Kane, 1991; Lantz, 1995; Lavallee, Gordon, & Grove, 1996; Swain,
1991; Wilder, 1999). Athletes who experienced a number of life experiences outside their
sport during their career were more likely to adapt well to their departure (Park et al., 2012),
because they did not experience a delayed identity shift apparent in retirees with a lack of
experiences (Kane, 1991).
2.3.1.8 Disengagement and Dropout. Drop-out refers to the premature sport career
termination among young athletes before they have reached their full potential (Alfermann,
1995). Koukouris (1991, 1994, 2001) applied the term ‘disengagement’ to examine Greek
athletes drop-out experiences. Athletes who fail to be successful in their sport and drop-out
could experience a number of negative reactions, such as identity issues and negative
emotions (Alfermann, 1995; Alfermann & Gross, 1997).The suggestion that athletes who
drop-out and disengage from sport experience negative reactions is replicated in another two
studies (Koukouris, 2001; Johns et al., 1990), though one additional study suggested there is a
non-significant association between the two variables (Koukouris, 1991). Overall, the
majority of research has suggested that disengagement and drop-out can lead to negative
reactions and consequences.
2.3.1.9 Time Passed After Retirement. Similar to the process of losing a close
relative, the hurt and anguish post-retirement becomes easier to manage over time as people
are able to build up coping skills to deal with the pain they are experiencing. Park et al.
(2012) identified literature which suggested that the distress athletes experienced diminishes
over time (Lally, 2007; Stephan, Bilard, Ninot, & Delignières, 2003b; Wippert & Wippert,
2008). The length of time athletes experienced this distress varied from three months
(Wippert & Wippert, 2008), to a year (Lally, 2007) post-retirement.
2.3.1.10 Financial Status. Athletes who experience financial difficulties post
retirement were much more likely to experience transitional problems than those who are
43
financially stable, with research reporting that problems can include limited post-athletic
career life choices (e.g., some were forced to work as they did not have enough financial
security to cope with demands for the rest of their lives; e.g., Lotysz & Short, 2004;
Menkehorst & Van Den Berg, 1997; Swain, 1991; Werthner & Orlick, 1986).
2.3.1.11 Life Changes. Stephan et al. (2003a) defined life changes as changes in a
person’s way of life and daily routines. When athletes experienced changes in their lifestyle
and daily routines, they were much more likely to experience feelings of anxiety and
experience feelings of loss (Kerr & Dacyshyn, 2000). Accepting new lifestyles without their
sport is one of the most challenging features of retirement (Stephan et al., 2003a).
2.3.1.12 Career Achievement. Nine studies reported a positive correlation between
sporting goal achievement and the quality of career transition (Park et al., 2012). Athletes
who achieve their sporting goals showed heightened levels of self-identity, self-esteem, and
global self-concept, and experienced less occupational difficulties post sport retirement
(Cecić Erpič, Wylleman, & Zupančič, 2004). Conversely, Park et al. (2012) identified that
athletes who were not as successful as they had expected to be experienced higher levels of
psychological distress, including loneliness, at the end of their career.
2.3.1.13 Balance of Life While Competing. Athletes who balance their sport career
with other domains of life, such as education, are much more likely to successfully transition
from sport without the risk of psychological distress (Harrison & Lawrence, 2003, 2004; Kerr
& Dacyshyn, 2000). These results highlight one of the key roles of supporters of athletes in
transitions may be to ensuring athletes have this balance in their life.
2.3.1.14 Educational Status. Athletes who have a high level of education (i.e.,
educated to degree level) experience more positive retirement in comparison to those who do
not have this commodity (Williams, 1991). Conversely, a lack of educational qualifications
was related to employment difficulties (Marthinus, 2007). This could perhaps be related to a
44
lack of financial security, with those who have lower job prospects possibly experiencing
financial problems (Marthinus, 2007).
2.3.1.15 Relationship with Coach. Studies (e.g., Johns et al., 1990; Kerr &
Dacyshyn, 2000; Lavallee & Robinson, 2007; Werthner & Orlick, 1986) found athletes who
did not have a good relationship with their coach were liable to experience transitional
difficulties, with the consequences including disengagement and injury. Athletes also blamed
their coaches for retirement difficulties (Lavallee & Robinson, 2007), which suggests a better
relationship with coaches may assist athletes in transition.
2.3.1.16 Available Resources during the Career Transition. The final factor Park
et al. (2012) identified was the resources athletes had available to them to help deal with their
transition. Within the available resources, four clusters of variables were identified as the
most influential to the retirement process.
2.3.1.16.1 Coping Strategies. Coping strategy use has been examined in 32 studies,
with searching for a new career or interest after sport termination, keeping themselves busy,
searching for psychosocial support, avoidance and denial, and acceptance, being those
employed by athletes to help with the career termination process (Park et al., 2012).
Athletes believed searching for a new career or interests were helpful in their
adjustment to retirement (Missler, 1996; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993; Werthner & Orlick, 1986;
Wilder, 1999). Kadlcik and Flemr (2008), and Lotysz and Short (2004) suggested athletes
who were searching for a new job reported such a coping strategy was effective in reducing
career transition difficulties, because they had a new focus in their life post-retirement.
Maladaptive behaviours athletes used to cope with career termination difficulties were
highlighted in four studies (Koukouris, 1991; Mihovilovic, 1968; Sinclair & Orlick, 1993;
Wippert & Wippert, 2008) including alcohol dependence, increased smoking, or drug use to
help ease the stress and strains experienced. Maladaptive behaviours had a negative effect on
45
retirement, with athletes experiencing increased anxiety, depression, and stress (Wippert &
Wippert, 2008).
2.3.1.16.2 Psychosocial Support. Twenty-seven studies have suggested that the
psychosocial support athletes receive throughout their retirement process can have an
influence on the level of stress experienced (Park et al., 2012). Psychosocial support includes
assistance athletes receive from sport-related people, such as coaches, peers, and sport
science support staff, and non sport-related people, such as friends, family, spouses, and other
people and comes in various forms including emotional, esteem, informational, network, and
tangible. Tangible support is the provision of financial assistance, material goods, or services
(Morris & Eubank, in press), such as transportation to and from training.
Ten studies (Barners, 2002; Cockerill & Edge, 1998; Lavallee, Gordon, & Grove,
1997; Lotysz & Short, 2004; McKnight, 1996; Perna, Zaichkowski, & Bocknek, 1996;
Warriner & Lavallee, 2008) suggested that emotional and esteem support helped athletes to
build their confidence, and provided them with assistance for emotional challenges they may
face when retiring. When emotional support was provided, there was a reduction in
depression, distress and maladaptive behaviours compared with athletes who did not have
such support (Park et al., 2012).
Pre-retirement information helps athletes prepare for retirement by providing them
with knowledge of what to expect in the retirement process, and is provided by various
groups, including organisations, former teammates, and coaches (McKnight, 1996; Stephan et
al., 2003b). Athletes who received this kind of support were less likely to experience negative
transitional difficulties, including negative emotions and vocational maladjustment
(Fernandez et al., 2006; Wippert & Wippert, 2008).
Park et al. (2012) identified six studies which suggested that social networks were
crucial in the retirement process (Kane, 1991; Newell, 2005; Schwendener-Holt, 1994;
46
Wilder, 1999). Social networks can be lost post-retirement (i.e. the loss of friends and peers
from the sporting organisation), resulting in retirement difficulties (Kane, 1991).
Schwendener-Holt (1994) suggested athletes who had stronger social networks postretirement experienced less transitional problems, such as stress.
Park et al. (2012) also identified tangible support, such as funding, helped athletes
transition from sport with less chance of experiencing a negative retirement and factors such
as stress. Leung, Carre, and Fu (2005) also highlighted the importance of tangible support,
suggesting athletes who received it from organisations showed a healthier transition from
sport as well as less emotional difficulties.
2.3.1.16.3 Pre-retirement Planning. Park et al. (2012) suggested pre-retirement
planning, which incorporates overall life planning, can aid athletes in transition. Preretirement planning differs from career and personal development because it is an active
decision by athletes to start preparing for the transition from senior sport, in comparison to
achieving a balanced lifestyle throughout their career which was discussed earlier. Overall
life planning can include vocational, psychological, and financial preparation. Connections
between this section of the literature review and some of the preventive perspective in career
transition interventions can be made. Twenty-eight studies suggested there was a positive
association between pre-retirement planning and the quality of athletes’ retirement as
measured by factors such as emotional difficulties (e.g., Hughes, 1990; Marthinus, 2007).
Coakley (2006) suggested there was a positive association between pre-retirement planning
and their vocational adjustment post-retirement, and Warriner and Lavallee (2008) suggested
psychological preparation and the setting of clear goals gave athletes a feeling of comfort
throughout retirement. Although there has been a number of studies on the effectiveness of
some pre-retirement planning techniques, as discussed in the section of the current chapter on
interventions, other methods such as counselling and account making which could be
47
administered throughout transitions have not been examined in relation to how effectively
athletes leave sport.
2.3.1.16.4 Support Programme Involvement. Park et al. (2012) found eight studies
which indicated positive association between athletes’ support programme involvement and
the quality of career transitions. For example, Albion (2007) found that the Australian Career
and Education Programme helped the athletes become less susceptible to identify foreclosure.
Additionally, Gilmour (2008) found that former athletes believed the job seeking and
interview skills development that they received as part of the Performance Lifestyle
Programme in Scotland helped them further their career after they retired from sport. Despite
this, more research is required to determine the effectiveness of such programmes on athletes’
within-career transitions (e.g., moving from youth to senior sport).
Overall, empirical research on retirement from sport appears to suggest that the
process can be difficult, depending upon a number of variables (Park et al., 2012). When
athletes utilise resources, skills, knowledge, support, to their benefit, they are more likely to
experience a successful transition and avoid stress and anxiety. Athletes from a wide range of
competition levels, various types of sport, and both genders have been studied using various
qualitative and quantitative research methods (e.g., individual interviews). The literature
discussed above, however, has limitations. Firstly, the main focus of the literature has been
on Western samples (including European Countries, North America, and Australia); few
researchers have focused on whether or not the factors identified in the current literature
review are relevant to other cultures (e.g., Asian samples). Additionally, the majority of the
research on career transitions in sport has used retrospective data collection methods, which
may lead to memory and recall bias (e.g., Kerr & Dacyshyn, 2000). Further research, such as
using a longitudinal research design, is warranted because it will add to the knowledge on
48
career transitions in sport, and reduce some of the limitations associated with retrospective
research designs (e.g., recall bias).
The empirical research on retirement from sport is useful to the current thesis because
it provides an understanding of some of the factors which may be associated with other
transitions, such as the youth to senior change. Due to the dearth of literature which has
focused on the youth to senior transition, by reviewing this literature, an understanding of
some factors which may be associated with transition could be gleaned, and research
questions and interview schedules can be better informed.
As discussed, in addition to the retirement from sport literature already highlighted,
there have been some papers which have focused on within-career transitions. This research,
although limited by the number of studies available, will directly inform the current PhD and,
accordingly, the youth to senior transition research will be discussed below.
2.3.2 Within-Career Transition Research
Pummell (2008) suggested that, unsurprisingly, the increased demands of moving
from youth sport to a higher level can lead to amplified levels of stress and pressure relative
to an athlete’s previous levels, with psychosocial support and their identity potentially
influential in the change process. Hollander, Myers, and LeUnes (1995) suggested that
participation in elite sport can also challenge young athletes both physically and mentally,
which, Bruner et al. (2008) suggested may lead to additional stressors or negative
consequences such as burnout. Despite this research suggesting the youth to senior change
may be difficult for athletes, and Wylleman and Lavallee (2004) suggesting that each
transition is independent and could result in different kinds of stressors, within-career
changes in sport have received little research attention. The next section of this literature
review will summarise the papers which have focused on within-career transitions in sport,
specifically the youth to senior change. In total, I identified 11 studies focused on factors
49
associated with the youth to senior transition in sport, all of which employed a qualitative
methodology. As discussed, Stambulova’s (2003) model underpins the current thesis, and the
research questions and analysis. Therefore, the previous literature will be presented in
relation to Stambulova’s (2003) model, and the sections highlighted within it, including
demands, resources, and barriers of transition.
2.3.2.1 Demands of Transition. Researchers, including Jorlén (2008) and Morris and
Eubank (in press), have identified a number of demands of the youth to senior transition in
sport, including athletes perceiving a lack of control over transition and the expectation that
the senior sport is a much better standard than youth sport. Correspondingly, others (e.g.,
Lorenzo et al., 2009; Pummell et al., 2008) suggest that athletes may experience negative
transitions, with some athletes complaining they experienced a number of demands (e.g.,
heightened expectation from others and higher technical and physical levels) and reduced
confidence. Finn and McKenna (2010) identified a number of additional demands which
coaches reported could hinder athletes transferring successfully from youth to senior sport,
including increased physical pressures, the need to prove their value to first team players, and
the need to build up and establish new relationships with new coaches. However, a number of
athletes reported positive transitions, such as it was a fantastic experience and they were
really excited to move up to senior sport (Pummell et al., 2008). This research appears to
highlight that transitional experience can vary markedly depending on the person.
2.3.2.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. Pummell et al. (2008)
found that athletes who moved up to senior sport had a variety of internal resources to aid
transition into senior sport, including motivation to make the change. For example, the
athletes interviewed suggested that they had a high work ethic, a high motivation to make the
transition, and had a love for the sport. Similarly, Holt and Dunn (2004), using grounded
theory, studied the psychosocial competencies associated with success in football. The
50
players demonstrated high levels of personal responsibility and motivation for the transition,
and were willing to make significant sacrifices to be successful (e.g., spending less time with
friends and family). Realistically, athletes interviewed are not likely to say they are not
motivated or taking personal responsibility for the transition for fear of compromising their
position in senior sport. For this reason, studies with other key stakeholders in the transition
may present an alternative understanding of the resources which aid athletes through
transition. Meaning-focused coping strategies, where people draw upon their beliefs, values,
and existential goals to motivate themselves, are encouraged by coaches (Finn and McKenna,
2010). Additionally, other strategies such as self-control (regulating one’s own thoughts and
feelings), active problem solving, positive reappraisal (finding the positive in the stress), and
having the ability to thrive on pressure have been highlighted as other methods athletes could
use to support themselves when moving from youth to senior sport (Finn & McKenna, 2010;
Holt and Dunn, 2004).
Researchers (e.g., Bennie & O’Connor, 2004; Morris & Eubank, in press; Pummell et
al., 2008) suggest that external resources, including social support from peers, friends, family,
coaches, and organisations was crucial to aid the development of athletes during the youth to
senior transition. Sport science support was also mooted as an important resource for many
athletes (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press). Pummell et al. (2008) suggested that the majority
of support for athletic development was received from the parents of the athletes, who offered
various forms of support – tangible support, financial support, and emotional support. Côté
(1999), however, suggested that the type of support offered by parents changed over time,
with the parental role shifting from a leading to supporting role. Wylleman and Lavallee
(2004) indicated that this shift might be because athletes start to seek more sport-related
advice from coaches and peers as they move into senior sport. In addition to parental support,
Morris and Eubank (in press) suggested that athletes may receive technical support from
51
fellow players after they move up to senior sport. Finally, Bruner et al. (2008) reported that
rookie athletes believed that coaches helped during their transition into elite sport, providing
technical support. When the support included positive comments about their performance,
athletes often experienced an increase in their self-confidence (Bruner et al., 2008). Overall,
Vujic (2004) also suggested that social support needed to be continual and of high quality,
such as providing athletes a basis to vent their frustrations if needed. This research appears to
suggest that if appropriate support mechanisms are in place to help athletes with the specific
sources of stress they may experience a more positive transition to senior sport.
2.3.2.3 Barriers to Transition. Pummell et al. (2008) highlighted a number of
external barriers to transition, including a lack of organisational support, financial pressures
due to a lack of a sustainable wage, a lack of school support including teacher understanding,
and lack of physical preparation advice which could hinder athletes transferring from youth
to senior sport. When athletes do not receive this support they may experience stress
(Pummell et al., 2008), which may influence how well they transition into senior sport. Many
athletes did not feel as though they received the support they needed, and others reported that
the feedback they received was overly critical, resulting in a decrease in confidence (Bruner
et al., 2008). Further, from a track and field perspective, Bennie and O’Connor (2004)
highlighted a number of additional support strategies they believed could help alleviate and
reduce talent loss, including educating coaches, teachers, and parents about the issues athletes
may face so that they are able to offer advice and support to athletes.
Additionally, those who are providing support may have a hindering effect on
transition if they do not provide the right kind of support (e.g., Finn and McKenna, 2010).
For example, partners of athletes have put pressure on their loved one to engage in distracting
social activities, such as drinking, and parents have tried to live their dream through their
child, putting additional pressure on athletes to be successful (Finn and McKenna, 2010).
52
Such activities may become a barrier to successful transition into senior sport, putting added
pressure and strain on athletes.
In addition to the factors highlighted above, post-transitional changes were identified
as one final theme of the youth to senior transition in sport (Pummell et al., 2008; Morris and
Eubank, in press), which Stambulova (2003) does not present in her model. Pummell et al.
(2008) suggested there were sport-related psychological and social changes which occurred
post-transition, including an increase in the technical ability of the athletes, sport-specific
goal setting, and an increase on the importance of sport to the athletes. Psychologically,
athletes became more aware of setbacks and were able to deal with them better, and also
experienced fewer nerves as they felt better accepted in the senior team by the management,
players, and organisations (Morris & Eubank, in press; Pummell et al., 2008; Vujic, 2004).
Finally, Pummell et al. (2008) found that, although athletes did make good friendships within
their sport, many also felt that their social lives had suffered because they were no longer
close to old friends from school. Additionally, many also believed that their social life had to
fit around their sporting career, because their sport was now the most important aspect of
their life. Other aspects of the athletes’ social lives, such as holidays and nights out, became
reserved for occasions when there was no training for the foreseeable future (Morris &
Eubank, in press). These athletes appear to show a high level of athletic identity, which has
been associated with negative transitions in the retirement from sport literature (e.g., Pearson
& Petitipas, 1990).
To summarise, the initial research on the youth to senior transition in sport has
suggested that many of the factors associated with the retirement from sport, such as sources
and level of stress, and social support, are also relevant to within sport transition. Due to the
lack of full understanding of additional factors associated with the youth to senior transition
and the suggestion that changes may vary across different sports (Bruner et al., 2008), more
53
research is required specifically on said transition. The next section of this literature review
examines the unsolved issues related to the youth to senior transition, before an outline of the
current thesis is presented.
2.4 Summary, Unsolved Issues and Aims of Current Research
Initially, this literature review highlighted the historical development and expansion
of conceptual models of transition. Some of the conceptual models (e.g., Wylleman and
Lavallee, 2004) predict when athletes are likely to experience transitions and also suggest
possible stages in an athletic career. Other models (e.g., Stambulova, 2003) try to explain the
factors influencing the success of a transition, including identifying specific demands,
resources, and barriers. These models also offer suggestions of ways athletes may negotiate
the transition process through the availability of factors such as internal and external
resources. As Stambulova’s (2003) model is the model which appears to offer the best
understanding of the factors associated with the youth to senior transition, it will underpin the
current work, with overall aim and research questions based around it.
In addition to the models of transition, the current literature review critiqued
interventions that could assist athletes in transition, including (a) preventive interventions
(e.g., Stambulova, 2010), (b) crises-coping interventions (e.g., Lavallee et al., 2000), and (c)
clinical intervention when appropriate. Career-related programmes and services (e.g., the
Performance Lifestyle Programme, Scotland), were also discussed. It was concluded that
whilst a range of interventions have been suggested, few have been robustly evaluated for
long-term efficacy.
Finally, empirical research on career transitions in sport was discussed. Initially, the
research associated with retirement from sport was highlighted, before the literature on
within-career changes was examined. Over the past 50 years, there has been considerable
empirical investigation on retirement from sport which may help inform how researchers
54
investigate the youth to senior transition (e.g., methodologically and the types of questions
asked). It was concluded that despite this considerable body of research on retirement from
sport, there is a dearth of literature focusing on the within-career changes. Nevertheless,
research which has focused on within-career transitions, has suggested that some of the
factors affecting retirement from sport, including social support available to athletes (e.g.,
Bruner et al., 2008; Morris & Eubank, in press), and stressors (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008),
may be applicable to other transitions in sport (e.g., youth to senior).
As there is a lack of research focusing on the youth to senior transition and there are a
number of unsolved questions pertaining to the change, to add to the knowledge available on
such shifts, more research in the area is required. Accordingly, the overall purpose of this
thesis was to examine the youth to senior transition in a specific high performance context
(professional football) and the factors associated with change from athletes’ and supporters’
perspectives. This thesis will address this purpose by examining:
(a) athletes’ and supporters’ subjective experiences of the youth to senior transition in
sport (Studies 1, 2, and 3);
(b) the demands, resources, and barriers athletes may experience moving from youth to
senior sport (Studies 1, 2, 3, and 4);
(e) ways in which factors highlighted in the first and second aims above parallel and
extend those raised in Stambulova’s (2003) model of transitions in sport (Studies 1, 2,
3, and 4); and
(f) if there is any initial evidence to support the hypothesis that factors listed in
Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain transition outcomes and guide
intervention development, which could justify future experimental research (Study 4).
To add to the existing knowledge on the youth to senior transition in sport, answer the
research questions, and help achieve the overall purpose of this thesis, a series of four studies
55
has been devised, with studies one, two, and three of the current PhD focused on coaches’,
supporters’, and athletes’ perceptions of the youth to senior transition, respectively. Study 4
focuses on identifying initial evidence to support the hypothesis that Stambulova’s (2003)
model may be able to explain and predict transition, subsequently guiding intervention
development. Knowledge on the youth to senior transition will be advanced by this series of
studies because as a group they assess the viewpoints, using novel modes of investigation
(e.g., longitudinal examination), of a number of sources who have an understanding of the
change, giving knowledge of factors associated with transition that we do not currently have
an understanding of from previous research.
The diversity of sources contributing to the current thesis is important because much
of the research in the area has focused on athletes (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press), failing to
consider others who may have an influence on such a change (e.g., coaches, parents, and
partners). Although Finn and McKenna (2010) studied coaches’ perception of the youth to
senior transition, to date this is the only study researching supporters’ perception of
transition. It is possible that these other people, including coaches, parents, and sport science
support staff, can identify factors associated with the transition which affect how well athletes
make the change to senior sport. For example, this knowledge may suggest if there are
particular types of support (e.g., emotional support) that athletes receive from particular
supporters, and whether this changes over the period of transition. Such research may be
useful because it may help to highlight deficiencies in the type and amount of support athletes
are receiving which may, in turn, hinder their overall progress. Studies 1 and 2 of the current
thesis were designed to add to the knowledge available on the youth to senior transition by
gaining an understanding of the change from the supporters’ (including coaches, parents, and
sport science support staff) perspectives.
56
Grounded firmly in an idiographic perspective, it was also argued that athletes’
perceptions of transition is also likely to add substantially to knowledge, given they are the
ones moving into senior sport. However, methodologically, much of the within-career
transition literature has tended to employ retrospective interviewing (e.g., Pummell et al.,
2008), which may have resulted in memory distortion and retrospective recall bias having an
effect on the validity of the data presented (Levine & Safer, 2002). Pummell (2008) also
suggested that emotional state and events post-transition may have an effect on how athletes
perceive their transition experience, with athletes presenting a more or less favourable
account of their transition process than was experienced at the time. Consequently, research
which reduces the effect of these problems (e.g., tracking athletes through transition
longitudinally), may provide a fuller understanding of within-career transitions. Study 3
aimed to advance the knowledge of the youth to senior transition in sport by tracking athletes
as they transition to senior sport.
Despite the number of conceptual models in the transition area (e.g., Stambulova,
2003; Wylleman and Lavallee, 2004), there is insufficient evidence to show whether or not
such models adequately describe the factors associated with the youth to senior transition.
Examining the conceptual models in relation to the youth to senior change may help to
identify if they are useful guides to understanding transitions and may help inform practice.
Additionally, there is also insufficient evidence assessing whether models of transition are
effective in predicting outcomes of transition. All studies in the current thesis are designed to
assess the effectiveness of Stambulova’s (2003) model in explaining the process of transition
and the factors associated with the change. Additionally, Study 4 was designed identify any
initial evidence to support the hypothesis that factors listed in Stambulova’s (2003) model
may be able to explain transition outcomes and guide intervention development, which could
justify future experimental research. Given the novel methods of enquiry employed in this
57
thesis, it was expected to serve a model testing but also a model development function, in that
adjustments may be made to Stambulova’s (2003) model to better represent the youth to
senior transition in sport. Such changes are discussed in individual studies, before an adapted
model of transition is presented in the overall discussion.
Given its popularity and the amount of money invested in player development, youth
athletes moving up to senior football appear to face a number of demands such as increased
pressure from fans and media, which may influence their transition experiences. Football
already has an established transition ethos, with clubs reliant on producing players from their
academies due to a change in UEFA (2005) regulations which require clubs to include four
players from their own academy in their first team squad and a further four players from
academies in the same nation. As a result, many national leagues have introduced their own
regulations in their competitions to meet this rule (e.g., English Premier League, 2010). Due
to these factors and a clear contextual relevance, within the current thesis, football was used
as a medium to study the youth to senior change in sport. A thorough understanding of the
youth to senior change in football may make it easier for readers and athletes of other sports
to find parallels and differences between this sport and others, which may mean better
support can be put in place to assist those going through the change. Additionally, following
Patton (2002), studying a single context in detail (i.e., football) to obtain adequate depth and
richness of information, and gain a fuller understanding of that situation, may mean that
organisations and sport governing bodies could draw parallels between their current
circumstances and those presented in this thesis.
In summary, four studies have been devised to add to the knowledge available on the
youth to senior transition. The series of studies are presented in the forthcoming chapters of
the PhD. Prior to this, the next chapter will discuss the methodology which will be employed
throughout.
58
Chapter Three
Methodology
59
3.1 Research Design
The use of a qualitative research design allowed the opportunity to explore
participants’ perceptions of the youth to senior transition in sport from their own perspective
(see Patton, 2002). Guest, Namey, and Mitchell (2013) argue that with qualitative research,
researchers are able to understand and capture other people’s points of view without
predetermining their thoughts and feelings or being constrained by the hypothesis-drive focus
of many quantitative research methods. Additionally, the breadth and depth of responses
gained from participants is enhanced over quantitative methods because qualitative enquiry
allows the researcher to ask questions in such a way that the participant understands what is
being asked of them. In some situations participants may not fully understand particular
questions and they can ask for clarity about these. This can mean they answer the question
being asked with responses which are more appropriate to the research objectives, than if
they answered a question they thought they were being asked which they had actually
misunderstood (Guest et al., 2013).
Another advantage of using qualitative enquiry is that it can allow the researcher to
gather information that they do not anticipate prior to data collection. With constrained
quantitative questionnaires, for example, participants can only give fixed responses to the
questions asked and are unable to offer their own additional perspectives on the situation
being discussed. In contrast, carrying out a qualitative method of enquiry allows respondents
to give information on the phenomenon being studied without being constrained completely
by the questions being asked (Berg, 2004).
Additionally, the flexible nature of qualitative enquiry offers the researcher a unique
opportunity to probe into responses or observations as needed to obtain more detail about
particular descriptions, experiences, behaviours, or beliefs given (Patton, 2002; Guest, et al.,
2013). For example, in many interviews it may be the case that less verbose respondents will
60
answer with yes or no answers, or very short answers which offer little or no description or
explanation. In such scenarios, qualitative enquiry allows the researcher to follow up with
subsequent probes or questions which explore these answers in more detail, offering the
opportunity to explore further facets associated with the research objectives. In contrast,
quantitative enquiry will gain an understanding regarding prevalence and differentiation
within a population, but does not allow in depth probing which can help develop a deep, more
personal, and meaningful knowledge of any topic (Guest et al., 2013).
As the purpose of the current PhD was to gain an understanding of the participants’
perceptions of the youth to senior transition in sport, without constraining their thoughts and
opinions, a qualitative method of data collection and analysis was employed in the four
studies. These data were supported by quantitative results where required. Additionally, as
there are few research studies focusing on the youth to senior transition in sport and enquiry
is still very much in the initial stages, qualitative research allowed exploration of the factors
participants associated with transition in more detail, which may have highlighted and given a
greater understanding of the whole transition process.
Although I decided to use a qualitative method of enquiry in the current work due to
the objectives of the research and the appropriateness of qualitative enquiry in answering the
research questions, there are some limitations of this methodology which need to be
highlighted. Firstly, qualitative data collection and analysis is more likely to be influenced by
the researcher than quantitative ones (Smith & Caddick, 2012). Techniques such as member
checking or using a critical friend can help to reduce such biases. However, in keeping with
Patton (2002), I believe that my own personal biases will still have an influence on the way I
collected data and analysed the results. Secondly, due to (generally) small sample sizes
within qualitative research the ability to claim a representative sample is reduced and
generalizability becomes difficult, if not impossible (Guest, et al., 2013). Finally, qualitative
61
data collection and analysis is a time consuming process which can result in the researcher
becoming lax and missing vital information from the end transcriptions (Carr, 1994). All of
these disadvantages can have a negative influence on the data collection and analysis that a
qualitative researcher carries out. Later on in the methodology section, however, I discuss
some of these elements in more detail and explain how I have tried to alleviate, for example,
my own personal biases as much as possible, through using techniques such as member
checking.
Within the broad method of qualitative enquiry, there are a number of epistemological
schools of thoughts, including traditional scientific research (e.g., Miles & Huberman, 1994;
Ragin, 1987), social construction and constructivist (e.g., Glense, 1999), artistic and
evocative (e.g., Bochner, 2001), critical change (e.g., Harding, 1991; Reinharz, 1992;
Thomas, 1993), critical realism (e.g., Campbell, 1974, 1988; Cook & Campbell, 1979) and
evaluation standards and principles criterion (e.g., Greene, 2000; Patton, 1997; Stufflebeam,
Madeus, & Kellaghan, 2000). These different schools of thoughts have different data
collection and analyse techniques which can be used (Patton, 2002). Individual beliefs and
values researchers have influence the philosophical school of thought that they work from
(Merriam, 1998). My philosophical viewpoint lies mainly within the critical realist paradigm,
because I believe that although there is a real world which exists independently of my
perceptions, theories, and constructions, my understanding of this world is socially
constructed from my own standpoint and perspectives. I believe that my own background and
experiences, and how I understand the world is a central part of how I understand myself and
others. Critical realists agree that there is no possibility of gaining a single, “correct”
understanding of the world, and many argue that the only way to gain a good understanding
of the world and constructs within it is to gain a majority understanding from the perspectives
of informative individuals who have a knowledge of the area being assessed through personal
62
experiences (Maxwell, 2012). The current thesis, from this viewpoint, assesses the
understanding of the transition from a number of information rich informants who have
knowledge of the youth to senior transition, with the aim of creating a greater consensus
about the factors associated with the youth to senior transition in sport.
Although I do conform to many of the beliefs of the critical realist paradigm, for data
collection in the current thesis, I followed Patton (2002) who argued that researchers can use
qualitative research methods (e.g., interviews) without pledging allegiance to the school of
thought from which they were devised. Following Patton’s (2002) theory, the current
research is not driven by any epistemological school of thought, rather it was driven by
Stambulova’s (2003) content theory explaining the process of transition, with research
methods and analysis procedures selected upon their suitability to answer the research
questions, without being constrained by my philosophical perspective. The current chapter
details the data collection, data analysis, and credibility procedures used in the studies.
3.2 Data Collection and Analysis
3.2.1 Participants
Participants in the studies were selected using a purposeful sampling technique
(Davis, 1940), because they had to have relevant knowledge or experience of the youth to
senior transition in football. Additionally, participants were recruited via a snowball sampling
technique (Peters & Waterman, 1982). Hardon, Hodgkin, and Fresle (2004) argue that
purposeful snowball samples allow researchers to easily locate and be introduced to
knowledgeable people who are able to answer informatively on the research questions posed.
Those who are asked if they would be willing to introduce the researcher to further
participants are usually privy to, and are friendly with, people in a similar situation to them,
which makes gaining contact with potential participants via a purposeful snowballing sample
easier (Hardon, Hodgkin & Fresle, 2004). Contrastingly, a limitation of the use of purposeful
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sampling is that there may be a lack of variation in the sample, which may limit the data
collected (Hardon, Hodgkin & Fresle, 2004). In the current research, where possible, data
were collected from a number of different participants at a number of different clubs to try
and reduce this limitation. All participants, however, were still required to have knowledge of
the youth to senior transition in sport.
For each study there were different specific inclusion criteria, guided by the research
questions. In all studies, however, participants had to have, or be about to, experience at least
one transition from youth to senior sport (i.e., be athletes or supporter of athletes who have or
are going through transition). After initial contact with participants known to myself, I asked
if they could recommend people they believed had knowledge of the youth to senior
transition and would be willing to be interviewed on the subject. For example, in Study 1,
initial contact was made with 4 participants known to myself. At the end of each of the first
three interviews, participants were asked if they could recommend others who they thought
could contribute to the study and would be willing to be interviewed. These 3 participants
recommended a further 9 individuals they believed could provide information relevant to the
study. Additionally, I used Patton’s (2002) homogenous sampling principle, where
participants were required to have similar backgrounds and experiences of the topic being
researched (i.e., experience of at least one youth to senior transition as dictated by the
inclusion criteria), to help reduce data variation and ensure a focus of the responses on the
research question. Reduction in data variation helps to enhance knowledge as a greater
consensus of opinions and the factors associated with change can be gleaned. For example,
although I may gain a larger amount of data if I interviewed respondents who had no
experience of the youth to senior transition, the results may not be truly representative of the
change. This is because respondents may be guessing factors associated with the process if
they do not have experience of at least one youth to senior transition, as opposed to others
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who discuss factors which they believe are associated with the change having experienced
such a move.
I also drew upon Parahoo (1997) and Patton’s (2002) approach to determine sample
size. Parahoo (1997) and Patton (2002) suggested that when data saturation is reached, or
when no more new themes are being generated from further interviews, additional
participants are unlikely to add data to answering the research questions. Following Patton
(2002), it was decided in the current thesis that saturation was reached after three interviews
did not add any additional knowledge to the topic being studied. Parahoo (1997)
recommended that investigators estimated the minimum sample sizes they believe would be
necessary to answer their research question and reach data saturation, based upon their
knowledge of their research area. If data saturation is not reached, and if doing so will help
researchers answer their research questions, more participants can be added (Patton, 2002).
Tucker (2004) has argued that it is possible after perceived data saturation has been reached
some interviews may still highlight aspects not covered in previous interviews. In other
words, some participants may still add information to the results being gained by researchers.
For example, I could interview 99 participants who all agree on themes highlighted and do
not add additional knowledge to the topic being studied. However, the 100th participant could
add further knowledge and themes to the questions being researched. Although this is a
distinct possibility with all research, and in particular research where a judgement has to be
made about the sample size, I have tried to reduce this possibility by interviewing participants
with as wide a range of experiences of the youth to senior transition as possible, and who are
at the highest level of football in Scotland and England, arguably places with good transition
ethos’. Throughout the thesis, however, although data saturation was reached where no more
interviews were adding any more answers to the questions being asked, I have highlighted the
65
possible limitations of a small sample size as used in these studies. The sample sizes are
outlined in each of the methods sections of chapters 4 to 7.
3.2.2 Interviews
Semi-structured interviews are a research technique where the researcher has a
number of pre-determined questions which are to be covered, but is flexible and allows new
foci to be brought up during the conversation (Patton, 2002). McNamara (1999) endorses
this, and also suggests that semi-structured interviews are useful for getting the story behind
participants’ experiences. Kvale (1996) suggested that semi-structured open-ended interview
schedules yield in-depth understanding of people’s experiences, perceptions, opinions,
feelings, and knowledge of a particular phenomenon and world. Semi-structured interviewing
also allows for exploration of individuals’ perspectives and experiences within a broader
subject area, which may not be covered in the interview schedule, while still remaining
focused on the overall aims of the research (Patton, 2002). Since the current research focused
on understanding the perceptions and experiences of the youth to senior transition from a
number of perspectives (e.g., athletes, coaches, and support staff), semi-structured interview
techniques were used, which allowed an exploration of participants’ thoughts and opinions.
This technique was also selected because there is a lack of research pertaining to the move to
senior sport and models of transition are still being developed. The flexibility of semistructured interview techniques means that topic generation is easier because participants can
highlight alternative factors associated with the topic and are not constrained by specific
questions which allow no further exploration (e.g., structured interview techniques). Semistructured interview techniques also assisted in data analysis by ensuring similar interviewee
responses were typically easier to discover and compare from the data transcripts than if
unstructured interviews had been used (Patton, 2002).
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Although semi-structured interview techniques were used within the current thesis to
collect data, there are limitations which need to be considered. As the interviewer is
invariably the researcher in qualitative researcher (Black, 1999), the skill of the researcher in
being able to ask the right questions and probe the participant to explore their experiences
further is important (Black, 1999). Additionally, another potential limitation of semistructured interview schedules is that because I was the one conducting the interview, I may
have inadvertently and unintentionally changed what was measured within the interviews.
For example, although I had particular topics of discussion on the semi-structured interview
schedule, the conversation was allowed to flow the way the participant dictated, and based
upon this the way I asked the questions may have resulted in different responses than I would
otherwise have received (e.g., how did my body language influenced the response; O’Leary,
2004). Gillham (2000) suggests that to enhance the skills of the researcher and counteract
these two limitations of semi-structured interviewing, pilot interviews should take place
where the interviewer asks the questions which they will ask in the final study to an
experienced qualitative researcher. The experienced qualitative researcher then supports the
development of the interviewers’ skills to elicit appropriate responses to questions they ask
(e.g., suggest alternative ways to ask questions, or make researchers aware of unintentional
body language movements). Throughout the current thesis, I followed Gillham (2000) to help
improve my interview skills and try and elicit appropriate responses from those I was
interviewing.
Interview schedules based upon Stambulova’s (2003) model and previous youth to
senior transition literature (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008) were developed. Prior to the interviews
taking place, the schedules were reviewed by two sport psychology academics with
backgrounds in qualitative research. Further, pilot interviews took place to test the interview
schedules for missing topics and allow me to make necessary revisions to improve them prior
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to the implementation of the study (Kvale, 2007). Pilot interviews also allowed me to practice
eliciting relevant data needed to answer the research questions. Based on feedback from pilot
interviews and my colleagues, the interview schedules were modified to help in the data
collection process and I made notes of where I could improve my own performance (e.g.,
more prompting of the participants where required). Specific details of each interview
schedule and the pilot interviews are discussed in the chapters reporting the studies. The
interview schedules are included as appendixes.
3.2.3 Data Analysis
To prepare the data for the analysis process, interviews were audio taped and
transcribed verbatim, to create a permanent record of the conversations. I also transcribed the
interviews to become more familiar with the data. Following this, driven by Braun and Clarke
(2006), thematic content analysis helped to summarise key features, highlight parallels and
differences, identify unexpected insights emerging from the data, and answer the research
questions. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic content analysis was explained in relation to
the subject of psychology, which made it more applicable and easier to apply to the current
research. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) process of analysis included: (a) familiarising myself
with the data (reading and re-reading the data and noting down initial ideas), (b) generating
initial codes, (c) searching for themes (collecting codes and gathering all relevant data
together), (d) reviewing themes generated to check they work in relation to the whole data
set, (e) defining and naming the themes identified, and (f) producing the report. See table 3.1
below for a summary of the process.
3.2.3.2.1 Familiarising Myself with the Data. This phase involved reading and rereading the transcripts and noting down initial ideas about the content and possible meanings
or patterns within the data. Braun and Clarke (2006) suggest this phase provides a foundation
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on which data analysis and interpretation can occur, because familiarity enhances the
identification of themes which can be further examined in subsequent phases.
Table 3.1.
Phases of Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006)
Phase
1. Familiarizing yourself
with your data
2. Generating initial
codes
3. Searching for themes
4. Reviewing themes
5. Defining and naming
Themes
6. Producing the report
Description of the Process
Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading the data,
noting down initial ideas.
Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion
across the entire data set, collating data relevant to each code.
Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant
to each potential theme.
Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts
(Level 1) and the entire data set (Level 2), generating a thematic
‘map’ of the analysis.
Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and the
overall story the analysis tells, generating clear definitions and
names for each theme.
The final opportunity for analysis. Selection of vivid, compelling
extract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating back
of the analysis to the research question and literature, producing a
scholarly report of the analysis.
3.2.3.2.2 Generating Initial Codes. The second phase involved assigning codes to the
data that appear relevant to the research question. This step assists in organising the data into
meaningful groups. Working systematically through the data set, giving full and equal
attention to every data item, the data is coded into individual segments and quotes which may
form the basis of repeated patterns (themes). For example, in Study 1, an initial code
generated was social support, and any quotes which appeared to be associated with the
provision of this assistance were marked with the code SS.
3.2.3.2.3 Searching for Themes. After the generation of initial codes, common
themes were identified in phase 3. This phase involved sorting codes into potential themes.
Themes were then clustered into overarching themes relevant to the research question. Within
this phase, many of the initial codes did not fit within any of the overarching themes
generated, and were placed in a ‘miscellaneous’ category until further data analysis took
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place. In some studies, further analysis resulted in other emerging themes within which these
initial codes may fit.
3.2.3.2.4 Reviewing Themes. Phase 4 involved refinement of the themes identified
previously, reading and re-reading themes and codes to ensure they accurately reflect the
meanings evident in the full data set. The reviewing process also involved identifying
whether themes really were themes (e.g., was the data too diverse to cover one theme and
could be analysed into further themes). Further, within this phase, themes and subthemes
were rearranged to allow a better classification system to emerge (e.g., two or more themes
may merge together to create one overriding theme). During this phase, I also used Patton’s
(1990) dual criteria for judging categories, internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity,
as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). Internal homogeneity is the degree to which the data
within themes should cohere together meaningfully (Patton, 1990). External heterogeneity is
defined as the extent to which differences in a category are clear and identifiable (Patton,
1990).
3.2.3.2.5 Defining and Naming Themes. The fifth phase involved defining, refining,
and labelling each theme. Braun and Clarke (2006) suggested that during this phase, data is
analysed further to check there is not too much overlap among themes, and that it is
necessary to consider each theme in relation to the other themes (i.e., could themes be merged
together). In defining and naming themes, results were described and interpreted using
Stambulova’s (2003) model. For example, when coaches discussed social support, these
responses were compared to the interpretation of social support presented in Stambulova’s
(2003) model.
3.2.3.2.6 Producing the Report. The final phase of data analysis and interpretation
involved producing the report, describing and explaining the results found. The quotes
presented in the write up of each study demonstrate, generally, common perspective among
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participants, and one quote has usually been used to illustrate this shared perception.
Throughout, ellipsis points have been used to demonstrate when paralanguage has been
removed from the quotes to enhance clarity (e.g., “uhm”). Interpretation and analysis of the
results in relation to previous literature also occurred in the write-up. Data were compared to
Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition, and previous youth to senior change research to
draw parallels and extend previous findings. These parallels and extensions to previous
literature were then presented in the final write up.
3.2.4 Research Credibility
Patton (2002) argues that different philosophical underpinnings or theoretical
orientations to qualitative enquiry will generate different criteria for judging quality and
credibility. This is because issues of quality and credibility intersect with the audience and
the intended inquiry purpose (Patton, 2002). Merriam (1998) suggests that qualitative
researchers, with opinions which are based on different assumptions about reality and world
views, should consider quality of the research from perspectives congruent with their
philosophical assumptions. Whatever philosophical beliefs qualitative researchers have, the
criteria they selected to judge the quality and credibility of their work must be clearly
outlined so that others are able to critique it based upon these principles (Patton, 2002). As
such, I would like the work of this thesis to be judged by its naturalistic generalizability,
width, credibility, and transparency, as outlined by Smith and Caddick (2012). To help
safeguard the quality of the current work, I utilised a number of qualitative research methods
which I will now discuss. Confirmability of the research results is also discussed below.
3.2.4.1 Naturalistic Generalizability. Naturalistic generalizability is the degree to
which the findings of this inquiry can apply or transfer to other areas or situations which are
similar in nature (Smith & Caddick, 2012). Smith and Caddick (2012) argue that researchers
need to present stories or situations in a way that means readers are able to empathise with
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that experience, in order to make connections to their own circumstances. Following Shenton
(2004) and Smith and Caddick (2012), I have included rich, thick descriptions of the cases
under study so that readers are able to reflect upon the situation and make connections to their
own situation, including: (a) the number of organisations taking part in the study and where
they are based, (b) any restrictions in the type of people who contributed data, (c) the number
of participants involved in the fieldwork, (d) the data collection methods that were employed,
(e) the number and length of the data collection sessions, and (f) the time period over which
the data was collected. Shenton (2004) suggested that these data allows readers to compare
their own situation to the findings in the studies. As the researcher knows only the “sending
context”, he or she cannot make transferability inferences. However, if the research fully
discloses the six factors outlined in this paragraph, others may be able to draw parallels
between the study findings and their story, which may mean that they have a better
understanding of the situation they are in.
3.2.4.2 Width. Width is the comprehensiveness of the evidence given to support
research findings (Smith & Caddick, 2012). Throughout the current work, I have included a
number of quotations supporting the research findings, and provided explanations of how I
have interpreted the data. This explanation of results helps the reader to understand my
interpretation of the data, which makes them more able to appreciate why I reached the
conclusions from the data that I did (Smith & Caddick, 2012).
3.2.4.3 Credibility. Credibility is the extent to which an account accurately represents
the social phenomenon to which it refers (Merriam, 1998). To enhance credibility of the
results, I followed the guidelines set out by Shenton (2004), who suggested that there should
be adoption of research methods established in qualitative investigation. Yin (2009)
suggested that adoption of the correct research methods helps researchers to gain an
understanding of research questions that are understudied. Shenton (2004) argued that, where
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possible, the research methods chosen should have been utilised in previous comparable
projects. Throughout the current thesis, I have adopted research methods (e.g., qualitative
semi-structured interviews), which are well established within qualitative investigation and
have been used within studies of a comparable nature (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008).
Additionally, credibility was also enhanced by thick description of the phenomenon
under scrutiny. Shenton (2004) suggested that detailed description helps to convey the actual
situations and, to an extent, the contexts that surround them. Without having this insight, the
reader of the final account may not be able to determine the extent to which the overall
findings match to reality. Throughout the current thesis, detailed description of the
phenomenon is given. For example, in Study 4, detailed description and explanation of the
researcher questions, the organisations and participants, and the results of the study are
portrayed, which means that the readers have a greater understanding of the reality of the
situation being studied.
To help ensure credibility of the results, member checking also took place. Patton
(2002) suggested that member checking highlights and provides evidence of the perceived
credibility of the results. After the data had been collected and analysed, a one page summary
of the results and a copy of individual transcripts were sent to the participants, and they were
asked to comment on the results reported. Shenton (2004) suggested that member checking
involved the verification of the researchers’ emerging themes and interpretation of
respondents’ responses to the research questions. It is possible that in analysing the data, due
to many factors such as my own personal background, I may have misinterpreted what the
participant meant to say. By offering the respondents the opportunity to read and interpret my
results, they can verify the themes I have discovered in their interviews, or offer alternative
explanations of what they intended. Smith and Caddick (2012) suggested that member
checking of the results helped to verify the fairness, appropriateness, and believability of the
73
interpretations offered. The results of the member checks conducted are presented in the
methodology of each of the chapters.
3.2.4.4 Transparency. The term ‘transparency’ describes the degree to which a
researcher is explicit, clear and open about the assumptions made and the methods and
procedures used (Hiles & Čermák, 2007). To help ensure transparency, the investigator
should detail all procedures carried out to allow an assessment of the quality of the integrated
processes of data collection, data analysis, and theory generation (Smith & Caddick, 2012).
To help ensure transparency, throughout each study I have described extensively what was
planned and executed on a strategic and practical level, which helps other researchers to
judge the quality of the work because in-depth description allows the reader to assess the
extent to which proper research practices have been followed (Shenton, 2004). Additionally,
in the confirmability section below I have also outlined my own personal background which
may enable the reader to understand my data collection and analysis procedures more clearly.
Finally, at selected points throughout the thesis I have offered alternative interpretations of
the data, and demonstrated why and how I arrived at the interpretations presented in order to
enhance trustworthiness.
In each of the studies, a critical friend examined the data analysis procedures I
undertook, examining the raw data and the themes I generated to ensure the process was
rigorous and logical (see Smith & Caddick, 2012). An audit trail, when all the raw data and
decisions made by the researcher during data collection and analysis is recorded, can allow an
external party or auditor who becomes familiar with the data collected, the qualitative
methods of analysis used, and the findings and conclusions reached, to judge the quality of
the results (Patton, 2002). In the current studies, a fellow researcher who had no prior
knowledge of the research carried out the audit process to help decrease the influence of
personal bias in the overall analysis of the data.
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Additionally, during each stage of the analysis, the lead researcher and two other
researchers with relevant experience of the methodology and study area had regular meetings
to ensure that appropriate techniques were being employed to analyse the data and to critique
the conclusions being reached. Shenton (2004) argued that by carrying out such debriefing
sessions, the interpretation and understanding of the data that the lead researcher may have
can be tested to help acknowledge and manage the influence of personal biases and
preferences.
3.2.4.5 Confirmability. Confirmability is a measure of how well the research
findings are supported by the data collected and are not, as much as is possible,
characteristics and preferences of the researcher (Shenton, 2004). Despite the use of the
above techniques of rigorous research methods, in keeping with Patton (2002), I acknowledge
that the findings in this thesis may reflect my subjective analysis of the data, which will have
been influenced by my own personal background, training, and experiences. Patton (2002)
has argued that it is inevitable such experiences will influence interpretation of qualitative
research, but also suggested that if investigators acknowledge their own orientations, training,
and background, readers may gain an understanding of why the results have been interpreted
in that way. In the following section, I outline my background and perspectives on qualitative
research, to give a basic understanding of possible reasons as to why I have interpreted the
results the way I have.
I have completed a Master’s degree in Psychology of Sport. My Master’s thesis
involved a qualitative investigation into the youth to senior transition in football (see Morris
and Eubank, in press). I have provided sport psychology support to a range of athletes,
including youth internationals and senior athletes in both individual and team sports (e.g.,
golf, orienteering, football, and rugby). I also prepared for this research programme by doing
a number of activities, including familiarising myself with the relevant literature and
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completed postgraduate modules in qualitative research and interview techniques.
Additionally, I also carried out a number of practice interviews, aimed at increasing my
competency in delivering and controlling interviews, and I also received regular feedback on
my qualitative research from my supervisors and fellow researchers at conferences and
meetings.
My failures as an athlete were one of the main reasons why I conducted this research
into the youth to senior transition in sport. When I was a youth international badminton
player, I was unable to fully establish myself in the full international scene. I often considered
if there was anything further I could have done to help myself, or what had caused me to
‘fail’. With this in mind, I was interested in examining the factors which do influence such
transitions, and use this research to help athletes who may be in a similar position to me in
forthcoming years. My failures may also have influenced how I interpreted the results of the
current thesis. For example, my interpretation of the athletes’ story may be influenced by my
own personal experiences of failing to be successful in senior sport. When conducting
interviews, I may have connected with some participants more than others which may have
influenced results. When interviewing some participants, I may have been trying to draw
parallels between my story and those of the people I was investigating, which may have
meant that I misinterpreted what they were actually trying to portray. Equally, I may also
have had a greater understanding of the transition experiences of some athletes as a result of
my own failure, which allowed me to draw out some themes which may have been missed by
researchers who had not had similar involvement in sport. To try and reduce the effect of
such prejudices I have used the research methods outlined above, but it is not possible to
alleviate personal bias completely (Patton, 2002).
In the current chapter, I explained the research methods which are used in the current
thesis. The overriding reason for using qualitative research methods was their appropriateness
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in answering the research questions. The following chapter will present Study 1 of the thesis,
which aimed to explore coaches’ perceptions of the youth to senior transition.
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Chapter Four
Study 1: Transitioning from youth to senior
football - The coaches’ perceptions of
transition demands, resources, and barriers
athletes experience
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4.1 Introduction to Study One
As highlighted in the literature review, the majority of studies on the youth to senior
transition in sport have focused on athletes’ perceptions of the change. These athletes’
opinions may vary depending on whether or not they have experienced a positive or negative
change. One way to advance knowledge of the change, and help achieve the aims of the
thesis, was by interviewing coaches who have assisted athletes during the youth to senior
transition in football on the factors highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model. Gaining
knowledge of the youth to senior transition in sport from coaches’ perspective will be
beneficial because they may have experienced and observed a large number of footballers
successfully and unsuccessfully manage the change. As coaches may have worked with a
number of athletes in transition, they could have had a breadth of knowledge not possible for
individual athletes to acquire. This breadth of knowledge could mean they present a more
objective opinion on the factors associated with transition than athletes. Additionally,
coaches’ views may be influenced by successful and unsuccessful transitions to senior sport,
which may help them to be more objective in their perceptions of the factors associated with
transition. Finally, offering another perspective of the youth to senior transition compliments
existing research, which leads to a more in-depth understanding of the change than from only
one perspective (e.g., athletes).
Finn and McKenna (2010) highlighted a number of factors that coaches’ believed
were associated with the transition across a number of sports, (i.e., football, rugby union,
rugby league, and cricket) including sources of strain athletes may experience, and the type of
coping strategies they have available to them. To build upon Finn and McKenna’s (2010)
study, examining one sport in detail may highlight if there are any additional factors which
may be associated with transition. Finn and McKenna’s (2010) work gave a broad
understanding of a number of sports. Focusing specifically on one sport may give a more in-
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depth understanding of an individual context which could mean additional factors associated
with transition might be highlighted. Additionally, Finn and McKenna (2010) did not
examine demands, resources, and barriers associated with transition. As one of the current
thesis aims is to highlight the demands, resources, and barriers associated with the youth to
senior transition, to build upon Finn and McKenna’s (2010) work, a study which focuses on
these factors and how they relate to change will add to knowledge and help to answer the
overall purposes of the current work.
The aim of Study 1 was to advance theoretical knowledge by understanding the
demands, resources, and barriers coaches associate with the youth to senior transition. To
clarify this aim, the study focused on how coaches perceived the transition: (a) demands, (b)
resources, and (c) barriers athletes experience and utilise as they move from youth to senior
sport.
4.2 Method
4.2.1 Participants
Participants (male, n = 12), aged between 29 and 71 (x̅ = 49 years; SD ± 11.8) were
invited to take part in the study. Respondents worked for professional football clubs in the
Scottish or English Premier League, and included senior team managers (n = 3), youth
academy managers (n = 2), senior team coaches (n = 3), and youth team coaches (n = 4).
They had a wide range of experience in professional youth coaching (3 - 42 years; x̅ = 15; SD
± 11.2). To be eligible for inclusion in the study, coaches had to have supported at least one
athlete through the youth to senior transition. This criterion was put in place so that coaches
were able to draw on personal experience with players to answer questions on the factors they
had found were associated with change.
4.2.2 Procedure
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After ethical approval from the Department of Sport and Exercise Science,
Aberystwyth University, contact with potential participants took place via a letter and
information sheet outlining the purpose, risks, safeguards, and benefits of the study (see
Appendix A). A willingness to participate was received from 4 participants and data
collection began in January 2012, lasting 2 months. Snowball sampling was used, as outlined
in Chapter 3, resulting in the accumulation of 12 participants in total. After 12 interviews had
taken place, data saturation appeared to have been achieved, because the final interviews did
not appear to be adding new information to that already collected.
4.2.3 Interviews
Once individuals agreed to participate, times for face-to-face interviews were
arranged, and they were re-sent an information sheet and informed consent form for the study
(Appendix A). Immediately prior to the interviews, participants were reminded of the
purpose, risks, safeguards, and benefits of the study. Face-to-face interviews were conducted
with all 12 participants, followed a semi-structured interview schedule, were audio taped and
transcribed verbatim. Interviews lasted between 37 - 75 minutes (x̅ = 52 minutes).
The semi-structured interview schedule was based on Stambulova’s (2003) model and
previous literature on the youth to senior transition (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008). Pilot testing of
the interview schedule took place with two amateur athletes, to help me improve my
interview skills to try and elicit appropriate responses from participants to answer the
research questions outlined. The interview guide broadly covered the transition, with
questions focusing on the (a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers coaches believed
athletes experience moving from youth to senior football. The guide is included in Appendix
B.
All other interview procedures outlined in the Chapter 3 were followed (e.g., review
of interview schedule by two sport psychologists).
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4.2.4 Data Preparation and Analysis, and Research Credibility
The procedures used for interview transcription, data analysis, and credibility were
detailed in Chapter 3. Following the procedure outlined in Chapter 3, member checking took
place with nine participants via email, all of whom agreed with my interpretation of their
results.
4.3 Results
Stambulova (2003) suggested that there were three main themes regarding athletes’
ability to cope with transitions in sport: (a) demands of transition, (b) resources which aid
athletes through transition, and (c) barriers to transition. Following content analysis, 36
clusters of raw themes were identified, which were then classified into the three general
dimensions which parallel Stambulova’s (2003) model. Additionally, Stambulova (2003) also
suggested that there needed to be a dynamic balance between resources and barriers to
transition, and data which highlights this conjecture is also presented. Additional research
results not discussed in Stambulova’s (2003) model are then outlined, which includes the idea
that what athletes have learned from early in their youth career (e.g., technical skills) may
influence how well they move to senior sport.
4.3.1 Demands of Transition
Within the broader category of demands there were a number of sub categories
mentioned by coaches. These demands were social, physical, psychological, and technical.
4.3.1.1 Social. Many of the coaches believed that it was important players established
themselves and earned respect in the first team environment when they moved up. One of the
first team managers interviewed said:
I think a lot of it has to do with how the players and coaches see you when you
move up. I mean, prior to moving up to the senior squad, these guys have no
contact with the manager or any of the senior players, and then they are put into
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that squad and have to create a good impression in that squad. If they don’t they
will very quickly find themselves out of the mix, which is not really what you
want. It’s kind of like moving to a new job I suppose, you’re trying to impress
your new boss and colleagues, and make that impression on them!
One of the senior team managers also highlighted that being good at ‘other things’ outside of
football, such as golf helped a young player get respect. As winning is one of the main goals
of professional sport, beating senior athletes at other sports may suggest to senior squad
members that a youth player has a ‘winning mentality’, conducive to elite sport success.
Giving feedback on his personal experience of transition the senior team manager said:
When I was a young boy, I went to Rangers and I went into the first team dressing
room with great international players, I was 17 and I was in with the famous
names, John Greigs, Jim Baxters and the Willie Hendersons, famous Rangers
players but I never felt, well I felt overawed in the football dressing room, but do
you know what helped me, I was a better golfer than them. Because I was in the
top 4 in the golf outing, I got respect.
A final social demand discussed was that players had to cope with parents, family, friends,
and partners who put added pressure on them, which coaches believed created stress. When
talking about the influence members of the family can have on young players, one of the
senior team coaches said:
I think there is a perception from families that if their son makes it, their [the
families] whole life is made for them … but it hardly ever works like that, and it
just results in the player getting [swear word] with their family and thinking they
put too much pressure on them.
This quote suggests that coaches feel that other supporters may be an added stressor
because managing the expectations of these people may be demanding for athletes.
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4.3.1.2 Physical. Participants also believed that there was an increased physical
demand on the players moving to the senior team. In the senior team, players were stronger,
faster, more powerful, and had a higher cardiovascular fitness level. Many of the coaches
suggested that the players in the youth level were fit, but that it was a “step up” again in the
senior level. One of the youth coaches interviewed said, “…in the [youths] there are a lot of
fit guys, but the senior level is a step up again. They are stronger, faster, and can run for much
longer than many of the [youths].”
4.3.1.3 Psychological. Players are required to deal with increased pressures in the first
team, and also cope with the transition process. Players are put under more pressure to make
fewer mistakes, and perform at a higher standard more consistently. One academy manager
said:
…mentally the boys in the first team have terrific temperament, relaxed when they
need to be and on the whole just in the right state of mind at the right time. While
the young lads are good, sometimes you can see them getting annoyed and put
pressure on themselves … which they need to learn to deal with better.
Dealing with the pressure of the transition was also perceived to be important by the coaches,
with one youth coach suggesting, “…how they deal with that pressure will influence how well
they get on in the first team overall”. Both of the factors highlighted here are considered as
demands of transition as there was no suggestion on the ways athletes cope with such stresses,
rather they have only been highlighted by coaches as difficulties players may face as they
move up to senior sport.
4.3.1.4 Technical. Coaches of the youth players also perceived that there was an
increased technical standard in the level of football at which the players in the senior team
competed. They suggested that the standard was higher and mistakes were punished more
regularly at senior level and was something that the new players had to deal with more often.
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One of the academy managers interviewed said, “…I don’t think they realise that … the
mistakes they make will be punished more often, and it’s much quicker as well”. Similarly,
one of the youth coaches commented, “the boys in the first team get the ball under control
quicker, and move the ball faster, they are much better technically gifted than the young boys
initially”.
4.3.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition
The resources coaches believed athletes use to aid transition could be split into internal
and external factors.
4.3.2.1 Internal Resources. Internal resources athletes may possess to assist them as
they move to senior sport can be psychological, physical, and technical knowledge.
4.3.2.1.1 Psychological. The coaches believed players used a number of psychological
resources to aid them through transition: (a) a good temperament, (b) high levels of
motivation, determination, and drive, (c) ability to block negative thoughts and control
emotions, and (d) being relaxed when required. One of the academy managers interviewed
suggested that, “the player has to have a good temperament”. In eight of the interviews
coaches mentioned there was a requirement for the players to have high motivation,
determination, and drive levels. One of the youth coaches epitomised this saying:
The guys who are most motivated and have a high level of determination to
succeed are the ones who are most successful long term. When they are seen to
work hard, the manager sees that and is more likely to support them because of
that.
Blocking negative thoughts and emotions was also seen by coaches as a strategy
players used when dealing with transition. One of the academy managers suggested that
blocking negative thoughts and controlling emotions was crucial because players were liable
to be verbally abused when they moved up to senior sport:
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I think a lot of the players have good control of their own emotions and thoughts
and use this as a way to cope with some of the stress they experience … But being
able to control and block out their thoughts is quite important, because I think a
lot of them … get slagged [verbally abused] and hounded when they move up to
the first team, and many of them just can’t handle it.
Finally, coaches believed that players who cope with transition better are able to relax
psychologically at appropriate times. One of the first team coaches supported this saying,
“…it’s not all about working hard all the time, the guys need a break and the best are able to
switch off at the right times”.
4.3.2.1.2 Physical. Physically, coaches believed that high levels of technical skills and
fitness can be resources to help athletes be successful in the senior team. When discussing
technical skills, one academy coach suggested that, “no matter how they are getting on
physically, mentally or whatever, as long as they have the skills they have a good chance of
being successful”. Similarly, another coach suggested, “to cope with the first team if they
have a good basic fitness, it’s much easier and takes them less time playing ‘catch up’”. In
this instance, ‘catch up’ was referring to the work required to achieve the same, or similar,
fitness levels to those players already in the first team.
4.3.2.1.3 Technical Knowledge. A final internal resource coaches suggested was the
athletes’ knowledge of their sport. Athletes’ knowledge included positional factors and their
role in the team. One senior team manager suggested:
It’s all about the knowledge you have and bringing it forward when you move into
the first team. Like, take a young right back, for example, he has been told what to
do and what position he should be in for years, and he needs to bring that into the
first team with him. But he also needs to know that he may no longer be one of
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the better players, but is normal now, and needs to work hard at establishing
[him]self.
The reference to no longer being one of the better players in the team refers back to the earlier
mentioned demand of transition, where it was suggested that senior sport was of a much
higher standard, and as such, young athletes moving into senior sport may have to improve
their skills to be of a similar advanced level.
4.3.2.2 External Resources. Coaches highlighted social support (including technical,
emotional, sport science, and tangible) as an external resource that football players could
utilise to assist in the youth to senior transition. The social support coaches believed the
players received came from many different sources including fellow players, coaches and
managers, parents, friends, and partners.
4.3.2.2.1 Technical Support. Coaches believed that technical support was provided by
fellow players, management team and coaches. One commented:
The people who should provide support are the older and more experienced
players, other coaches and me. The support we provide these guys is all the nitty
gritty stuff or what positions they need to be in during particular phases of play,
the tactics were are playing, and also if someone is making basic mistakes, how
they correct those mistakes too.
4.3.2.2.2 Emotional Support. Coaches believed that emotional support for athletes
moving from the youth to senior level is provided by all the people named above, including
parents, coaches, managers, fellow players, friends, girlfriends, and additionally sport
psychologists. One of the academy managers suggested that he did not fully understand what
the role of a sport psychologist was, saying, “we employed one to help the players
emotionally and mentally, I don’t really have an idea of what they do apart from that though”,
but that, “the players seem to think it works though, so that’s all we care about”. This quote
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suggests that coaches want to support players, and see sport psychology as a way of doing
this, but do not understand or want to know about the role that is fulfilled by these employees
other than that it does help support them. Clubs and organisations may no longer employ sport
psychologists if athletes do not find it helpful to them.
4.3.2.2.3 Sport Science Support. The coaches suggested that scientific support for the
players was provided by sport psychologists, physiotherapists, and physiologists, who had the
role of ensuring that the players were ready to compete physically and mentally. When
discussing the role of a physiotherapist, one senior team coach suggested:
The physios are great, they find out so much information and we can understand
what’s going on with a player a lot of the time from them speaking to a physio.
When the player goes for a massage, you know, they are relaxed and I think the
players just open up to them more.
The quote suggests that physiotherapists are viewed as a crucial element to the team, as
they can be a source for understanding whether or not athletes are happy or have
difficulties in their life which may be impacting upon their performance. One of the
academy coaches also endorsed this idea that sport psychologists, physiotherapists, and
physiologist are important in providing support to young players in transition,
suggesting that, “the boys need to work hard, but it helps to have the right support
available who can tell the players what to do. This support can be any of the support
stuff we have talked about [physiotherapist, physiologists, and sport psychologists]”.
4.3.2.2.4 Tangible Support. Tangible resources coaches highlighted as important for
the players include travel to and from tournaments provided mainly by parents, as well as
other smaller tangible aspects such as parents making meals for the player. Related to the
tangible support is the provision of financial support, which coaches believed was also
provided in the main by parents with one coach commenting that, “without the parents doing
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a lot of running around after them, they wouldn’t be able to get places, and the petrol prices
aren’t cheap, so they deserve a lot of credit”.
4.3.3 Barriers to Transition
Similar to section 2.3.2 above, the barriers to successful transition outlined here
can be split into internal and external barriers.
4.3.3.1 Internal Barriers. The internal barriers highlighted by the coaches centred on
athletes’ lack of preparation and commitment to the transition, or knowledge of their role or
position in the team.
4.3.3.1.1 Lack of Preparation and Commitment. Many of the coaches highlighted
that a lack of physical and emotional preparation for the move up to the first team can
negatively impact the players. A youth coach suggested that:
Some of the guys don’t see it as a big step at all, but it can be and if they don’t
prepare properly for it, and do the extra hours in the gym, and realise that it might
be mentally exhausting, they may well suffer. Simple things like that can make
such a difference.
Similarly, arrogance to the transition up to the first team can become an internal
barrier to transition. Arrogance or complacency can mean that players do not commit and
carry out the hard work required (e.g., in training and matches) to become senior team
athletes. One first team coach commented on a player who was perceived to be extremely
skilful, “but was lazy and did not carry out any additional training, which had hindered his
development long term”. One first team manager also commented that, “some of these guys
become big time too early”. “Big time too early”, in this situation, refers to players thinking
they have become successful first team players just by moving into the senior team, instead of
working hard to establish themselves long term as a successful athlete.
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4.3.3.1.2 Lack of Technical Knowledge. The last internal barrier which coaches
believe could affect transition of youth players was a lack of technical knowledge. Many of
the coaches suggested that a lack of knowledge of their position in the team, or what role they
were being asked to fulfil was one of the main reasons that players were released after their
youth team contract. However, some players were also given the opportunity in the first team
to show they were good enough, but this often lead to them being exposed in that
environment. A first team manager said, “…sometimes, they are just not good enough
technically and it shows when they move up”.
4.3.3.2 External Barriers. External barriers highlighted by the coaches include a lack
of social support, choosing the wrong partner, introduction of education programmes, and
players expecting a higher wage than they received when moving into senior sport.
4.3.3.2.1 Lack of Social Support. Discussing a lack of social support from coaches
and sport science staff, a first team coach said:
Sometimes the players are looking for support from coaches, and sport scientists,
but they don’t get it, with some coaches instead shouting at the boys. They need
support, it’s not just coaches, but other players, friends and family, they are all
guilty of not providing the support needed at times.
This quote suggests that support is needed by athletes going from youth to senior
transition, and those supporters need to have an understanding of when their support is
needed.
The interviews also highlighted that in some circumstances, unfair expectations from
the manager can also be a hindrance to young footballers moving into the first team. A first
team manager interviewed said:
I give them attention, but other managers don’t … so there’s a massive transition
then when they go into a [managers names], someone who maybe … they haven’t
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had a real relationship before that and all of a sudden it’s ‘[swear word] get your
ass out there’ and all that sort of stuff.
This quote seems to suggest that the approach managers take to helping their young
players may influence how well an athlete reacts to transition. The coach suggests that
athletes will react better to people who will support their development and explain to the
player what they can do to improve their performance, rather than being overly critical
if they make a mistake, for example.
Additionally, an academy manager suggested that in some clubs he had worked in, due
to a lack of money, there was no sport science support, “which means they are not as fit or
prepared as they should be”. This quote highlights that there may be variations between
organisations in the level of support they can afford to provide, meaning some clubs may not
produce as many players who are able to deal with the physical demands of competing in
senior sport in comparison to other clubs at a similar level.
4.3.3.2.2 Athletes’ Partner. Coaches highlighted choice of girlfriend as an added
barrier. A first team coach gave one example of a good player who used to have a girlfriend
who liked to take drugs and this had an effect on the player, who also started taking drugs:
Well, one example I can think of the player was a player who we had high hopes
for and he got himself together with a girl who really wasn’t nice and done things
like drugs and stuff, and [player] got into a bit of bother with all that, then when
they eventually split up, his career has flourished and he is now doing really well
in the first team.
4.3.3.2.3 Education Programmes. Another barrier to successful transition, which the
coaches suggested is becoming more prominent in professional football, is the introduction of
education programmes. One academy manager said:
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More and more, we are introducing the players to education as they get older, but
to me that just distracts them from playing football, and ultimately we are trying
to produce successful football players, and if we don’t we will lose our jobs.
Another first team coach, however, suggested that these education programmes were
important as, “very few players actually are successful in making the transition to the senior
team long term”. These quotes appear to suggest that while coaches understand the
importance of education for young athletes, they are aware their own positions may be under
threat should they fail to produce successful athletes. This may mean that clubs may not
implement such education programmes for fear of negatively influencing the athletic
development of young athletes. This may subsequently lead to athletes who are released after
their youth career being unable to gain further education or employment due to a lack of
qualifications.
4.3.3.2.4 Expecting a Higher Wage than they Receive. Finally, another barrier to
successful transition was that many players expected to get much more money than they
eventually ended up with per year, and consequently they became distracted and were looking
for more money elsewhere. One first team coach said, “…some of these guys are earning
around the lower end of wages, at about £20,000 a year and that’s not good enough for them”.
If athletes believe they are deserving of a higher remuneration package, they may seek it from
different clubs or organisations and lose focus on what is required to become successful in
senior sport (e.g., physical and technical proficiency). One coach highlighted this saying:
When they don’t get the money they are looking for, they start looking around and
asking other clubs what they can offer them, and they lose focus of what they are
doing now, what they need to do to improve and the weaknesses they have. The
boys may have physical or technical deficiencies and if they do not improve those
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they will not be successful in the first team anyway, but because they don’t get the
money they want, they look elsewhere and don’t improve those [weaknesses].
4.3.4 Dynamic Balance between Resources and Barriers
Coaches suggested that a dynamic balance between resources and barriers may be
needed during transition. A first team coach said:
Some of the sport science staff we have had in the past … they were difficult to
work with because they tried to become too involved in the team technical stuff.
We want support to help these people emotionally, physically, stuff like that, but
if they start to become involved in the technical stuff it becomes a hindrance to us.
Highlighting the balance between sport science staff being a resource and a barrier to
successful transition, this quote suggests that when an appropriate balance is achieved athletes
are more likely to transition successfully to senior sport. Additionally, coaches suggested that
technical advice should not be provided by parents. Parents are not trained to give such advice
and may not know or understand club policies and playing styles, which may mean they give
conflicting guidance when compared with coaches. One academy manager, talking about
parents, said:
The parents don’t always give good advice, that’s why we want to avoid them
saying anything of a technical nature to the players. They don’t know how we are
trying to get the players playing, the shape we want them to play, and the role of
each individual player, and sometimes we end up with contradictory advice being
given.
Additionally, coaches also suggested that a balance between internal resources and
barriers may be required. One coach said:
The guys need to be motivated, but not too overboard with it. Like, if they go
overboard and start flying into tackles here, there, and everywhere, and running
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about like a headless chicken, they won’t learn anything and they will actually
make more mistakes than if they relaxed a bit. So I suppose they have to be
motivated and up for it, but not too motivated that they go over the top. Like if
you become too motivated, you work too hard, don’t you? And that’s when you
make the mistakes.
This quote appears to suggest that athletes can become too intense in their approach and being
able to balance their motivation levels and how hard they work can have a bearing on their
success. Maintaining a balance between being motivated enough and too motivated may help
an athlete move into senior sport. Self-management, and being able to control and regulate
their own internal resources, appears to be important for athletes as they transition to senior
sport. Without this regulation, athletes may become over or under motivated, which may be a
hindrance to their development.
4.3.5 Additional Research Results
When discussing the youth to senior transition, one of the senior team managers
mentioned that he believed the players who cope best just take each moment of the transition
as it comes, rather than building it up to be a major change in their situation. The manager
said:
They don’t think. I think the fathers do, the parents might think, but players just,
in my experience, they sort of go with the flow. They all think, ‘I’m in the Under
19’s team for [team], and in a couple of years I’ll be playing for [team] first team’,
but how many of them will be? ... The best players are the ones who don’t think
about moving to the first team, they assume it will happen.
This quote appears to suggest that athletes who are most confident may be able to go with the
flow because they are confident in their ability to be successful in senior sport. Adding to this
quote, another coach said:
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The best prepared players are the boys who just sort of go with the flow. They
don’t tend to worry too much, and when they get to something that bothers them
or is a bit more difficult, they deal with it. They don’t tend to think too much
about what is happening to them, just accept it, and move on … They deal with
the difficulties associated with the change as and when they come up, and are
confident they can deal with them at that time.
These quotes suggests that athletes who will be successful in senior sport will be the ones who
do not worry about whether or not they will be in the first team, instead they assume that it
will happen to them. Additionally, the second quote also suggests that the players who will be
successful are the ones who are able to manage demands and barriers that they experience as
and when they manifest themselves. Rather than struggling to cope with issues (or blocking
their existence) and then having to manage a number of demands and barriers at the same
time, those who will be most successful are the ones who manage each demand and barrier as
they present themselves.
One other senior team manager highlighted that young footballers training and what
they have learned from the ages of approximately 13 influences how well they deal with the
transition to senior sport. The manager said that different coaches had an effect on how ready
athletes were to move to senior sport saying:
… all these [coaches] influence how ‘prepared’ a player is, so it’s not just about
the time immediately before they move into the first team, it (the process) [has]
gone on for years before that… Different coaches teach them different things,
skills, positions, stuff like that. All the things players will need in senior sport are
introduced to them long before they actually get anywhere near that team by these
guys.
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One coach also commented that, “the players have experienced the actual process of moving
up to a more senior team so this is something that is familiar to them as well”. In this instance
moving up to a more senior team refers to moving up through the aged teams in the youth
academy (e.g., from the Under 13 team to the Under 14 team). These quote, added to those
above about the way athletes cope with transition, suggest that the youth to senior move
should be considered a process, where the outcome of transition may be influenced by the
athletes’ effectiveness of managing demands and barriers as they manifest themselves, and the
coaching and experiences that they have had throughout their youth career.
4.4 Discussion
The current study focused on how coaches perceive the transition: (a) demands, (b)
resources, and (c) barriers athletes experience and utilise as they move from youth to senior
sport. The results of the current study suggest that a number of the factors outlined in
Stambulova’s (2003) model are highlighted by the coaches as being important to transition,
including specific demands, resources, and barriers. The study also suggests that those
providing social support have particular roles to fulfil in the transition from youth to senior
sport. Additionally, rather than the youth to senior change being a major transition for some
young players, there may have been a series of transitions and coping over the whole career
which influence their response to moving up to the first team. Finally, coaches also suggested
that there is a need for dynamic balance between resources and barriers, which echoes
Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition.
4.4.1 Coaches’ Understanding of the Youth to Senior Transition
Generally, there was consistency between Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition
and the factors raised by coaches. As highlighted in the results, there were specific demands,
resources, and barriers that coaches believed athletes moving from youth to senior football
encounter. For example, specific demands included the need for young players to establish
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respect from the senior athletes and coaches. Finn and McKenna (2010) also highlighted that
it was important young players established respect from the senior athletes and coaches when
they move up. The present research also highlighted that a player can gain respect in a number
of ways, rather than solely by being a good football player (e.g., if a player is good at table
tennis or golf). This research is among the first to suggest this method of gaining respect and
provides advancement on current knowledge of the youth to senior transition in sport. A
number of psychological theories may underpin such a situation. Firstly, such events may be
considered team building activities. Bloom, Stevens, and Wickwire (2003) suggested that
team building exercises had a large influence on cohesion and integration of athletes.
Although not officially discussed as team building activities in the current study they may still
serve this purpose and, playing other sports and taking part in other events with first team
players may mean young athletes become more respected and integrated in the squad.
Furthermore, winning against senior players may demonstrate some of the characteristics of
being a successful senior athlete. By competing and winning against elite athletes, young
players may be demonstrating similar characteristics to their peers. Finally, in mainstream
psychology literature there has been a suggestion that people may experience meaningful
interactions, where they can work together to achieve common goals, when they have similar
backgrounds, tastes, hobbies and lifestyles (e.g., Churchill, Collins & Strang, 1975; Ewing,
Pinto & Soutar, 2001). By playing sports such as golf and table tennis, the youth players are
perhaps demonstrating to their senior counterparts that they have many similarities, which
may lead to meaningful relationships.
Resources to aid in the transition were also highlighted in the current results, which
parallels Stambulova’s (2003) model. For example, the coaches in the current study suggested
that internal resources, such as high levels of physical fitness, motivation, and determination
to succeed were important to footballers moving up to the senior team. A lack of physical,
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technical, and emotional preparation for the transition was also highlighted by Finn and
McKenna (2010) as a barrier to transition and they suggested that, for example, many players
are unable to cope with the pressures of an increase in physicality when they move from
youth to senior sport. By having high levels of motivation and determination to succeed,
young athletes may be much more able to handle continual pressure as a result of transition,
over a longer time frame, as they may still be driven to carry on trying to make it in the senior
team despite a number of setbacks. Researchers (e.g., Holt & Dunn, 2004; Pummell et al.,
2008) have also highlighted this as a key resource in athletic development, suggesting that
high levels of commitment and determination to succeed aid young athletes.
These internal resources also appear akin to self-regulation characteristics which have
been associated with high levels of performance. For example, Toering, Elferink-Gemser,
Jordet and Visscher (2009), suggested that high levels of motivation and reflection were
associated with high levels of performance. The results of the current study appear to
similarly highlight that high motivation levels may be conducive to successful performance.
Additionally, Toering et al. (2009) also highlight that self-regulatory factors may mean elite
players become aware of their individual strengths and weaknesses because they are willing to
invest effort in practice and competition to improve their performances. During the youth to
senior transition, perhaps athletes who have better developed self-regulatory skills are more
able and willing to improve and maintain strengths and weaknesses in their performances than
those without these skills, which may result in a more successful change.
Conversely, coaches in the current study suggested a lack of physical, technical, and
emotional preparation for the transition can be a barrier to the transition. This research is
among the first to suggest that a lack of emotional preparation can hinder athletes who
transition from youth to senior sport. By becoming more emotionally prepared athletes may
be more able to manage the negative factors associated with transitions, because they may be
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able to predict difficulties and develop appropriate coping resources to manage these demands
and barriers (Stambulova, 2010). Ensuring young athletes are aware of the emotional factors
and difficulties they may face as they move to senior sport might give them greater scope to
understand and cope more effectively before transitions become problematic to them.
Mills, Butt, Maynard and Harwood (2012) and Holt and Dunn (2004) have highlighted
that significant others, including coaches, parents, and friends, can have a positive effect on
player development. Stambulova’s (2003) model has also highlighted social support as a
factor associated with transition, but does not break the specific help supporters provide into
individual roles unlike the results of the current study. Building on the existing knowledge in
the area (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press), the results of the current study suggested that
supporters provide specific types of assistance to athletes transitioning from youth to senior
transition. Fellow players and coaches were believed to give the youth players technical and
emotional support; parental support included emotional (e.g., support when the player is
feeling down) and tangible support (e.g., transportation to and from training and matches);
friends provided emotional support; and sport scientists provided emotional and technical
support (e.g., nutrition or physiological advice). Although studies have highlighted roles
which supporters fulfil (e.g., Morris and Eubank, in press, found technical support was
received from players and coaches), the current study is the first to suggest specific roles for a
number of the groups of supporters. When supporters fulfil these roles, there may be
opportunities for athletes to receive the amount and types of support required to successfully
move to senior sport. Conversely, when supporters do not fulfil their roles or try to provide
support which is already being provided by another more suitable individual, athletes might
not receive the assistance they require. For example, similar to the results of previous studies
(e.g., Wolfenden & Holt, 2005), the current study highlights that parental over-involvement,
such as when parents gave technical instructions to try and aid athletic performance, could be
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detrimental to athlete development and performance. Mills et al. (2012) highlighted that
similar parental behaviours such as over-inflating a player’s ego, providing inappropriate
advice, being unreasonably expectant of success, and putting pressure on their son could have
a negative effect on player development. Yet the lure of professional sport and the rewards
associated with it (e.g., financial rewards), has led to many parents becoming increasingly
involved in the athletic career of their sons or daughters (Frenette, 1999). Possibly due to the
potential rewards associated with maintaining a relationship with successful athletes (e.g.,
financial and social rewards), other supporters (e.g., sport psychologists) could also become
over-involved in the support and development of youth players, which might be detrimental to
transition. The results overall appear to suggest that there needs to assistance from social
supporters, but that this should not be to the detriment of the development of the athletes.
Educating supporters about what role they should fulfil might be conducive to creating this
balance and avoiding over-involvement. Supporters’ understanding of transition is explored in
more detail in Study 2 (chapter 5), when the perceptions of a range of these individuals are
explored.
Stambulova (2003) suggested that transitions are a process rather than a singular
event. The results of the current study reflect this idea, but also add additional insight,
suggesting that the transition process starts long before athletes even consider or are
considered good enough for senior sport, around the ages of 13 or 14, when athletes may have
to start to cope with demands placed upon them by coaches. There are a series of similar
transitions athletes will go through before moving to senior sport. In addition to having to
cope with technical demands from coaches, players might also have to cope with
psychological and physical demands being placed upon them and may have to acquire and
expand their coping strategies to deal with such stresses. These results suggested that if
athletes do not acquire many of the skills required of them throughout their youth career, they
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might not be able to successfully transition to senior sport when they reach that moment.
Parallels between this idea of cycles of transitions occurring over an extended period of time
and the transition out of sport literature can be drawn. Much retirement from sport literature
(e.g., Torregrosa, Boixadós, Valiente & Cruz, 2004) has suggested that the process starts
many years, in some cases, before the eventual retirement. These initial results in this study
suggest that Stambulova’s (2003) model might not be fully representative of the youth to
senior transition, and that the process may have started to occur many years before athletes’
are considered for senior sport. The ideology of transitions from youth to senior being a
process rather than a singular event is considered in more detail in Study 3 (chapter 6), where
athletes’ perceptions of the change have been analysed.
Finally, some of the results could be considered a by-product of coaches wishing to
protect their role and the cultural interest in players as commodities. For example, education
programmes were considered a barrier to successful transition by coaches. Coaches may
consider such programmes are time consuming, which may mean they do not get enough time
to train their athletes. Such views may be the result of a culture where the coaches’ continuing
employment is determined by players’ on-field performance. Contrasting, many athletes may
benefit from such education programmes because they help to develop aspects such as life
skills (e.g., teamwork and time management skills; Gilmore, 2008), which can be transferred
to the sport domain and perhaps help performance. This negative perception of education
from the perspectives of coaches could mean there are difficulties associated with convincing
them that education is a good thing for athletes. If education is presented to coaches as
something which may be beneficial to athletes’ athletic performance, however, some may be
more inclined to accept such programmes.
Additionally, coaches may be presenting a limited overview of the situation as they
understand it. For example, partners may be a source of emotional support to athletes who are
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going from youth to senior sport. However, in the current study partners were viewed as an
external barrier to transition with no appreciation given to the support such people may give.
Coaches in the current study perhaps only saw the negative consequences of partners because
the support girlfriends or boyfriends provide is mainly delivered away from the sport
environment and there may be no obvious positive consequential effects to the athlete, in
comparison to the negative effects which may be apparent if an athlete starts to drink or take
drugs (e.g., effect on physical or psychological capabilities).
Further, alternative interpretations of the data gleaned could have occurred in this
situation. Although in the final interpretation the education programmes were considered the
barrier to successful transition, an alternative explanation could be that the coach could be the
barrier because they are adverse to the introduction of education programmes which may
actually help athletes move to senior sport. After going through the stages of analysis
outlined, quotes associated with the provision of education programmes were amalgamated
and many of these quotes highlighted that such programmes were negative to the development
of athletes in transition. Additionally, my interpretation of the results were scrutinised by two
fellow qualitative researchers and one sport science researcher who had no previous
knowledge of the research or the responses given, who agreed with my final interpretation of
this response. For these reasons, I chose to interpret as education as the barrier to
transition.Overall, the results of the current study highlighted that Stambulova’s (2003) model
of transition has emphasised many factors which are appropriate to the youth to senior change
in football (e.g., demands, resources, and barriers). Additionally, the results also provide
advancements on Stambulova’s (2003) model and the current knowledge of the youth to
senior transition, suggesting that there may be particular roles for supporters to fulfil, and that
the process may have started around the ages of 13 or 14 when athletes are recruited into
development systems. The results could also provide guidance to people from sport
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organisations who want to determine what factors contribute to the youth to senior transition
and consequently develop athlete support programmes to aid in this change.
4.4.2 Limitations and Future Research
The present study has several limitations. Firstly, I interviewed a small number of
coaches across a wide range of clubs, and consequently the results may not be statistically
generalisable to other football clubs or organisations. However, the aim of the present study
was not to get statistically generalisable findings, rather it was to examine the factors
associated with transition in context of the youth to senior change in football in-depth. By
reviewing the results of the present study, football clubs and other sporting bodies might have
the opportunity to reflect and draw parallels between their situations and those presented in
the current study, and understand ways they can assist athletes make more successful youth to
senior transitions.
The retrospective nature of the current study is also a limitation (e.g., recall bias).
Many of the coaches in the current study did discuss factors which were associated with
players they were currently working with which may reduce this limitation. Additionally,
coaches with many years of experience may also have sifted through and identified relevant
themes associated with the youth to senior transition. By supporting athletes on a number of
occasions through the change to senior sport, coaches may have refined their knowledge of
the process (e.g., coaches may have realised some factors they believed were associated with
the change were not influential to the process and vice versa). Longitudinal examination of
the factors associated with transition could reduce this retrospective recall bias even further.
Longitudinal accounts from the coaches may give an understanding of the transition process
as it happens, which could highlight factors specific to particular time periods of transition.
Such factors may be lost to retrospective recall bias in the current study.
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Future research which explores the perception of transition from other supporters’
perspectives may help to advance knowledge in the area. As discussed, coaches believe
supporters have particular roles to fulfil when supporting athletes moving from youth to
senior sport. There is a lack of research, however, exploring what role supporters believe they
have and their perceptions of transition. Supporters might not have the same perceptions of
the role they fulfil and may also have added insights to the transition which have not been
highlighted by coaches. By gaining supporters’ understanding of the youth to senior
transition, an appreciation of the change from a number of stakeholders can be gleaned.
Supporters’ understanding of the change is explored in more detail in the next study.
Future research may also examine the youth to senior transition in comparison to other
models of transition. The results of the current study parallel ideas present in various models
in addition to Stambulova’s approach. For example, Schlossberg’s (1981) model of human
adaptation, which suggests that the supporters and strategies that people have and utilise
throughout adaptation to transition can have an influence on transition outcomes. The current
study highlighted that supporters (including coaches, parents, psychologists etc) can help
athletes manage the demands and barriers associated with transition. Similarly, in the current
study coaches highlighted that internal resources such as motivation and determination can
positively influence transition, which echoes Schlossberg’s (1981) model. Future research
which explores other models such as these (e.g., Schlossberg, 1981) would help to add to the
knowledge on the youth to senior transition in sport as it may help to create a consensus
across all models of transition as to the determining factors on this specific transition.
There also needs to be studies which determine whether or not transition experiences
may differ for athletes from various cultural, religious, and other backgrounds. For example,
athletes who are gay may transition differently in comparison to straight players at the same
organisation. This difference may be due to players who are gay being worried about how the
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senior players may accept them. For example, players who are gay may be more likely to
experience abuse and homophobia in comparison to their colleagues who are straight and this
may mean that they experience an additional level of stress that straight players may not
experience. Such a background may mean that gay players need additional support as they
transition to senior sport. Exploring such differences may highlight if there needs to be
individualised support for athletes from different sexual orientations.
4.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, as highlighted in the current study, paralleling Stambulova’s (2003)
model, coaches suggested that the transition from youth to senior sport was influenced by a
number of demands, resources, and barriers. Adding to the model, the results suggest that the
transition to senior sport could occur over a number of years, with athletes’ abilities to cope
with the change affected by how much knowledge and skills they have acquired over their
career in youth sport. Additionally, coaches believe that supporters have particular roles to
fulfil in the youth to senior change. The current study also suggests that supporters’
perceptions of transitions could help give a greater understanding of the factors associated
with the change. This knowledge adds detail and depth to Stambulova’s (2003) model
because it is starting to emphasis individualised factors which fall under the broader themes
identified in her model. Additionally, this knowledge also adds to Stambulova’s (2003) model
because it is suggesting possible adjustments that may be made to the model to better describe
the youth to senior transition in football. These areas need to be explored in more detail. In the
following chapter, supporters’ perception of the transition, and the role they fulfil, will be
explored. Subsequently, the results from the current study and Study 2 will be used to inform
a study assessing athletes’ perception of the transition.
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Chapter Five
Study 2: Transitioning from youth to senior
football - Supporters’ perceptions of transition
demands, resources, and barriers
106
5.1 Introduction to Study Two
Study 1 highlighted that support staff and parents were important resources for
athletes moving from youth to senior sport. Coaches highlighted that parents and support staff
provide a wide range of assistance including emotional, tangible, and in the case of parents,
financial help. Additionally, coaches suggested that parents may become overinvolved and
hinder athletes’ development. Moreover, previous research (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008) and
Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition has also emphasised that support staff and parents
provide a wide range of assistance. Athletes may discuss aspects of their development with a
number of people, making these supporters a source of information about the youth to senior
transition in sport. For example, in Study 1, physiotherapists were described as vital sources
of information for coaches, because players open up more when they are relaxed and
receiving a massage.
Building on Study 1, knowledge of the transition from the perspective of others
providing support will advance the understanding of the transition as a whole, because it will
broaden the perspectives examined which help develop the richness of existing knowledge.
Such perspectives may provide an understanding of what roles supporters believe they fulfil,
and the factors which they believe contribute to a successful (or unsuccessful) transition. This
knowledge will help to answer the overall thesis research aims because it will provide an
understanding of supporters’ perspectives of the youth to senior change. Further, the
knowledge may also illustrate perceptions about what type of assistance supporters are
supposed to provide throughout transition. For example, there may be a matching of parents
with emotional support but not technical support. These results could highlight whether or not
there are any contrasting opinions about the roles those providing help may fulfil. Any
possible matching would further develop Stambulova’s (2003) model underpinning the
current thesis, as it would strengthen the consensus of opinion about the type of support each
107
person assisting athletes should provide. Currently, Stambulova’s (2003) model does not
specify the type of support each person should provide. This knowledge could then be used to
help sport scientists, and sport organisations support athletes in transition more effectively.
Studies (e.g.,Wolfenden and Holt, 2005) have assessed players’, parents’, and
coaches’ perceptions on talent development with results suggesting that adults have a major
influence on talent development, including providing emotional, tangible, and informational
support. Although these studies provide a useful foundation upon which the current study can
develop, a way to extend these findings is to take into consideration other support resources,
such as sport science support. Additionally, no research has assessed the role of adults in
supporting athletes through transition, rather than prior to transition, another area which the
current study considers.
The aim of Study 2 was to advance theoretical knowledge by examining the factors
associated with transition raised by athletes’ support staff and parents. The study focused on
how athletes’ support staff and parents perceived the transition: (a) demands, (b) resources,
and (c) barriers athletes experience and utilise as they move from youth to senior sport.
5.2 Method
5.2.1 Participants
Supporters were recruited from two clubs, using a snowball sample outlined in
Chapter 3. Supporters (12 males, 4 females), aged from 25 to 58 years, were interviewed. The
inclusion criterion for this study was that each person interviewed had to have supported at
least one athlete moving from youth to senior sport. The supporters interviewed included
parents (n = 6), sport physiologists (n = 2), sport psychologists (n = 4), physiotherapists (n =
3), and a sport therapist (n = 1). The respondents’ experience of the youth to senior transition
ranged from 1 to 20 years with an average of 10.1 (SD ± 5.2) years. All respondents
(excluding parents) worked for professional football clubs in the highest league in Scotland
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(Scottish Premier League) or England (English Premier League). Parents were recruited from
both clubs involved in the study and had a son who had moved from youth to senior football.
5.2.2 Procedure
After ethical approval for the study was gained, potential participants for the study
were contacted by letter informing them of the purpose, risks, safeguards, and benefits of the
study. Participants also signed an informed consent form prior to being interviewed (see
Appendix C for information letter and informed consent form). After initial contact with
participants, data collection began in June 2012, lasting a total of 2 months.
5.2.3 Interview Guide
The interview guide used in the current study was based on previous youth to senior
transition in sport literature (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008), and Stambulova’s (2003) model of
transition. The interview guide broadly covered the transition, with questions focusing on the
(a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers supporters believe athletes experience and utilise
moving from youth to senior sport. See Appendix D for the full interview schedule.
5.2.4 Data Analysis and Research Credibility
The procedures used for data analysis (e.g., coding of data), and research credibility
(e.g., the use of a critical friend) were detailed in Chapter 3. Member checking, as outlined in
Chapter 3 also took place. Feedback on member checking was received from nine
participants who agreed with my interpretation of their results.
5.3 Results
Stambulova (2003) suggested that there were three main themes regarding athletes’
ability to cope with transitions in sport: (a) demands of transition, (b) resources which aid
athletes through transition, and (c) barriers to transition. Following content analysis of the
raw data, 38 raw data themes were identified, which parallel the three general themes
according to Stambulova’s (2003) model, similar to Study 1. Each theme will be highlighted
109
below. A representative quote pertaining to the theme is given and indicative matrices are
used to show whether or not each group interviewed (i.e., parents, sport physiologists, sport
psychologists, physiotherapists, and sport therapist) discussed the theme identified in their
interviews. When there is disagreement about an element highlighted in the table, this is then
discussed in the main body of the results.
5.3.1 Demands of Transition
Within the broader category of transition demands, the parents, sport physiologists,
sport psychologists, physiotherapists, and sport therapist interviewed identified a number of
lower order themes (see Table 5.1 for a full representation of results).
First, players needed to establish themselves within the first team environment. One
of the sport psychologists interviewed said:
When I have been working with players in the past, they have always had a thing
about establishing themselves in the first team after they move up, like making
sure they become known and accepted in the first team. Working with these guys,
I always try and tell them that it is important to establish themselves, but in a good
way, so, working hard, listening to teammates and stuff, not getting known for
bad tackles or being lazy.
Participants also suggested that in addition to establishing themselves in the first team
environment, players also had to deal with a step up in the standard of the football with one
parent saying, “I mean, it’s a much better standard, isn’t it? They have to deal with that
demand too and not feel overawed”. Related, the participants regarded senior football as more
physically demanding. One of the physiotherapists interviewed said:
The first month or so after the boys move up to the first team, you see them every
day, they always have something wrong with them. It’s usually injuries that the
first team boys have and don’t think anything of, but when you’re moving into
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that more physical environment, it must be quite difficult to deal with those
knocks and stuff that you aren’t used to. After that first month or so is over, I
think they realise that’s what happens, and they learn to accept it and work harder
in the gym to get fitter!
Participants suggested that the players often had to deal with setbacks and increased
pressure which they had not experienced before. One sport psychologist said:
In the first team, the boys are put under more pressure by the teammates, coaches,
and themselves to perform at a consistently high standard. When they do
encounter setbacks, play badly, or just having a rubbish day…they need to learn
not to let it affect them long term. They can have more bad days in youth football
‘cause less people notice and they don’t get into trouble. Not in the first team, they
will find themselves out the door if they don’t recover from setbacks quickly.
One parent also suggested that by moving up to the first team, their son was now in a position
to support them financially should they require it saying, “…we gave up a lot of our money to
get him to this position, maybe now he can give us some back when he makes it and we get
old!”. Parents may have raised this factor as they feel they have invested a lot of their own
time and money, and provided emotional and tangible support, to help their son in their quest
to move into senior sport, and they now feel as though they deserve a return on that
investment. Other supporters are also employed by the clubs to give the assistance they do,
whereas parents give it voluntarily meaning there may be a difference in the level of
attachment and investment each group may give. For example, parents are likely to have
supported athletes for many more years than other support staff have, as support staff are
constantly changing as athletes move up through the age levels. Parents may be a constant
fixture in athletes’ careers.
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Finally, another demand of the transition was additional pressure to succeed put on
players by clubs fans. The sport therapist interviewed commented that the players often
Table 5.1.
Demands of Transition
Demand
Parents
Perception of the Demand
Sport
Sport
Physiotherapist
Physiologist Psychologist
Sport
Therapist
Need to
Establish
Themselves
in the First
Team





Higher
Standard of
Sport





Higher
Physical
Demand





Deal with
Higher
Levels of
Pressure and
Setbacks





Financial
Demands
from Parents





Additional
pressure to
succeed put
on them by
fans of the
clubs





Key
 - Element discussed and group result parallels with representative quote
 - Element not discussed
 - Element discussed but group result does not parallel with representative quote
(discussed in main body of text)
112
seemed overawed by the pressure from clubs fans, and one of the sport psychologists
interviewed suggested that:
…the players don’t realise they are going to be put under pressure by fans. The
fans automatically start thinking everyone who moves up to the first team is a
great player and they are going to help the team succeed. In reality it isn’t like
that, but the players have to deal with that pressure.
This quote contrasts with parents interviewed, who suggested, “fans don’t put pressure on the
young boys as much, they support them and try to encourage them”. These quotes seem to
suggest that there is disagreement about the role of fans, and how they can help or hinder
athletes’ transitions. This disagreement may be because supporters who are employed by the
club may have a different perspective on fans and their role in comparison to parents who
may only be gaining an outside viewpoint. For example, parents may only get an
understanding of the fans viewpoints from either their son telling them what fans are thinking
and how they are acting, or from when they attend matches. In contrast, supporters employed
by the club may observe how fans react every day to the new players, in training, at public
events signing autographs, for example, and during match days. These different perspectives
could be the reason for contrasting opinions. Additionally, there may be a contrast in the way
fans treat youth players, which could contribute to the contrasting views the supports and
parents portray. For example, some fans may be very supportive of the players moving to
senior sport, although others may be very critical of the new players, which could mean there
is a difference in how supporters and parents view the fans.
5.3.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition
The resources participants identified can be categorised into internal and external
resources, which parallels the results from Study 1. Within both internal and external
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resources 4 categories emerged including psychological, physiological, technical factors, and
social support (see Table 5.2 for a full representation of results).
5.3.2.1 Internal Resources. The psychological factors identified include (a)
determination to succeed, (b) hard work, (c) control of emotions, and (d) good temperament.
Highlighted as the most important internal resource by five participants was the determination
to succeed in the first team. One parent suggested that, “they have to have the motivation to
be successful and that is the most important resource they can have in my opinion”.
Also discussed was the need to work hard when training with the first team. The sport
therapist interviewed said:
Hard work, it’s all about working hard in my opinion, and being motivated
enough to want to work hard. I mean, plenty of boys get the opportunity to play in
the first team and they think they have made it, but then don’t work hard and
consequently are very quickly left behind.
Participants also suggested that it was important that players were able to control their
emotions when they move up to the first team. One sport physiologist interviewed said:
I don’t think they know they are going to get a hard time when they move up, but
they need to control their emotions and not show they are upset, or the manager
will think they are weak and not up to first team football.
Related to this control of emotions is having a good temperament. Participants
suggested that remaining, or appearing to remain happy, throughout their induction into the
first team could have a positive effect on their long term involvement in the first team. One
sport psychologist said:
The boys take the piss, they do silly things to see how the young boys cope. It’s
all harmless fun, but there is a serious side to it, showing you can handle it
without getting upset or annoyed is crucial.
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Table 5.2.
Internal and External Resources to Aid Athletes through Transition
Perception of the Resource
Sport
Sport
Physiotherapist
Physiologist Psychologist
Internal
Resources
Parents
Determination
to Succeed





Hard Work





Control of
Emotions





Good
Temperament





Good Physical
Fitness





Knowledge and
Technical
Skills















Tangible





Sport Science
Support





Sport
Therapist
External
Resources
Technical
Support from
Coaches and
Fellow Players
Emotional
Key
 - Element discussed and group result parallels with representative quote
 - Element not discussed
 - Element discussed but group result does not parallel with representative quote
(discussed in main body of text)
115
Physiologically, it was highlighted that a high level of physical fitness was a resource
which could aid athletes in the transition to the first team. One sport physiologist said:
Being physically fit is another one (resource athletes can use to aid them through
transition). When a guy is physically fit before moving up to the first team, it
takes them less time to get up to the first team boys level.
The final type of internal resource was related to their knowledge and technical skills
associated with football. Participants believed that athletes’ knowledge of the game was
crucial to their development in the first team. One parent interviewed said:
The boys have been coached on the game, and have a good knowledge of what
they should and shouldn’t be doing on the park. When I have spoken to some of
them, they say that no matter what happens on or off the park, as soon as they
actually start playing with the first team players they feel more comfortable.
As a related theme, performing the basic technical skills of the game to a high level, including
passing, dribbling, and shooting, was highlighted as fundamental to first team success. One of
the sport physiologists reported that managers had said to him previously that they didn’t
mind how fit the players were, “as long as they had the basics right”. The basics being
referred to include the technical skills mentioned above.
5.3.2.2 External Resources. The external resources included social support
(technical, emotional, tangible, and financial). The supporters suggested that the different
types of assistance provided to athletes transitioning to senior sport was given by a range of
people including coaches, fellow players, friends, family, sport scientists, and fans. When
supporters were asked to identify whom they believed should provide particular types of
support, there was some disagreement in their responses. For example, the parents
interviewed believed that coaches should give emotional support, whereas some of the sport
116
scientists within the study believed that coaches provided purely technical support. This is
discussed in more detail below.
Additionally, while the clubs were not perceived to provide technical, emotional, and
tangible support, they employ those who may provide such support. For example, coaches and
fellow players were perceived to provide technical support to the athletes in transition. So
although the club was not outlined as a provider of technical, emotional and tangible
assistance, without the club employing people to provide this support, players may not get this
help. This suggests that the organisations are crucial to the implementation of many of the
support mechanisms. A summary of the perceived role of social supporters is presented in
Table 5.3 below.
Table 5.3.
Perceived Role of Social Supporters
Type of
Support
Supporter
Sport
Family
Scientists
Coaches
Fellow
Players
Friends
Club
Technical






Emotional






Tangible






Financial






Key
 - Perceived role of supporter
 - Not discussed as the perceived role of the supporter
 - Disagreement about the role (discussed in main body of the text)
Participants believed that technical support was provided by the coaches from current
and previous teams. One parent said:
117
…well they get technical support from their gaffer (manager) and the coaches,
don’t they? And [players name] has often talked about his youth coach still
helping him out, even though he has moved up.
In addition to receiving technical support from managers and coaches, athletes moving up to
the first team also received technical support from fellow players, including those in similar
positions, more experienced players, and the team captain. One sport psychologist said:
I think the boys already in the first team provide technical support as well. They
have played the game at that level and they can take the young boys aside and tell
them what they need to do, what position they need to be in and stuff like
that….and I mean those who play in the same position as the boys. But I suppose
people like the more senior guys and the captain can do that too.
Emotional support is perceived to be provided by fellow players, friends, family, and
sport scientists. Representative of the participants, one sport physiologist said: “… emotional
support should be provided by fellow players, friends, family, and sport scientists”.
Friends and family were regarded by many of those interviewed as the most common and
important form of emotional support, giving players a chance to vent their frustrations away
from the cocooned sporting environment. One sport psychologist said:
Having friends and family to support them away from the sport environment can
have a massive positive effect on those moving up to senior sport. When they
move up, more often than not it is difficult for them, so they will be frustrated and
angry at the end of the day, and having some kind of support and someone to talk
to at home will really help that. Obviously, we have a similar role, but were not
friends and family, people who can ‘get’ them, if that makes sense.
Sport scientists were regarded by those interviewed as another source of emotional assistance
to the athletes. This support was believed to be provided mainly by sport psychologists, but
118
also by sport physiologists, sport therapists and physiotherapists. One of the physiotherapists
interviewed said, “…when the guys are relaxed, they talk. Obviously I’m not a sport psych,
but I listen, and they talk. Whether that helps them (shrugs shoulders), the guys say it does”.
In contrast to the opinions of the other groups of supporters, parents suggested coaches should
provide emotional support. One parent said:
The coaches should be looking after the players as well, like given them help if
they are feeling down. Obviously I’m bias, but I want my boy to be happy, and I
think that the manager should be doing all he can to get that. And I think it helps
make the player better too, if he is happy and enjoying it. But yeah, they manager
should provide emotional support as well as everyone else round the player.
In comparison, a sport psychologist interviewed said:
The gaffer can’t really get too close to the players. He has to make big decisions
around them, like whether or not to drop a player, sometimes he might have to
shout at them, and if he gets too close, and is seen as having a favourite, well, it
might come across as bias towards the player. If he isn’t impartial, and starts
providing all this support to them, he can’t make decisions which are best for the
team because his views get distorted. He needs to be impartial.
The above quotes highlight that there is a difference in viewpoints about the role coaches may
fulfil in supporting athletes. This may be because parents are concerned about the welfare of
their child and believe that the coaches should also be focused on helping players manage any
psychological difficulties they may be experiencing. In contrast, the perception of the sport
scientist may be because coaches are judged upon their ability to develop and manage a
winning team, and the coaches may be focused more on ensuring that they achieve this, rather
than helping players who may be experiencing difficulties. In sum, the differences in
perceptions about the role coaches may fulfil may be diverse because of the focus which
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individuals have in relation to the player, with some supporters performance orientated and
others more concerned with the psychological health and wellbeing of the player.
The participants suggested that tangible support helped athletes move up to senior
sport. All groups said that tangible support was mainly provided by parents, for example, in
the form of travel to games and accommodation. One parent interviewed said, “it’s also things
like making meals and providing food”. Provision of tangible support also includes financial
assistance, which parents highlighted was another one of their roles. Additionally, the
supporters interviewed also suggested that the clubs provided a financial support in the form
of the players’ wages.
The final external resource highlighted by those interviewed in the current study was
the provision of sport science support. Providing mainly informational and technical support
about how to prepare mentally and physically, all those interviewed suggested sport science
support helped support athletes in transition. One of the sport physiologists interviewed said,
“…all types of sport science support are crucial in their own way”, and one parent said:
…sport science support helps the boys to be prepared mentally and physically to
compete in senior sport. It’s the same idea as the coaches, they have a job to do to
help prepare the players technically, the sport science boys have their own roles,
which put together should hopefully support the player best as they can.
5.3.3 Barriers to Transition
Barriers to transition can be split into internal and external barriers. Many of the
barriers are opposite to the resources mentioned above (see Table 5.4 for a full representation
of results).
5.3.3.1 Internal Barriers. Interviewees highlighted three internal barriers to
successful transition: (a) lack of preparation, (b) lack of knowledge, and (c) lack of
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Table 5.4.
Internal and External Barriers to Transition
Internal
Barriers
Parents
Perception of the Resource
Sport
Sport
Physiotherapist
Physiologist Psychologist
Sport
Therapist
Lack of
Physical and
Mental
Preparation





Lack of
Commitment





Lack of
Knowledge





Lack of Social
Support





Too Much
Pressure from
Parents





Pressure from
Friends and
Girlfriends





Wages
Athletes
Receive





External
Barriers
Key
 - Element discussed and group result parallels with representative quote
 - Element not discussed
commitment to the transition. Lack of preparation centred on a lack of physical and mental
preparation about the extent of the transition. One sport psychologist said:
…if they don’t prepare themselves mentally, they suffer the consequences when
they do move up as they become overawed and some of them panic. So they need
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to sit themselves down and speak to boys who have been through it, speak to us
[sport psychologists] and get an understanding of what they are about to face. If
they don’t have that preparation, it is definitely a barrier.
Regarding a lack of commitment one of the parents suggested his son was a skilful
player, but he was perhaps too lazy to be picked for the first team. Similarly, another parent
suggested that, “a lot of the boys who play with [son’s name] are lazy, and I think that gets
exposed much more when they move to the first team. You can see just how lazy they are.”
A lack of knowledge about their role, and the functions they perform in the senior
team was another internal barrier. One sport psychologist said:
…I have had boys coming to me and say “look [sport psychologists name] I
thought I had a good understanding of what I was doing as a right back, for
example, but now it just seems that all that stuff I learned was all wrong and I
have to start learning again.” But when I have spoken to these players managers, I
have said to them what the players have said and the managers have said that what
the players have been taught is right, but perhaps they just haven’t the full
knowledge to succeed.
5.3.3.2 External Barriers. The external barriers highlighted in the current study
centred on a lack of social support and perceived pressure from those who perhaps might be
expected to provide social support. One of the parents interviewed in the current study said:
Some of the clubs [players’ name] has been at, they don’t have things like sport
science support and things like that. Things that are crucial in the modern game I
suppose. I think it has a lot to do with money, but you never know with clubs! But
if the young boys don’t have that support, of course it is going to cost them long
term.
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In contrast to a lack of support, too much pressure was perceived as a barrier to
successful transition. One parent said:
We put a lot of pressure on our boy to succeed. I mean his benefits are he gets the
recognition and success, and possibly the money to go with it, but we also want to
see our boy succeed, and perhaps he can help us out financially too. So we put
pressure on him, sometimes way too much and then we all fall out and it helps no
one!
Added to this, another parent suggested that they felt it was their role to put added pressure on
their son saying:
When they get to the first team, it’s not going to be easy for them, so we need to
put added pressure on them to be successful. Like, if [player name] is always
making the same mistakes, we get on at him, because we are trying to help him
get better. That pressure is what they are going to get throughout their career, us
putting a bit of pressure on them will help prepare them for that.
Another potential barrier to successful transition was pressure from friends and
girlfriends. The sport therapist said:
Friends and girlfriends are a major source of grief for when supporting athletes
who are moving up to the first team, there is always something going wrong!
They always want the boys to go out drinking and partying, and if the boys do
that, it’s obvious they are not going to develop.
Another barrier to successful transition was identified by a sport psychologist, who said that
there may be difficulties when the type of support people provide is outside their domain of
expertise. He said:
Most of the people involved have particular roles to fulfil. Like the manager
controls my role in transition, the other coaches, and support staff, and tries to do
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the same with the parents as well. But it can be difficult if you have some people
trying to do others jobs, it all becomes a bit messy and the athletes can become
confused about who to listen to and everybody’s role. Some people try to do
things that basically they aren’t trained to do and the manager doesn’t want them
to do. When that happens, the boys don’t get the best support, do they?
This quote suggests that inappropriate exchanges may be difficult for athletes and clubs to
manage, which may lead to confusion that may have a negative influence on transition to
senior sport.
The final external barrier participants highlighted was the amount of money that the
athletes received as a wage, with players losing focus and stop working hard to develop their
game as a result of the wage they receive. One sport psychologist said:
When they start receiving a higher wage packet, they think they have made it and
don’t worry too much about working hard, and doing all the right things, so their
development suffers, doesn’t it?!
This theme was also highlighted by some of the parents, with one suggesting, “…their wages
make them big time before their time”. “Big time before their time” refers to players thinking
they have become successful first team players just by moving into the senior team, instead of
working hard to establish themselves long term as a successful athlete. In other words, they do
not work as hard as they need to develop fully as athletes. These quotes appear to suggest that
the wage athletes receive when they transition is important, because if it is too high, they may
lose focus of what they need to do in order to become successful in senior sport.
5.4 Discussion
The aim of Study 2 was to advance knowledge on the youth to senior transition by
exploring the perceptions of athletes’ support staff and parents. The study focused on how
athletes’ support staff and parents perceive the transition: (a) demands, (b) resources, and (c)
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barriers athletes experience and utilise as they move from youth to senior sport. Results
indicated supporters believe there are a number of demands, resources, and barriers that
contribute to the youth to senior transition in sport, including, for example, that there are a
number of people (e.g., coaches, fellow players, family) and types (e.g., technical, tangible,
emotional) of social support available to athletes in transition. The present study was the first
to examine supporters’ perceptions of athletes going from youth to senior transition. Such
data provided an insight into how different people involved view the transition, and their role
when supporting athletes. The results parallel those in Study 1 of the current thesis,
highlighting similar factors as being viewed as important in the youth to senior transition.
Additionally, the current study is among the first to suggest that those providing support have
specific roles to fulfil in the youth to senior transition and when they try to fulfil other roles or
inappropriate exchanges take place, it may have a negative effect on how successful athletes
transition.
The current study also adds to the knowledge base by offering suggestions on possible
factors within each area of Stambulova’s (2003) model. For example, within the demands
section of Stambulova’s (2003) model, the current study suggests that some of the demands
athletes might experience include establishing themselves in the senior team. Previous
research has not fully developed the factors within each section of Stambulova’s (2003)
model, instead focusing on the overall structure of the model.
5.4.1 Supporters’ Understanding of the Youth to Senior Transition
Supporters’ perceptions of demands have not been discussed extensively in the
literature, and the present study is the first to provide evidence that many of the demands and
barriers highlighted by players and coaches in previous studies (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in
press) are also perceived by those providing support. Results of the current study suggest that
demands of the transition include the need for players to establish themselves in the first team
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environment, and also dealing with higher levels of pressure put on them by coaches and
fellow players. Similarly, there is also a perceived increased standard of players in the senior
team. The findings are in line with Pummell et al.’s (2008) claim that players believe there is
an increased standard. These perceptions could reflect that athletes become unsure of the
environment they are going into which can lead to added stress, making the transition to
senior sport more difficult. To counteract this, prior to moving up, education and
acknowledgement of these perceptions may mean that athletes become more relaxed and
understanding about the environment they are moving into. This understanding may allow
them to build up internal resources to manage the demands (e.g., build up coping strategies
such as being able to control emotions), and seek support from others about the aspects they
cannot solely control (e.g., technical aspects of the game).
Adding to the existing knowledge and Stambulova’s (2003) model and Study 1 of the
current thesis which suggested high levels of motivation might be required by athletes to
move to senior sport, supporters suggested that high levels of motivation was the most
important resource to aid athletes in transition. Although motivation was previously
emphasised as important by researchers including Holt and Dunn (2004), the current study is
among the first to suggest that it is perceived to be one of the most important factor in
athletes’ development and transition from youth to senior sport. Such results may be
important when determining how best to support athletes, and establishing support systems
and interventions. For example, if a decision needs to be made between supporting athletes by
working on their own self-development such as an athlete who appears to be lacking in
motivation and determination to succeed, or conversely establishing an appropriate support
mechanism (e.g., working with parents) due to issues such as a lack of finance, the current
study suggests it is more important to work on self-determination and motivation of the
athletes to help them best as they move into senior sport. Future research which explores
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whether or not these two factors are interrelated may also help to highlight whether or not it is
possible to develop one aspect over another, but not to the detriment of athletes’ development.
Congruent with Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition and Study 1 of the current
thesis, the current results suggested that the social support received from others such as fellow
players, coaches, parents, other family members, and friends is an important resource which
can be utilised by athletes during the youth to senior transition. Although previous research
(e.g., Morris and Eubank, in press) has also suggested this support is perceived to help, the
current study also suggests that those providing support have particular roles to fulfil, and
provide specific types of support. Those interviewed suggested that parents should provide
emotional, tangible and financial support, coaches and fellow players provide technical and
emotional support, friends provide emotional support, and sport scientists provide technical
and emotional support. Although friends were not interviewed in the current study, the results
of the current study and Study 1 suggest that they may have a role in the youth to senior
transition, offering players a source of emotional support outside their footballing circle of
friends. The results also suggest what may happen if supporters crossover roles (e.g., parents
provide technical support), highlighting that when parents provide technical support to
athletes it can hinder their development. This result parallels Study 1 of the current thesis.
This hindrance of development may happen in the youth to senior transition if anyone
provides support outside their specific ‘role’ and provides another possible development of
theory, with such roles not being highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model.
In Study 1, parents were highlighted as a possible barrier to transition to senior sport.
Adding to this, results of the current study also provided advancement on theory as it is
among the first to provide parents’ admissions that they may apply pressure on their children
when they move up to senior sport. Morris and Eubank (in press) also suggest there is
increased pressure placed on athletes from parents as they moved up to the first team in
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football. The possible reason for increased parental pressure may be because parents now
have more belief their children are closer to becoming professional athletes, and they believe
it is one of their roles to provide more pressure and support so their offspring can become
successful. However, more research is needed to explore reasons why parents increase
pressure on their children in the senior sport environment.
Additionally, there needs to be recognition that, although I have interpreted pressure
from parents as a barrier to successful transition, an alternative explanation may be that the
pressure from parents may be a resource, with the pressure athletes receiving being a positive
aspect of the support they get from parents. My interpretation that the pressure athletes
received from parents was negative stemmed from the admission by parents that too much
pressure could have a negative effect on their sons’ development, as evidenced by the quotes
in the results. Additionally, during member checking the parents who raised parental pressure
were asked to verify my interpretation of what they had said, and in all situations parents
agreed that parental pressure was a negative to athletes moving from youth to senior sport.
Additionally, a lack of social support was highlighted by those interviewed as a barrier
to successful transition complimenting the results of Study 1. Pummell et al. (2008) and
Morris and Eubank (in press) also suggested a lack of support could be a hindrance to athletes
moving into senior sport. Again, the results of the current study expand on the Stambulova’s
(2003) model, emphasising particular barriers to successful transition, including a lack of
social support. Stambulova (2003) outlined there are barriers to successful transition, but does
not explicitly outline what these are. There is no suggestion in the current studies about what
happens when there is deficit of social support (i.e., what mechanisms are at play), but as the
results suggest that social support is crucial to transition, this could lead to a more difficult
change for athletes. More research is required to assess what does happen if there is a deficit
of social support.
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Matching Stambulova’s (2003) model and Study 1 of the current thesis, many of the
barriers to transition highlighted in the current study are focused on a lack of resources. For
example, one of the resources highlighted in the current study was athletes’ knowledge of
their position, and their role in the team. In contrast, a lack of knowledge of their role and
position in the team was highlighted as a barrier to successful transition. The current studies
results complement those of Morris and Eubank (in press), who also suggested that perceived
lack of knowledge of their role could be a barrier for athletes moving up to senior sport.
Similarly, a lack of preparation and understanding of the transition, and a lack of commitment
to the transition were suggested as barriers to successful transition by the supporters
interviewed. This perceived lack of preparation and control about what was about to happen
to the athletes as they transitioned up to the first team echoed Pummell et al. (2008).
Finally, the results of the current study suggest that athletes perhaps lose focus when
they start receiving a higher wage than they received in the youth team for playing football,
which might lead to them becoming lazy and not working as hard in senior sport. Pummell et
al. (2008) also suggested that a lack of financial support may be a hindrance to athletes
moving up to senior sport. Stambulova (2003), however, did not raise this as a barrier to the
transition in her model. Additionally, the current study results contrast the results of Study 1,
which suggested that coaches believed athletes became distracted when they did not receive
as big a financial package as they expected to receive. What this suggests is that the wages
athletes receive might be important to their levels of focus because it could influence their
long term development. If the wage is too high or low, athletes might become distracted. The
results of the current study add to the knowledge base on the youth to senior transition by
suggesting the effects of athletes receiving a higher wage than they got in the youth team.
This facet may only be apparent within professional football in a United Kingdom context,
where on average the wages athletes receive is much higher than other sports like cricket.
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However, due to the lack of consensus of opinion between the results of Studies 1 and 2, more
research is required to determine the full influence of players’ wages on how well athletes
transition to senior sport.
In summary, the results of the current study highlight that there are a number of
demands, resources, and barriers of transition. This parallels Stambulova’s (2003) model of
transition. Additional research results (e.g., financial demands), expanded on Stambulova
(2003), adding depth to the model within a football context.
5.4.2 Limitations and Future Research
The present study was focused on the supporters of athletes in football, and therefore
the results may not be statistically generalisable to other populations. Similarly, the current
sample was a focused group of people, with the participants only linked to two football clubs,
therefore, the results may not be statistically generalisable to fellow football clubs. Patton
(2002), however, suggested that in-depth information from the “rich” informants might allow
people to extrapolate similarities and differences from others experiences in comparison to
their own. Researchers and practitioners may extrapolate from youth to senior transition
experiences of athletes in the current study and draw parallels between these experiences and
others in similar situations (e.g., other athletes involved in youth to senior transitions).
The current study focused mainly on supporters’ perceptions of others’ roles in
transition. To add to this knowledge, assessing supporters’ experiences of their own role in
transition may highlight the type and amount of assistance that they provide to those moving
from youth to senior sport. To achieve this, a narrative or phenomenological methodology
where supporters are able to present their story or “reality” would give a greater
understanding of the overall role of those supporting athletes in transition and what facets of
support they feel they provide (e.g., technical, tangible, emotional support).
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Further, exploring partners’ experiences, and their understanding and appreciation of
others and their own roles in transition may offer a fuller and more balanced perception of the
support required for transition. Partners may highlight contributing roles they play in
transition which coaches did not highlight in Study 1, presenting a more balanced viewpoint
and adding to existing knowledge on transitions.
The retrospective nature of the current study is also a limitation. Participants were
recalling their experiences of the youth to senior transition from memory, and could have
forgotten some perceptions about the transition when those they were supporting were
involved in the transition. In the current study, I interviewed a mixture of people with a
variety of experiences (e.g., parents with experience of one transition, and sport science staff
with involvement in a number of youth to senior transitions), and this may have influenced
how long it had been since they were involved in the transition. This may have influenced the
degree to which they were recalling their experiences from memory. Longitudinal
examination of athletes’ supporters may help to reduce the effects of retrospective recall bias.
No research has considered how supporters’ perception of the transition may change
throughout transition. Research that takes into consideration the supporters’ changing views
throughout transition might help contribute to explaining the youth to senior transition process
in sport. Additionally, such research could help explain the role and value of supporters
throughout transition. These data, coupled with longitudinal data from athletes’ going through
transition may help explore the transition process in detail. Examining supporters and athletes
throughout transition could suggest whether or not the factors highlighted in the current study
are flexible and change throughout the process. For example, if athletes want support from
parents, but parents do not believe they should be giving that support at that stage of
transition, there may be a conflict, which perhaps leads to a more difficult transition for those
moving to senior sport.
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Future research could also use case study methodology. A case study of clubs or
organisations during the youth to senior transition will perhaps highlight ways the different
factors suggested as being important in the change are prominent in applied settings. For
example, although motivation and determination were highlighted as important in the current
study, a case study methodology may highlight other factors (e.g., level of social support) as
more prominent and influential in youth to senior transitions. Additionally, although there is
an increasing amount of research on the youth to senior transition in sport, no studies explore
whether or not this knowledge is being utilised within sporting bodies, which a case study
methodology may highlight.
Future research could also examine the youth to senior transition in comparison to
other models of transition, such as Lazarus and Folkman (1984). Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
suggested that stress is the result of an imbalance between demands and resources. In other
words, when the pressure experienced exceeds resources available, people are likely to
experience stress. In the current study, it was suggested that supporters could be both a
resource and a barrier, and that there needed to be consideration regarding the type of support
someone gives. For example, one quote highlighted that athletes can become confused and do
not receive the best support because some supporters were providing support which was not
required from them. In such situations, unsuitable support may not help athletes deal with the
demands or may increase the numbers of demands faced and could increase their level of
stress. Future research which explores other models such as Lazarus and Folkman (1984) may
add to the knowledge on the youth to senior transition in sport as it could help to understand
the process of transition from a different perspective leading to greater depth of understanding
(e.g., Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, may highlight aspects not covered by Stambulova, 2003,
which do influence transition to senior sport).
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The current findings indicated that it is perceived supporters play particular roles
during athletes’ youth to senior transition, and can positively influence the quality of
transition. In addition, the results of the current study also suggest that the supporters may be
a source of stress for athletes, putting excess pressure on those in transition to be successful.
The current study has only raised awareness of this issue and more research is required on the
area to fully understand the influences of supporters’ roles on athletes’ transitions.
Finally, the current study does not focus on comparing cultural differences. All those
interviewed in the current study were of British descent. Examining supporters with various
cultural and religious backgrounds, and investigating similarities and differences between
such demographics, may advance the knowledge available on the youth to senior transition in
sport and help practitioners assist athletes and supporters suitably through such transitions.
5.5 Conclusion
The current study’s justifications emerged from the findings reported in Study 1 when
supporters were regarded as a valuable support mechanism in the youth to senior transition.
The findings from the current study suggest that supporters had similar understandings to each
other, and the coaches interviewed in Study 1, of the youth to senior transition in sport. The
results also suggested a number of factors of transition (e.g., supporters’ have specific roles to
fulfil during transition) not highlighted in previous research. The factors included in
Stambulova’s (2003) model which underpins the current thesis were important to the youth to
senior transition, with demands, barriers and resources all highlighted in the current work as
important. The current work, among some of the first to focus on supporters, has yielded
insights into the youth to senior transition which may be used to assist athletes’ overall
transition process.
Studies 1 and 2 also inform a longitudinal analysis of athletes’ perceptions of the
youth to senior transition to be pursued in Study 3. As both these studies have highlighted a
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number of factors associated with the change, this research was used to inform the research
questions and interview schedules used in Study 3, which may lead to a more in depth
analysis of the whole transition process. Additionally, the results of Studies 1 and 2 have
suggested that the process moving from youth to senior sport may be on-going and occur over
a period of months or years, and the factors associated with transition may vary throughout
this timeframe. Further, longitudinal examination of athletes’ and supporters’ perceptions of
transition may reduce the effects of recall bias which may be prevalent within Studies 1 and 2.
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Chapter Six
Study 3: Longitudinal examination of the
youth to senior sport transition - Players’ and
coaches’ perspectives
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6.1 Introduction to Study Three
Study 1 highlighted factors coaches believed may be associated with the youth to
senior transition in football. Study 2 reinforced these perceptions from the perspectives of
various supporters. From a post-positivistic perspective, Crossan (2003, p. 54) suggested that
“reality is multiple, subjective, and mentally constructed by individuals.” As footballers
experience the transition from youth to senior team, their experiences and the factors they
believe are associated with such a change may differ from those the coaches and supporters
highlighted in Studies 1 and 2. Understanding the transition from athletes’ perspectives is
likely to add substantially to knowledge, given they are the ones moving into senior sport.
Study 1 also suggested that moving from youth to senior sport to be a process that
took place over a number of years with repeated transitions and changes taking place, rather
than as a singular event as previously conceptualised in the literature. Studies 1 and 2
employed retrospective interview techniques, which may have distorted whether or not factors
associated with transition changed over the transition period. Previous literature (e.g.,
Pummell et al., 2008), which has examined athletes’ perceptions of the youth to senior
transition, has also used retrospective data collection techniques. Cross sectional studies like
Studies 1 and 2 and much of the previous literature (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008) cannot measure
and fully capture the dynamic nature of transition because they are measuring individuals’
perspectives of transition at one particular time point. Dynamic transitions, by definition, are
those where the factors involved are changeable over time. Building on these studies, a
longitudinal study which examines the dynamic transition process as it happens may identify
how factors change across the transition period.
In Studies 1 and 2, participants were perhaps reluctant in some cases to discuss their
own involvement in transition for fear of coming across negatively. For example, athletes may
discuss coaches and supporters as barriers to transition, and give reasons as to why they feel
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this way which are not complimentary towards those other stakeholders. Coaches and
supporters may not be aware of these reasons, or may not wish to discuss them for fear of
compromising their own position in supporting athletes in transition.
Previous literature (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008) has tended to focus on athletes’
perspectives of the youth to senior transition. This literature has found that there are a number
of factors associated with transitions to senior sport including, for example, the availability of
social support and athletes’ readiness for elite competition. To develop this previous research,
identifying the demands, resources, and barriers associated with transition will help expand
knowledge and answer the research questions of the current thesis. Previous research (e.g.,
Pummell el at., 2008) has not distinguished the demands, resources, and barriers associated
with transition, and the current work will help to develop these studies by identifying these
factors, and how they match to Stambulova’s (2003) model.
Taken together, the above points highlight the necessity of examining the youth to
senior transition from athletes’ perspectives longitudinally. This type of study will add to the
existing knowledge available on the youth to senior transition, and help answer the overall
thesis aims.
Having argued for the benefit of focusing on the athletes’ views, studying coaches’
perceptions longitudinally of how successfully those players are coping with the demands and
barriers of transition may also be useful. No research has previously examined coaches’
perspectives of the youth to senior transition longitudinally. Such research will broaden the
perspectives studied about the youth to senior change, and may highlight strengths and
weaknesses in the approaches coaches take to assessing and developing athletes. In
mainstream psychology literature, particularly in relation to chronic injury, supporters’
perceptions on how well those who are ill are coping with the process varies longitudinally
(e.g., Eijkholt, Kwon, Mizgalewicz, & Illes, 2012). During periods of worry, supporters can,
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unintentionally, portray these feelings to those who are seriously ill, which can have negative
psychological consequences (e.g., Tham, Palermo, Vavilala, Wang, Jaffe, Koepsell, Dorsch,
Temkin, Durbin, & Rivara, 2012). If coaches are unable to accurately assess how well players
are managing the transition to senior sport, athletes may also experience something similar to
this, with coaches portraying worry and anxiety, which could have subsequent negative
psychological and performance penalties for the athletes.
In sum, the current study had two aims. The first aim was to investigate the dynamic
transition demands, resources, and barriers that athletes experienced and utilised as they move
from youth to senior sport. The second aim of the current study was to broaden the knowledge
available on the youth to senior transition and explore how well coaches believe players were
coping with the demands and barriers associated with the process. Providing an insight into
whether or not the coaches’ perceptions of how prepared athletes were for transition
paralleled the understanding of how prepared athletes thought they were may highlight key
differences between the athletes and coaches.
6.2 Method
6.2.1 Design
This study used a longitudinal research design, with the aim of exploring athletes’ and
coaches’ perceptions of the transition throughout the process. Researchers (e.g., Lavallee &
Robinson, 2007) have suggested that longitudinal research methods allow researchers to
explore the athletes’ transitional experiences in real time, reducing limitations associated with
retrospective designs, and, because of this, they are appropriate for studying the athletic
career transition process. Exploring the transition process over time will also allow for
examination of changes of the demands, resources, and barriers athletes may experience
throughout the change. Additionally, a longitudinal design is also most appropriate for
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assessing coaches understanding of how well they believe athletes are coping with transition
because such a design can help track changes throughout the process.
6.2.2 Participants
Participants were recruited based upon the snowballing procedures outlined in Chapter
3. Male athletes (n = 11) between the ages of 18 and 20 years (M = 18.9, SD ± .83) agreed to
participate in the study. After the second interview, two players were released from their
contracts, leaving nine athletes to participate in the last two data collection points. Both
players released were contacted but did not wish to continue participating in the study. The
coaches interviewed included academy managers (n = 2) and first team coaches (n = 2). The
four coaches (aged 46 – 60, M = 52, SD ± 7.2) had 10 - 18 years’ experience helping athletes
with the youth to senior transition, with an average of 13.75 (SD ± 3.03) years. All
respondents worked for professional football clubs in the Scottish Premier League. To be
eligible for inclusion in the study, players had to be due to experience the youth to senior
transition in sport within the next 12 months. Coaches had to be about to, or in the initial
stages of, supporting the players identified in the current study. These inclusion criteria
ensured that athletes and coaches were able to answer questions about the same situation.
6.2.3 Procedure
Ethical approval from the Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Aberystwyth
University was gained. Contact with potential participants then took place via a letter and
information sheet outlining the purpose, risks, safeguards and benefits of the study. After
initial contact, a willingness to participate was received from 4 participants (snowball
sampling was used to recruit 7 more participants), and data collection began in December
2011, lasting 12 months. Semi-structured interviews (n = 4) with each participant took place
throughout a 12 month period (interviews took place in December 2011, April / May 2012,
July / August 2012, November / December 2012).
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The timing of the first interview, 6 months prior to being informed of the decision
whether or not athletes were going to move up to senior sport (December 2011), was chosen
with the purpose of examining athletes’ understanding of the transition, prior to being
informed if they would receive a senior team contract. The second round of data collection
occurred one month prior to athletes moving up to senior sport. One month prior to moving up
to senior sport it was anticipated that athletes may be more aware of the factors associated
with the change and may have tried to prepare for the demands and barriers they could
encounter. The third round of interviews occurred within one month of athletes moving up to
senior sport. In the third interview, I examined, (a) now that athletes had made the move to
senior sport, what demands, resources, and barriers were associated with the change, and (b)
how well they believed they were managing the move to senior sport. The final round of
athletes’ interviews took place 6 months after their move into senior sport. The final interview
aimed to expand on the views players demonstrated in the third interview. Coaches’
interviews took place around similar time points to the athletes’ interviews.
6.2.4 Interviews
Once individuals agreed to participate, times for the initial interviews were arranged,
and they were sent an additional information sheet and informed consent form for the study
(Appendix E). Immediately prior to interview, participants were reminded of the purpose,
risks, safeguards, and benefits of the study and provided written informed consent. Interviews
followed a guide, lasted between 31 and 72 minutes (x̅ = 50 mins), and were audio taped and
transcribed verbatim. A total of 56 interviews took place (40 player interviews, 16 coach
interviews). Interviews were conducted either face-to-face or via Skype, owing to
geographical limitations. Although face-to-face interviews were preferred so I could build a
stronger relationship with the athletes by better understanding their working environments and
having personal contact, previous researchers (e.g., Herzog & Hodgers, 1988) have suggested
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there are no differences in self-disclosure when interviews are conducted via telephone media
compared with face-to-face interviews.
The semi-structured interview schedules for the athletes were based on Stambulova’s
(2003) model, previous literature on the youth to senior transition (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008),
and the results of Studies 1 and 2 of the current thesis. The four athlete interview guides (i.e.,
one for each data collection point) broadly covered the transition, with questions focusing on
the (a) demands, (b) resources, and (c) barriers athletes experienced when moving from youth
to senior football (see Appendix F). Interview guides were designed to capture athletes’
perception of transition and their coping at each time point, rather than asking them to
retrospectively judge how well they coped with transition.
Coaches’ interview schedules were developed to assess their understanding of how
well they believed that athletes were managing the youth to senior transition, and the factors
associated with the change, at the particular time points they were interviewed prior to and
after players were given a senior team contract. The coaches were asked to evaluate how
satisfactorily they believed individual athletes were coping with the transition to senior sport.
The coaches’ interview guides addressed: (a) the athletes coping, with questions focusing on
how well individual athletes managed the demands and barriers of transition, and (b) athletes’
readiness for senior team sport. All other interview procedures outlined in Chapter 3 (e.g., the
use of pilot interviewing) were followed.
6.2.5 Interview Transcription, Data Analysis, and Research Credibility
The procedures used for interview transcription, data analysis, and credibility (e.g.,
data preparation and presentation) are detailed in Chapter 3. Member checking of the results
took place with seven athletes and two of the coaches in the current study. Based upon this
member checking, one of my interpretations was altered in order that it better represented
what the interviewee was meaning. The interpretation that was changed was within the results
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for the proactive coping group. Within the results, I had interpreted that the players
anticipated higher fitness levels as a demand. However, after member checking, it was
highlighted by the athlete involved that although they anticipated a higher level of fitness,
rather than it being a demand, it was something they believed they could already manage and
was not a barrier to them moving up to senior sport.
Data in the current study were analysed two different ways. First, the data were
analysed to highlight commonalities and differences among athletes participating in the study
at different stages over the transition period from December 2011 to December 2012.
Participants were grouped together based upon similar themes identified in the first interview
(i.e., participants who had highlighted similar demands, resources, and barriers to transition in
the first interview were grouped together), and changes across each group tracked using
matrices to identify whether or not the demands, resources, and barriers each group identified
differed. These data were complimented by the data from coaches, and how well they
believed athletes were prepared for the youth to senior transition. These results are outlined in
Part A of the results section. Prior to the first interview, participants were randomly allocated
a unique identifier to ensure that I could not identify to which group any one participant had
been allocated during interviews. When data were collected and analysed, the identifier was
used at the top of each transcript and throughout. Knowing the group people were in could
have resulted in me adjusted the way I asked particular questions (for particular groups),
which could have resulted in me measuring a different variable from what I intended (Patton,
2002).
Second, the data was analysed to identify common themes across all participants. The
themes that were common among all participants are outlined in Part B of the results. All
other procedures for data analysis, and research credibility were outlined in Chapter 3.
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6.3 Results
6.3.1 Part A - Stages of Transition
Following content analysis of the first interview, 3 groups of players were identified,
who appeared to prepare and react differently to the upcoming transition to senior sport: (a)
the avoidance group (n = 3), (b) the reactive coping group (n = 2), and (c) the proactive
coping group (n = 4). The overall results for each of these groups is outlined in matrixes
below (Tables 6.1 to 6.3), highlighting how the demands, resources, and barriers to transition
were different across each group. In the discussion of the results, the major changes in the
demands, resources, and barriers identified by the athletes are examined. Additionally,
coaches’ perceptions of athletes’ readiness and success before, and after, the transition are
included, highlighting similarities and differences in their thoughts on transition.
6.3.1.1 Avoidance Group. The changes in these athletes’ perceptions of demands,
resources, and barriers throughout the one year period are outlined in Table 6.1.
6.3.1.1.1 Demands of Transition. Although the players were aware of the transition,
in the first interview they were focused on the present rather than the transition or factors that
may influence their future performances, and avoided thinking about the transition. Six
months prior to transition, these athletes were unwilling to discuss it as they wanted to focus
on their current performances because they were scared of thinking too far ahead, and they
never highlighted demands or barriers to transition. Despite this avoidance of the youth to
senior transition, the coaches interviewed suggested that the players in the avoidance group
appeared to be focused and ready to be successful in senior sport. This suggests that the
coaches believed players were performing and had the potential to be successful in the first
team.
Having avoided thinking about the transition, in the 2nd interview these athletes
suggested that they were experiencing high levels of physical, mental, and social demands.
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Additionally, barriers to transition identified by the athletes included a lack of physical and
technical preparation. This suggests the athletes felt underprepared for the transition, despite
using internal resources such as motivation and determination. One player commented:
It has all happened very quickly, we get told next week whether or not we’re
getting kept on, and I don’t feel ready to cope with any of the stuff we are gonna
have to do if I do get kept on.
At this stage of the process, coaches’ perceptions of these athletes’ readiness to transition up
to senior sport had completely changed, now suggesting that the players were underprepared
for transition and appeared flustered. One coach said:
[Player] has gone from being what I would have considered one of the best and
most ‘ready’ players, to one who just doesn’t seem to know what’s going on, quite
agitated and nervous and an uncertainty about what to do next.
This appears to suggest that coaches may be unable to identify early in the transition process
whether or not athletes are prepared to manage the demands and barriers associated with the
youth to senior transition.
One month post-transition, the avoidance group still had difficulty with the high levels
of physical and mental demands. For example, training was lasting much longer, occurred
more often, and was more physical. Transition demands included more pressure from coaches
and peers to perform well, with these groups also being much more critical if athletes made
mistakes. One player said:
I have really struggled recently to keep up with the boys, ‘cause the sessions are
much longer and more physical which has really hindered how well I play. We
also train more often, sometimes twice a day, which we never done in the youths,
so we have to deal with that demand too I suppose.
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Finally, 6 months after transition, the avoidance group still appeared to be struggling
to deal with the demands and barriers of transition according to the coaches, with some
coaches already suggesting that these players may not be kept on post summer 2013 when
their contracts expire. Again, as highlighted above, this contrast between the coaches’
perceptions in the first interview and the remaining three interviews suggested that they
appear unable to assess how well athletes will cope with the youth to senior transition early in
the process. This opinion from coaches that players are struggling to manage demands and
barriers associated with transition is in contrast to what the players believed, with the players
in this group suggesting that they thought they were coping effectively. They did not discuss
as many demands of transition as they had in previous interviews. One player said:
It’s not as demanding anymore, I have become involved with all the first team
activities and stuff, and I feel like I am making much less mistakes. I feel much
fitter than I did before, more able to handle the longer sessions, and I don’t feel as
exhausted at the end of training or matches.
6.3.1.1.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. Six months prior to
transition the coping strategies athletes in this group used appeared to be avoidance of the
situation and mental disengagement. One player suggested that:
I’ve never even thought about the youth to senior transition. This is the first time I
have even thought about it at all, when you are asking me these questions. I’m
scared to think too far ahead, I just sort of don’t think it’s going to happen, and try
to forget about it.
External resources such as technical and emotional support from coaches, parents, and friends
were not utilised by the athletes in the avoidance group. Players suggested that this support
was offered, but they did not want it, with one saying, “I try dealing with things on my own,
there are people there, but I don’t tend to use them”.
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Throughout the subsequent interviews one month prior to, and one month after,
moving into senior sport, the athletes in this group used a range of internal resources, such as
motivation and determination to succeed, and knowledge of their role and position within the
team. One player said:
… just make sure of my role, and the position I am playing, and making sure I do
what the gaffer asks me too, I think focusing on myself and knowing what I have
to do is the most important thing.
In the final interview, players in this group appear to be beginning to utilise technical
and emotional support from coaches, peers, parents, and sport science support staff, with one
saying, “I have started getting support from my mum and dad, and all the people at the club as
well, just to help me that bit more”. When considered with earlier quotes from the players
who suggested that they want to deal with the transition on their own, this appears to indicate
that the athletes may have accepted support from others too late or not at all. Earlier
intervention, where the athletes did receive this kind of support, may have helped them to deal
with the barriers and demands of transition at an earlier stage and also with greater success.
6.3.1.1.3 Barriers to Transition. Similar to the demands of transition section above, in
the first interview, this group of players identified no barriers to transition and suggested that
they have not thought about what may hinder their progress into senior sport. One player said:
I haven’t really thought about what is going to stop me, but to be honest I don’t
think it will be particularly difficult. It’s not something I am going to think about
much though, I want to get this season over with first and then worry about all
that stuff.
This quote highlights that this group of players believed they would experience a smooth
transition to senior sport, which as discussed above, is a feeling which is also supported by the
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coaches who believed this group of players is prepared to deal with the demands and barriers
of transition.
In the second and third interview, players suggested that there were some barriers to
transition, including, for example, a lack of physical and technical preparation and support
from coaches. One player said, “I’ve not had any help from the manager or any of the coaches
and that’s not helped me get ready for the first team”. Additionally, players in this group
appeared unsure of whether or not they wanted to remain in professional football. One player
commented, “I don’t know if this is what I want anymore, because I am so underprepared”.
As discussed, coaches believed that the athletes were struggling to deal with the demands and
barriers of transition, despite suggesting during the first interview that they felt these players
were highly prepared to be successful in senior sport.
In the final interview, similar to the first interview, this group identified fewer barriers
to transition. The players believed that the physical and technical barriers which they had
mentioned in previous interviews had been alleviated through training with the first team,
because they had started to get technical support from their coaches and peers which had
helped them to achieve this improved level. One player said:
Because I have started getting help from the boys and the manager, I have started
to learn more about the game, and the position I am playing in, and specific
strategies we are playing. Doing the work with the first team has helped me
improve all these areas.
As discussed, despite players appearing to suggest that they have improved, the coaches
suggest that the players are among the weakest within the squad. One coach said, “… there is
no doubt [player] is struggling, and he doesn’t show up well against the other boys in the
team. He will probably be released during the summer.”
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In summary, the athletes in the avoidance group initially appeared to avoid thinking
about the transition process, before experiencing panic about the change as characterised by a
lack of perceived physical and technical preparation in the interview 1 month before moving
up to senior football. Athletes believed that they had managed to cope with the demands and
barriers of transition in the interview 6 months after moving up to senior sport. This opinion
was in contrast to the coaches’ perceptions of readiness, with coaches suggesting that they
were considering whether or not to offer the players a longer contract after the summer 2013,
the only group where this indecision was discussed. The groups’ coping strategies mainly
focused on internal resources, until the final interview when athletes had started to seek out
support from others (e.g., coaches and peers). The fact the athletes started to seek out social
support from others (despite indicating that they were feeling more comfortable in the senior
environment) suggests that they may be experiencing some discomfort about the required
levels of performance in senior sport.
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Table 6.1. Avoidance Group
Themes
Demands
6 months prior to transition
-Doesn’t anticipate any demands
to transition and has no concerns
about the level of sport they are
about to experience
-Uncomfortable discussing
moving up to senior sport and
wants to focus on performing as
well as possible in the
forthcoming months in youth
sport
Resources
-Mental disengagement and
avoidance
Barriers
-Few barriers identified, appear to
suggest that they anticipate a
smooth transition to senior sport
-Haven’t thought about what may
hinder their progress into senior
sport
Coaches Perception of
Readiness and Ability to Deal
with Transition
-Appear focused on performing
well in anticipation of the need to
perform well in senior sport
-Anticipate that athlete is ready
and has the ability to handle the
demands and barriers associated
with senior sport
Stages of Transition
1 month prior to transition
1 month after transition
-Much higher level of physical,
-Much higher physical demand
mental, and social demands
(training lasts longer, is more
-Need to establish themselves
physical, and occurs more often)
-Parents, family, friends, coaches, -Technically less demanding than
and peers put more pressure on
anticipated but still a step up in
them to be successful
level of play
-More open to discussing
-Coaches and peers much more
transition to senior sport and
critical if mistake is made by
factors associated with such a
young player
change
-Mentally feel exhausted after
every training session/game
-Internal resources including
-Internal resources including
motivation and determination to
knowledge of their position and
be successful in senior sport
role within team, and motivation
to succeed
-Lack of physical, and technical
-Lack of physical preparation
preparation in anticipation of
highlighted as the biggest barrier
moving to senior sport
to transition
-Unsure whether or not this is
-Becoming disillusioned with
truly what they want to do as it
making so many mistakes and is
seems too much pressure
contemplating giving up
-Lack of support from others
-Lack of support from coaches
(e.g., coaches, parents, peers)
and peers, who they want more
-Negotiation of contract taking
technical support from
too long and has unexpected
-Girlfriend expecting more time
outcomes (e.g., not getting as
with partner than athlete can
much pay as anticipated)
afford to give
-Underprepared for transition,
-Struggling to deal with transition
appear flustered by the process
-Much harder than coaches
and unsure what to expect
thought for the players
-Calmness from stage one gone,
and replaced with panic and
uncertainty about demands and
barriers
6 months after transition
-Not as much technical, physical,
or emotional demands
-Less mistakes being made
-Coaches and peers less critical
-Technical support from coaches
and peers
-Emotional support from sport
scientists, and parents
-Fewer barriers identified,
physical and technical barriers to
transition alleviated through
training
-Girlfriend and family not getting
as much time with the athlete,
meaning athlete spends time with
them when should be training
-Players still struggling with
transition to senior sport
-Feel unsure of whether or not
player will be retained postsummer 2013
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6.3.1.2 Reactive Coping Group. The second group of athletes, the reactive coping
group, appeared to anticipate the demands and barriers of transition well in advance of
moving up to senior sport, as outlined in Table 6.2.
6.3.1.2.1 Demands of Transition. Some of the players in this group suggested they
had been considering the demands, including a much higher physical and technical level of
sport, up to 6 months prior to the first interview (i.e., 12 months prior to moving up to senior
sport). In the interview 6 months prior to transition, athletes in this group anticipated much
higher physical and mental demands, and pressure from parents, friends, peers, and coaches in
the first team. One player interviewed said:
It’s a much better standard of football, it’s quicker, the players are more skilful,
and they are going to put you under more pressure much quicker. And there are
demands like keeping your concentration for 90 minutes because you know if you
make a mistake you are more likely to get punished and the opposition score.
Additional barriers to transition included athletes’ perception that they were not physically or
mentally prepared enough for transition. Despite these barriers and demands the athletes
highlighted, the coaches suggested that the players appeared focused on performing well and
had the ability to move up to senior sport. One coach said, “[Player] appears ready to move
up, he’s got the ability and technical knowledge to be successful, and he’s physically fit and
can handle the pressure”.
During the next interview, one month prior to moving up to senior sport, the athletes
mentioned that they still believed senior football was going to be of a much higher standard,
and more physically and technically demanding than youth football. One player said:
The boys in the senior team, they’re going to be quicker, better footballers, who
are going to be better than me. I am worried about how well I am going to do in
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the first team, because I’m not like those guys yet, but I am trying to prepare
myself as best as I can to be closer to them.
This quote is in contrast with how the players actually found moving up to senior sport. In the
final two interviews that took place with these athletes, they suggested that they had not found
the demands of transition as difficult to manage as they had anticipated. The group still
suggested that there were some barriers they had to overcome to keep being successful in
senior sport, such as technical demands, but that this would be eradicated as they enhance
their knowledge of the roles and strategies that the team employ. One player said:
I haven’t found it anywhere near as difficult to manage as I thought it was going
to be, but there are still some things that are difficult like knowing the way the
team plays, and what the manager likes players in each position to do. But that
comes with time I think, just building up my knowledge and stuff, and getting to
know him and the way he wants us to play.
At this stage after transitioning, these players are viewed by coaches as having the necessary
resources to become senior team regulars. The players are coping well with the demands of
transition and do not appear to be flustered by the process. One coach commented, “…
[Player] is doing well, he’s got good people round about him and he has the knowledge and
skill to be a very good first team player”. This quote also seems to suggest that social support
may be an important resource to athletes, a factor which is discussed in more detail next.
6.3.1.2.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. Considering the
demands and barriers athletes highlighted in the first interview, 6 months prior to transition
the players suggested that they had started to purposefully build up their technical, physical,
and emotional knowledge and resources to deal with the transition.
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Similar to the first interview, in the second interview these players appeared not to use
or seek out social support, with players instead tending to focus on their own internal
motivation and knowledge to cope with the barriers they encountered. One player said:
I have a high desire to succeed, it is like the biggest thing for me, and I think that
is one of the things I have really kept driving into myself, how much I want to be
successful. There is no doubt that is helping me, how much I want to be a first
team player and win medals!
In the third interview, the reactive coping group had started to proactively seek out and
utilise social support from others. One player interviewed said:
I started asking my mum and dad for help, I started asking the gaffer and other
players as well. I quickly realised these people can help, because they have, like,
the experience that will be useful to me. If I listen to the gaffer, I will learn
quicker than trying to do it all on my own.
This seeking out of social support coincided with maintenance of internal resources, such as
the motivation and determination to be successful, and the drive to develop into a regular first
team player. In the last interview (6 months after moving up to the first team), internal
resources such as motivation to succeed and external resources, such as social support, were
still important to athletes in this group moving to senior sport. These results perhaps indicate
that a mixture of internal and external resources are required for athletes to be successful in
senior sport. One player interviewed said:
I have a high determination to be successful in the first team now, which I think
takes away a lot of the doubts I have about whether or not I can do this and be a
first team regular. I also have good support from my mum and dad, all the boys,
and the staff at the club, which I think is a massive support to me and they all give
me good advice.
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In addition to the players’ understanding and planning for transition, the coaches’
interview results suggested that they believed the players who prepare for the youth to senior
transition were more likely to be successful. Throughout the interviews, as discussed above
the coaches suggested that the players appeared focused, and were coping well with the
transition process. One coach, in their final interview, said:
The guys who prepare for the transition are usually the ones we want to keep,
because by preparing they are showing a work ethic and determination we want
them to show throughout their career. But more than that [players name], for
example, has always been well prepared for the transition, and it shows in his
performances as he isn’t left behind, and copes with the level of football.
This coach suggested that by preparing he meant actively asking questions about what they
can do to improve their own performances and carrying out such suggestions. This quote
appears to suggest that in addition to helping the player cope with transition, the player is also
demonstrating attributes (e.g., work ethic and determination) that coaches associate with
successful athletes.
6.3.1.2.3 Barriers to Transition. Barriers to transition included a perceived lack of
support from supporters. Initially, this lack of support was from all possible sources of
assistance including coaches, parents, sport science support staff, and peers. However, as the
players actively start to seek out social support as outlined above, the only people who
athletes highlighted as not providing enough or the right support were those external to the
club, including parents, family, and friends. Despite this lack of support, coaches still believed
that these players were prepared for transition and would cope well with the demands and
barriers they would experience because they had a plethora of resources at their disposal. This
group appear conscious of, and able to identify, barriers to transition which they are then able
to proactively monitor and manage.
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In summary, this group appeared to cope well with the demands and barriers of
transition because they actively prepare and seek out support for these difficulties, by
developing a range of internal and external resources. These athletes actually anticipated that
the transition to senior sport is going to be more difficult than it turned out to be, and overall
the coaches appear to suggest that these players were able to effectively cope with the move.
154
Table 6.2. Reactive Coping Group
Themes
Demands
Resources
6 months prior to transition
-Anticipation of much higher
physical and mental demands
-Belief that parents, friends,
peers, and coaches put more
pressure on athlete to be
successful
-Have considered demands up to
6 months before first interview
-Building up of technical,
physical, and emotional
knowledge and resources
-High motivation to succeed in
senior sport 6 months prior to
transition
Barriers
-Anticipate not technically,
physically, or mentally prepared
enough for transition
-Lack of support about what to
expect from coaches, parents,
sport science support staff, or
peers
Coaches Perception of
Readiness and Ability to Deal
with Transition
-Appear focused on performing
well and has a high motivation to
be successful in senior football
-Anticipate that athlete has the
ability to handle the demands
associated with senior sport
Stages of Transition
1 month prior to transition
1 month after transition
-Still anticipate much higher
-Demands not as prominent after
physical and mental demands
moving to senior sport
-Again believe parents, friends,
-Not as physical or technically
peers, and coaches put more
demanding as had anticipated
pressure on athlete to be
-Coaches and peers put more
successful
pressure on athlete to be
-Still considering and are worried
successful and are more critical
about demands of transition
when mistakes are made
-Internal motivation to be
-Still has the motivation to be
successful in senior sport
successful in senior sport
-Technical knowledge, and
-Drive to develop long term into
physical capabilities
senior team regular player
-Emotional, and technical support
from coaches, sport science staff,
and peers
-Anticipate lack of physical, and
-Lack of mental preparation and
technical preparation in
knowledge of the youth to senior
anticipation of moving to senior
transition highlighted as the
sport
biggest barrier to transition
-Perceived lack of support from
-Lack of support from parents,
others including coaches, parents, family, and friends (external to
peers, and sport science support
sport organisation)
staff meaning they are unsure of
-Lack of technical knowledge and
what to expect moving to senior
role they play in the team
sport
-High motivation and high levels
-Coping well with transition
of coping resources ready to cope -Coping with pressure they have
with moving into senior sport
been placed under to be
-Ready for transition and will
successful
cope well
-Players appear more willing to
ask for advice than prior to
moving up to the first team and
take constructive criticism on
board much better than some
other athletes
6 months after transition
-Technical demands still present,
but as athlete knowledge builds
up are becoming less challenging
-Less mistakes being made
-Physical and mental demands of
transition eradicated
-Technical, and emotional support
from coaches, sport science
support staff, and peers
-Motivation and internal coping
resources, such as technical
knowledge
-Few barriers identified, but still a
belief that they need to become
more mentally, and physically
prepared to handle senior team
sport
-Lack of support from parents,
family, and friends still present in
some cases (less cases than in
interview 1)
-Coping well with demands and
barriers to transition
-Seen as having the potential
coping strategies and resources
available to develop into a senior
team regular player
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6.3.1.3 Proactive Coping Group. This group of athletes appears to be the group of
players that transitioned most successfully to senior sport (see Table 6.3 for outline).
6.3.1.3.1 Demands of Transition. Throughout the whole 12 month period, these
athletes openly discussed the youth to senior transition in sport, but anticipated few
difficulties with associated demands. In interview one, the players suggested that they had no
concerns about the level of football they would experience when they moved up to senior
sport because they felt ready to be able to compete at any level, with the athletes suggesting
that they believed they would experience a smooth transition into senior sport. One athlete
said:
I don’t think there are many demands to be honest, I don’t really have any
concerns about what I might face, because I have been preparing for this all my
career, it’s just a natural progression, isn’t it? I know I am good enough to be with
these guys and compete against them, it will be easy for me to move up.
In the second interview, some demands, such as increased fitness levels were
discussed, but again the players did not identify this as a major obstacle to them becoming
first team players, instead reporting it as a challenge they relish. One player said:
…it’s a challenge, but one that if you don’t get excited about there is no point in
being here. Just think what we have if we do become successful and overcome all
the little things that get in our road.
“Little things” in this context referred to aspects such as having a poorer fitness level than the
first team players, suggesting that the players knew they would always have barriers to
overcome, but that they could achieve a similar standard to first team players, and if they
cannot, they were either not good enough or did not have the drive and determination to be
successful. This group of players appear to view transition as a challenge, but a challenge that
they will enjoy as they move up to senior sport.
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In the third interview, athletes discussed a greater number of transition demands again,
including higher fitness and technical demands. Many felt, however, as though they had
experienced similar demands when moving up through youth teams. One said:
We have all had these changes before, when we have moved up through the youth
team, there has always been an increase in like, the fitness, and how good the
players are, this isn’t any different, we just have to keep improving like we did
before. It’s not really any different to going from under 15s to under 16s level, just
that everyone is that bit bigger and better, but then so are we, or at least we are
getting that bit bigger and better and able to compete.
In the final interview, many of the facets highlighted in the third interview remain, with the
athletes highlighting few additional demands or barriers to transition. One demand that was
mentioned by athletes was that they were starting to learn about specific playing styles and
positional roles, which could be a challenge as they needed to remember all the specific detail
that their manage wants them to do. In contrast, however, one player said:
We have started to learn more about the different roles that the gaffer wants us to
play, so in my position as full back, I have started to understand when he wants
me to go forward, when he wants me to stay back and defend … It’s much more
detailed at this level, it’s the detail that win you matches at this level and it’s fun
to do it as it makes me a better player.
This quote suggests that although there may be difficulties associated with learning about
specific playing styles, the players in this group enjoyed learning and improving aspects of
their game. They view the process as a positive challenge.
6.3.1.3.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. At the start of the
transition period, the athletes appeared to have a mix of internal and external resources to help
the transition to senior sport. One player said:
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I utilise a number of people round about me, my parents, friends, family, the
coaches, and other players to help me. Like, I ask them for advice, or if it’s my
parents, just rant at them and they listen. I think it’s just a case of learning to
handle stuff as and when it is presented to you. I also believe that I have good
knowledge and understanding of the type of player I am and the role that I need to
play, which I think helps me because I understand when the coach tells me
something what he means.
In the second and third interviews, one month prior and post moving up, athletes
suggested the resources identified in interview one were maintained (e.g., internal resources,
such as knowledge and understanding of their role, and external resources, such as support
from coaches, peers sport scientists, and family members), and some athletes even suggested
that they were trying to build up a greater pool of assets so they could deal with demands and
barriers of transition. Parents appeared to become less involved with one player saying:
I have started using much more support from the gaffer, and all the people at the
club, and my parents have taken a back seat, almost. Like, they are still there if I
wanted them, but the guys at work are the ones who know more what they are
talking about, how to play football. I learn a lot more from them now.
In the final interview, athletes also indicated that internal and external resources (e.g.,
social support) were still used to alleviate the influences of any difficulties they did encounter.
However, the main support that they received at this stage was aimed at improving team
function rather than individual improvements that the player could make. For example, the
support was designed to improve team tactics, and players positioning in the team, rather than
improving technical skills such as passing and shooting. One player said:
We don’t deal with any of the individual skills anymore, it’s all about improving
the team, what tactics we use, as opposed to how best to shoot, how to pass. We
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are good enough not to have to learn all those skills, it’s just now about improving
the whole team, and working together effectively as a team.
6.3.1.3.3 Barriers to Transition. Throughout all the interviews with this group, very
few barriers were identified. One barrier to transition identified by the players 1 month post
transition was the need to integrate themselves into the senior team squad. One player said,
“… the biggest challenge is getting to know the boys, their personalities, their strengths and
weaknesses, and being able to handle their banter”. This quote suggests that if someone
moves up to senior sport they may need to accept there will be a number of different
personalities that they will encounter, and making sure that they are able to get on well with
these personalities may be the difference between becoming integrated in the squad or not.
The players in this group suggested that 6 months post transition they were integrated into the
squad with one saying, “I thought I was going to struggle to get to know the boys, but now I
have been here a wee while, and worked hard, I feel like I have managed to overcome this”.
In addition to the players exuding calmness, a belief that they were prepared,
and suggesting there were few barriers to transition, coaches also believed that this
group of players were the best prepared group to manage the change to senior sport.
This belief also remained throughout the interviews with the coaches, with one coach
saying in the last interview:
[Players name] and the other boys of a similar mould, they are the boys you know
will make it, they are so calm about everything, and they handle everything
thrown at them. Even last year when you interviewed me the first time, these were
the guys we knew would handle it, because they just seem so down to earth and
can handle a bit of criticism, but not become overawed. Any physical or mental
demand, they just throw them back at you and say “bring it on!”.
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Again, this quote suggests that this group view moving from youth to senior sport as a
challenge, and a challenge that they enjoy.
Overall, this group, and the demands, resources, and barriers they associate with
transition do not appear to fluctuate as much as the other two groups. Players always appeared
calm and always believed they could deal with demands and barriers they encountered, using
their internal and external resources. Moving forward this group also appear to still want to
learn even 6 months post-transition, with one player saying, “you need to use all the people
you can, and even though I have been in the team 6 months, I still have to learn”.
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Table 6.3. Proactive Coping Group
Themes
Resources
-Internal resources such as control
of emotion, drive to be successful,
knowledge of their role and
demands they may face moving
up to the first team
-Seeking support from fellow
players, coaches, parents and
others for emotional, technical
and tangible support
Stages of Transition
1 month prior to transition
1 month after transition
-Still anticipate that they will
-Higher fitness, and technical
transition easily to the first team
demands discussed, but player
-Some small demands, such as
feels as though these are demands
increased fitness level are
which have been faced before
mentioned, but players do not
when moving up through youth
present this as being a major
teams
demand
-Senior sport not as good as
-Openly discuss transition and
people suggest
demands
-Retention of and building up of
-Again, retention of and building
internal resources highlighted in
up of internal resources
interview 1 including motivation
highlighted in interviews 1 and 2.
and determination to be
-Emotional, technical and tangible
successful in senior sport
support sought from coaches,
-Emotional, technical and tangible peers, and sport scientists
support sought from coaches,
-Parents less involved
peers, sport scientists, and family
members
Barriers
-Few barriers identified,
anticipate a smooth transition into
senior sport
-Believe that barriers can be dealt
with as and when they become
apparent
-Again, few barriers identified,
anticipating a smooth transition
-Still holds a belief that transition
barriers are easy to overcome
-Confidence in ability to
overcome barriers
Coaches Perception of
Readiness and Ability to Deal
with Transition
-Best prepared players, highly
motivated to succeed and have
appropriate coping resources to
deal with demands and barriers to
transition
-Still well prepared for transition,
and appear to have coping
resources in place
-Calmness about transition
process which comes across in
performances at youth team level
Demands
6 months prior to transition
-Doesn’t anticipate any demands
to transition and has no concerns
about the level of sport they are
about to experience
-Will openly discuss the transition
and believe that they will find the
transition easy
-One barrier identified,
integration into the senior team
squad
-Other barriers, such as a lack of
physical fitness mentioned but
players feel like they have the
capacity to overcome such
barriers
-Coping well with transition, have
made a positive performance
impact with the players
-Integration into senior squad
slightly more difficult, but
showing willingness to learn
curves this
6 months after transition
-No physical, or mental demands
discussed which are out with
daily demands
-Technical demands are discussed
including the need to learn
specific playing styles and
positional roles
-Technical, emotional, and
tangible support received from
coaches, peers, and sport science
support staff aimed more at the
team function rather than
individual improvements to be
made
-Internal resources such as
motivation to succeed and ability
to block out negative thoughts
-No barriers to transition
discussed
-Player feels fully integrated into
the squad and feels ‘one of the
boys’
-Players have coped really well
with transition, have become
integrated and are learning about
playing styles and specific roles
of each position
-Best players at making transition
to senior sport
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6.3.2 Part B - Themes of Transition
After grouping the players into 3 groups, a cross-group analysis was undertaken and
eight themes associated with transition were identified. Three themes paralleled Stambulova’s
(2003) model of transition (demands, resources, and barriers to transition), with five adding to
the framework and providing additional insight into the change process.
6.3.2.1 Demands of Transition. Demands varied depending upon the individual, and
the time point in transition, but can include increased (a) technical, mental, and physical
stresses, and (b) expectations from coaches and peers to perform consistently well in the first
team. All athletes presented some demands at some point that they associated with
transitioning to senior sport, however the reported severity of the difficulties depended upon
how prepared the individual felt for transition. For example, the proactive coping group
highlighted few demands which they did not consider severe in their transition to senior sport.
Contrastingly, the avoidance group experienced many more demands which they considered
challenging when moving up to senior sport once they were prepared to acknowledge them.
One coach said:
What the boys associate with transition depends on their ability to manage it, and
how relaxed they feel about it all. Some of the boys don’t over think it, they just
deal with it and don’t associate many problems with the change, and transition
well. Other lads, well, they overthink it, associate everything negative with the
change, and end up really struggling to deal with it.
The quote also highlights that the demands players associate with transition can vary
depending on the individual player, but also offers insight on how this can be managed,
ensuring that the player remains relaxed throughout transition. This could possibly be helped
by accumulating a variety of resources to assist athletes through changes. This may mean that
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the athletes then have knowledge of how they can cope with the change, leading to them
becoming more relaxed about the demands and barriers associated with it.
6.3.2.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. Resources to aid athletes
included internal resources such as determination and motivation to succeed. One of the
biggest determining factors associated with transition appeared to be the availability and level
of external social support, such as emotional and technical support from parents and coaches.
One player said:
The people round about you are so important as they can offer you advice, be a
shoulder to cry on, or just generally be there for you. Without that support I
wouldn’t be in the position I am in now, and I certainly wouldn’t have been able
to manage the difficult parts of moving up to the first team, like getting involved
and known in the squad.
This quote suggests that the personnel round about athletes are an important resource.
Additional results from Part A also suggest that, when there is an absence of these resources
(see Table 5.1), athletes may struggle to deal with demands and barriers of transition. There
were a number of variations among the groups identified in Part A as to the type of support
athletes used to assist their transition to senior sport. For example, the proactive coping group
appeared to have a number of internal and external resources available to them (e.g., a drive to
be successful and support from parents and coaches) throughout the whole transition process,
and actively sought out this support if they needed it. In contrast, the avoidance group used
internal resources most of the way through transition and did not discuss actively seeking out
support from others until the very last interview. The avoidance group appeared to be the ones
struggling most with the transition to senior sport. To prevent these difficulties, the results
suggest having a plethora of internal and external resources available to athletes as they
transition to senior sport may be helpful.
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6.3.2.3 Barriers to Transition. Barriers to transition vary depending upon the
individual and how prepared they feel for transition. In the current study, athletes identified
barriers such as a lack of technical and physical readiness to compete. One other barrier which
was discussed was integration into the first team squad. One player said:
The biggest barrier to me is moving up to the first team and having to impress the
other players, and basically get to know them all. For the past 10 years or so, there
have always been one or two boys who are with you through all the youth teams.
In the first team I had to get to know everyone. The boys here were great to me,
inviting me to dinners and stuff, but there is always that, being nervous type
feeling. It’s like starting a new job I suppose, you’ve got to prove your worth to
the team.
This barrier to transition could be potentially very difficult for athletes moving to senior team,
because if they do not manage to make friends and prove their worth in the first team, they
may feel isolated and not be able to speak to their peers or coaches (e.g., to ask for technical
or emotional support). If athletes become isolated this barrier may also influence health and
wellbeing as well as performance, because they may feel that they are unable to talk to others
about the difficulties they are experiencing. As has been highlighted throughout the current
study, social support appears important to transition, and if they do not become integrated,
athletes may be failing to utilise one of the support mechanisms and transitions may be more
problematic.
6.3.2.4 Factors Associated with Transition are Constantly in Flux. It appears that
the factors associated with transitions from youth to senior sport are not fixed, and vary
depending on a number of factors including the athletes’ perception of the factors, the stage of
transition (i.e., before, during, or after the move up to senior sport), and the type and amount
of support available. This theme is also highlighted in Part A above, where many of the
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demands, resources, and barriers athletes associated with transition are constantly changing
among the interview periods. One of the coaches interviewed said:
The players keep coming in with different problems, there’s always something
else they have thought about the transition, another demand, be it physical,
mental, tactical, there is something new each day almost when it comes around the
time they move up. Then it quiets down a bit after they have moved up.
This quote also appears to indicate that, at times, the transition from youth to senior sport may
be an erratic event, with periods when athletes are panicking about the change and the factors
they associate with the transition are constantly altering, followed by periods of slower
adjustment, where athletes are calmer about the process and fewer factors are in flux.
6.3.2.5 Transitions Constantly occurring Throughout Sport Career. Another
theme identified across the dataset was that moving up to senior sport was considered a
culmination of a continual increase in competence and mastery throughout ones career.
Changes may be conceptualised as recycling loops, where from an early age athletes are
building up required competencies for first team success. For example, one athlete said:
When you move up to the first team it like the peak of all the hard work you have
done for the past 10 years or so. You start out as a nobody, nobody knows you or
pays that much attention to you, but you develop under a number of coaches, they
all teach you different things, you are constantly changing teams, players you are
playing with, and positions you play as well. Then as you get to 15 or 16, you start
to become a bit more recognised and better at the sport. But things are always
changing, and it’s not like we haven’t done it [referring to transitioned into a
higher team level] before. It might be slightly harder because we are moving into
the top team, but the principle is the same.
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Players believed that moving up to senior sport is similar to the previous transitions they may
have experienced, with factors constantly changing throughout their youth career. Relating the
youth to senior change with other transitions they have experienced may mean that athletes
are more able to cope with the process and manage any demands or barriers they encounter.
Conversely, if athletes have faced difficult transitions in the past, they may suffer from a
recurring cycle of a lack of confidence, self-doubt, anxiety, or dejection, for example, which
might make moving into senior sport much more difficult. This suggests that managing
transitional experiences for athletes from a young age might help make their change into
senior sport as trouble free as possible.
6.3.2.6 Coaches’ Assessment of Players in Transition. Throughout the current
study, coaches’ perceptions and actions appeared based upon how well athletes were playing
and behaving. For example, in the avoidance group coaches’ perception of how well the
athletes prepared for transition appeared unfounded after the first interview. In this group,
coaches suggested that the athletes appeared prepared for transition in the first interview. In
the second interview the coaches suggested that the athletes were underprepared by indicating
they were not ready for senior sport. There may be two possible reasons for this. Players may
have presented themselves as being comfortable and ready for transition but were actually
underprepared and feeling nervous about the move. Alternatively, some coaches may have
also been unable to accurately assess how well players were managing the transition process.
For example, the two first team coaches may have spent much less time with youth athletes as
they were focused on making the senior team successful, and were judging how well athletes
were coping with transition based upon a small timescale of being in their company.
6.3.2.7 Social Support. Across the groups identified in Part A, all athletes sought out
social support. At what stage in transition they sought out the support varied. For example, the
avoidance group appeared not to actively seek social support until many months after they
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had transitioned into senior sport. This is in contrast to the proactive coping group, who
appeared to actively seek out this support at least 6 months before the transition into senior
sport. Within the proactive coping group, it was raised by some players that having the social
support from others was crucial to their development into senior sport. These players also
appear to cope better with the demands and barriers of transition. Additionally, players in the
avoidance group also started to get social support from others 6 months post-transition, which
suggested that they may have acknowledged this support as being crucial to their
development. Prior to the third interview, the reactive coping group also proactively sought
out social support from others. Perhaps encouraging earlier seeking of social support may
help all athletes in transition.
6.3.2.8 Timing of Acknowledgement of Transition varies Across Groups.
Additionally, across the three groups there appears to be a difference in the timing of
acknowledgement of transition. Two groups (proactive coping and reactive coping groups)
appear to acknowledge the transition much earlier than the avoidance group which may make
it much more difficult for the latter group to prepare appropriately for the change. In reaction
to acknowledging the transition, the proactive coping and reactive coping groups appear much
more willing to build up their knowledge and skills or already have this available to them in
order to cope with the change. In contrast, the avoidance group appear unable or unwilling to
accept support from others, which might mean they are missing a vital source of support as
they move up to senior sport.
6.4 Discussion
The current study had two aims: (a) to investigate the transition demands, resources,
and barriers that athletes experienced and utilised as they move from youth to senior sport,
and (b) broaden the knowledge available on the youth to senior transition from coaches’
perspectives and to explore how well they believed players were coping with the demands and
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barriers of the process. The results of the current study suggest that there were a number of
demands, resources, and barriers athletes may experience as they move from youth to senior
football, which aligned with Stambulova’s (2003) model. Three groups of players that reacted
differently to the transition were identified, namely, the avoidance, reactive coping, and
proactive coping groups. Each group acknowledged the change to senior sport and reacted in
different ways to the transition (i.e., one group actively sought out support from others,
whereas another group never wanted this help). Additionally, eight themes were identified in
a cross group analysis of all the data. For example, one theme identified suggested that
coaches appeared unable to assess accurately in some situations whether or not athletes were
coping effectively with the demands and barriers to transition.
6.4.1 Longitudinal Examination of the Youth to Senior Transition
Overall, Stambulova’s (2003) model was partially supported by the results of the
current study. As highlighted in the results above, throughout the transition period, athletes
identified transition demands, resources, and barriers. For example, some athletes perceived
that senior sport was a much higher standard, and that the senior players were much fitter.
Although the results of the current study identify that there are demands, resources, and
barriers associated with transition, the results also highlighted that there may be distinct
groups of athletes who transition differently, which are not differentiated in Stambulova’s
(2003) model. These results may give us greater understanding of how athletes transition, and
may also allow coaches and others to distinguish between those who may be successful or not
in senior sport.
Results of the current study suggested that Stambulova’s (2003) model may be
incomplete and may need developing to better describe the youth to senior transition in sport.
Building upon Stambulova’s (2003) model, the results of the current study suggest that among
the athletes moving into senior sport, there may be individual differences in terms of athletes’
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approaches to transition. These athletes may differ in their preparation, coping, and
perceptions of transition. Schwartz, Neale, Macro, Shiffman, and Stone (1999) have
previously found that there were individual differences in coping styles which influence how
well a person manages stressful life situations, which the current study supports. Endler and
Parker (1994) suggested that there may be three types of coping: task, emotion, and
avoidance, with emotion coping most positively associated with less psychological distress
and avoidance strategies associated with most psychological distress. Although the current
study does not completely distinguish these groups, similarities can be drawn, with the
avoidance group appearing to cope less effectively with the transition than others. For
example, the proactive coping group rarely appeared to be flustered by transition, and were
able to accept and cope with transition demands and barriers. Additionally, this group also
appeared to view transition to senior sport as a challenge that they would enjoy. In contrast,
the avoidance group appeared to shun the transition in the first interview, but after the second
interview become flustered and some were unable to cope effectively with transition. Previous
literature (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press; Pummell et al., 2008), has failed to distinguish
between groups, instead focusing on giving an overall broad understanding of the demands,
resources, and barriers which may influence athletes experiences of moving from youth to
senior sport. Categorising the athletes into groups similar to Part A of the results of the current
study may mean that athletes could be supported in individualised ways, giving them
optimum support as they transition to senior sport. For example, the avoidance group appear
to have low levels of anxiety associated with the transition 6 months prior to it happening.
However, at 1 month prior to transition, their anxiety about the transition becomes much
greater, and it appears as though many start to panic about how they can cope, and they
become unsure about staying on. If the players in this group were informed that it is healthier
for them to try to deal with the transition six months before it, and were able to build up
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appropriate coping mechanisms, they may have a greater chance of being successful in senior
sport. One challenge associated with developing coping resources may be getting the players
to realise this may have an influence on how well they transition to senior sport. More
research is required to fully determine how important athletes consider the coping resources
they have developed in relation to the youth to senior transition. Such research will determine
if athletes are aware that the coping resources they may have may influence their move to
senior sport, which could help develop knowledge and inform interventions.
The results of the current study add to Stambulova’s (2003) model by suggesting that
the demands, resources, and barriers athletes experience may be constantly changing
throughout the process. Additionally, the dynamic balance that athletes achieve may differ
among groups. For example, the avoidance group did not anticipate any demands associated
with moving up to senior sport 6 months prior to transition, but 1 month prior to the change
these same individuals anticipated a number of demands (e.g., a lack of physical, and
technical preparation in anticipation of moving to senior sport). Contrastingly, the proactive
coping group always appeared to have much more balanced mind-set, they acknowledged
they were going to go through the transition to senior sport, however, they viewed this as a
positive challenge. The players perceived transition to senior sport as one that they had
prepared for by developing internal and external resources. Throughout the process, athletes
in this proactive coping group appeared to have achieved the dynamic balance required to
move into senior sport successfully early on in the process, which contrasted most starkly
with the avoidance group, who only suggested they had started seeking support six months
after they had transferred to the senior team. The reactive coping group did appear to achieve
the dynamic balance required to be in senior sport, but only after they had moved up and
quickly realised that they would need support from others to be successful. In essence, this
group sought support almost immediately after moving up once the demands became
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unavoidable and their previous perceived balance was clearly not present. Overall, the results
suggest achieving a dynamic balance between demands, resources, and barriers across the
transition may be a crucial element to athletes being successful in senior sport.
Previous retrospective research (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008) has failed to distinguish that
these factors may be changing throughout the process, again owing to the fact such studies
appear only to have highlighted the demands, resources, and barriers associated with
transition, not how these transitions actually develop. The current study supports the results of
Study 1 when the coaches suggested that the transition process is constantly changing and
players continually have to cope with transition demands and barriers. Additionally, the
current study results are also supported by mainstream literature which suggests that
individual attributes influence how well people cope with stress, for example (e.g., Carere,
Caramaschi, & Fawcett, 2010). By understanding that athletes’ perception of demands,
resources, and barriers may be in flux, more suitable support mechanisms could be identified
and implemented in a timely manner to assist those going from youth to senior sport. If
athletes perceive a barrier to transition, but are able to effectively cope, other obstacles may
become more prominent which again need to be effectively managed (e.g., higher levels of
physical and technical demands). To account for the individual differences among athletes
(e.g., individualised demands, resources, and barriers) which contribute to how well they cope
with transition, and the suggestion factors associated with the change may always be in flux,
adjustments are made to Stambulova’s (2003) model in the overall discussion which suggest
where these differences may be apparent in the process (e.g., individual demands or
resources).
Stambulova (2003) and the results of Study 1 suggested that resources to assist
athletes in transition could be both internal and external, a proposition supported by the results
of the current study. For example, the avoidance group is the only group where athletes used
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only internal resources to cope with the demands and barriers to transition. Both the proactive
coping and reactive coping groups have a range of internal (e.g., motivation and
determination) and external resources (e.g., psychosocial support) to assist them through
transition. The avoidance group appears to be the one where the players struggle most to
manage the demands and barriers of transition. Although causality cannot be assumed due to
the nature of the current study, the results and those of other researchers (e.g., Bruner et al.,
2008) suggest that internal and external resources may both be required to assist athletes
successfully move from youth to senior sport. It is possible that different coping strategies are
required for the different demands and barriers athletes might experience when moving up to
senior sport, which future investigations may explore. Additionally, it appears as though all
groups were offered external support and it was their decision as to whether or not they used
this help. The players in the avoidance group were offered support, but did not indicate that
they used this support until the final interview. The effectiveness of education interventions
has been highlighted in various aspects related to coping in sport, including injury (Cusimano,
Nastis, & Zuccaro, 2013; Miyashita, Timpson, Frye, & Gloeckner, 2013), which suggests that
these interventions may also help with athletes in transition. If players are educated on how
and why social support could assist them make the transition to senior sport successfully, they
may actively seek out this help.
The current study results suggested that athletes believed that they had developed
competence and mastery over the years which influenced how well they had transitioned to
senior sport. This parallels Study 1 results which suggested that athletes’ ability to cope with
moving up to senior sport may be influenced by their training and coaching from the age of
13. Individual coaches were believed to teach athletes different factors, such as features of
different playing positions, or formations teams may play. Athletes also suggested that they
were repeatedly in transition, making the change to senior sport easier as they have
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knowledge of how to manage adjustments to a higher level (e.g., moving from under 13 to
under 14 age level). Although acknowledging that moving into senior sport may be a more
difficult transition due to the level they were currently competing at, the results of this study,
and those of Study 1, suggest that changes may be conceptualised as recycling loops, which is
not represented in Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition. In the adapted model of transition
presented in the overall discussion, this factor is also accounted for, with the model
representing continual transitions.
Finally, the results of the current study also suggested that coaches may react to how
well athletes portray, or in some situations may not be able to accurately judge, how well
athletes are managing transition. For example, within the avoidance group, coaches believed
that the athletes were coping well with the transition up to senior sport in the first interview.
However, this perception changed during the second interview, with the coaches then
anticipating that the players in the avoidance group may struggle to cope with the transition
up to senior sport. Although this aspect is not explicitly linked to Stambulova’s (2003) model,
if coaches understood these difficulties with judging talent may exist, they may be able to
assist athletes earlier in the process to develop coping and support mechanisms they will
require as they move to senior sport. For example, if coaches helped athletes who may
struggle with transition to develop appropriate coping resources, which authors (e.g., Taylor
and Stanton, 2007) have evidenced is possible, the athletes may then experience a positive
transition and a reduction in associated difficulties. It may be that some athletes do not require
this type of support, however, giving them this opportunity may help because earlier
intervention can mean transitions become less problematic for youth athletes (Morris &
Eubank, in press).
In summary, many of the results of the current study are consistent with Stambulova’s
(2003) model of transition. Demands, resources, and barriers are highlighted as being
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important to the youth to senior transition. The current study also adds to existing knowledge,
suggesting, for example, that Stambulova’s (2003) model should not be viewed as a fixed
entity, rather that the factors highlighted in the model are constantly in flux and individual
differences may be prevalent throughout. Mainstream coping literature (e.g., Spitz,
Schönberger, & Ponsford, 2013) has also suggested that factors associated with other
transitions (e.g., long term injury rehabilitation, changing jobs) are constantly changing and
may be interpreted differently by individuals, suggesting that this may be a common feature
of all transitions. Additionally, results also show that athletes believe they have completed
similar transitions in the past when moving up through the youth squads. This study
contributes to a number of additions to Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition which are
explained in the overall discussion (e.g., adaptations to make the model more flexible to
accommodate individual differences among athletes, and to highlight that the process may be
a continual process from early in youth athletic careers).
6.4.2 Limitations and Future Research
The present study has limitations which need to be considered. Firstly, the present
study had a small number of participants who were not recruited randomly. The results might
not be statistically generalisable to other populations. Patton (2002) highlighted, however, that
in-depth information gathered from specific sources that have a large knowledge of the topic
area, as in this situation, might allow researchers and practitioners to discover parallels
between the experiences of their athletes and others. Additionally, the results may have been
influenced by social desirability (Patton, 2002), where participants might not have been
completely honest or gave the answers they thought I wanted to hear, for fear of retribution
from either their coaches or myself. This may have been a characteristic particularly
prominent within the first two interviews, when the athletes maybe did not want to hinder
their chances of being selected for senior sport. For example, if athletes were unhappy with
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the support they were receiving from coaches or support staff within the club prior to moving
up to senior sport, they may not have highlighted this in the first two interviews in case the
results of the study were read by coaches at the club. All responses given by the players were
confidential and they were assured of this at the onset of each interview. However, because
they did not know me personally, it was difficult to build up a rapport with them due to the
short time scale and there was the possibility that they did not trust me and give completely
honest answers.
Additionally, as discussed in the introduction, the current study did not consider fully
aspects of psychological health and wellbeing which may influence transition outcomes. For
example, there is no consideration of wellness, mood, or self-esteem. Future research may
wish to explore the indices associated with these psychological health facets and highlight
whether or not athletes experience (a) a positive performance and psychological health and
wellbeing outcome, (b) a negative performance and psychological health and wellbeing
outcome, or (c) a mixture of the two. Such research would perhaps highlight if there needs to
be a focus on helping athletes maintain psychological health and wellbeing throughout
transition, to assist them as they move up to senior sport.
Although it was clear from the current study that many athletes’ perceptions of the
demands, resources, and barriers of transition had changed, it was not clear how often or
when these insights changed. This may be due to the study only having four data collection
points which were a minimum of 2 months apart. Future research examining the transition
process earlier and more often across the time frame may elaborate further as to how often
possible demands, resources, and barriers flux during transition. Additionally, I offered the
players the opportunity to discuss their experiences of the transition to senior sport, which
may have made them actively think about the different factors they associated with transition.
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For example, between interviews 1 and 2, players may have considered factors they
associated with transition, something which they had not previously thought about.
One possible further limitation of the current study is the lack of quantitative data
which may have added to the qualitative findings of this study. Future research may use
quantitative measurements to add to the identification and analysis of changes across career
transitions. Schlossberg’s (1993) transition coping questionnaire (TCQ), for example, which
was based upon Schlossberg (1981), could be adapted to better suit career transition in sport
and help add to the understanding of the transition from youth to senior sport. The results of
the current study support Schlossberg’s (1981) model, suggesting, for example, that
individual variation can have an effect on transition outcomes. Research using the
questionnaire derived from Schlossberg’s (1981) model could be used to support qualitative
findings, and highlight how much some aspects may change throughout the process.
Finally, two of the original 11 dropped out as they were released at the end of their
youth career. Both players were assigned to the avoidance group outlined above prior to
leaving professional sport. The fact these players were assigned to this group which appeared
to have the players who were struggling most after they had moved supports the notion that
the players in this group may be the least successful in senior sport. However, the results of
this group may have been influenced by two athletes dropping out (e.g., the barriers and type
of support athletes in this group experienced might have changed had the remaining two
athletes been offered a senior team contract). Future research may wish to explore both the
transition to senior sport and the transition from sport concurrently to highlight if there are
any key differences between the transitional experiences athletes in each group may
experience, which may influence the interventions used to support athletes (e.g., are the
particular attributes or resources athletes who move to senior sport use, that those leaving
sport do not have). Additionally, future research which longitudinally explores what influence
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being released has on athletes’ personal lives and development may also add to the existing
knowledge in the area. Such research may also help to highlight whether or not Stambulova’s
(2003) model is representative of transitions when athletes are released from sport after their
youth career.
6.5 Conclusion
The drive for the current study emerged from the findings of studies 1 and 2 which
suggested that transitions from youth to senior sport may occur over a period of months,
rather than a short period of time, hence a longitudinal study which examined this feature
emerged. The results from the current study support this, suggesting that career transitions
may be initiated many months before athletes actually move into senior sport, with athletes
anticipating demands, resources, and barriers highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model. The
findings of the current study also suggest that Stambulova’s (2003) model should not be
viewed as a fixed entity because many of the demands, resources, and barriers highlighted by
the athletes are constantly in flux, with some becoming more important than others at
different times, and vice versa. The present study findings also indicate that supporters (e.g.,
parents, support staff, friends) may be important to the transition experience athletes may
encounter, providing emotional, and technical support for example.
Despite many of the demands, resources, and barriers Stambulova (2003) highlighted
continually being emphasised throughout the current thesis, no research has previously
assessed if these factors may help engender successful transition. In all three studies of the
thesis so far, for example, social support has been highlighted as an important aspect of the
youth to senior transition, but no research has assessed if it can help athletes make a
successful change. Study 4 advances knowledge in the area by assessing whether or not
Stambulova’s (2003) model, and the factors presented as important to transition, may be
effective in predicting successful youth to senior changes.
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Chapter Seven
Study 4: Transitioning from youth to senior
football - Exploring the youth transition
pathways in two professional football clubs
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7.1 Introduction to Study Four
Previous studies in the current thesis have highlighted that there are a number of
demands, resources, and barriers associated with the youth to senior transition, which parallel
Stambulova’s (2003) model. Within many sports, and specifically in relation to football, there
are few regulated programmes supporting transition into senior sport which clubs are
legislated to follow. Given this apparent lack of regulation, there may be a deficit of
knowledge and monitoring of existing programmes. It may be beneficial to understand the
existing programmes in place within professional sports clubs because this understanding
may help discover what additional factors could be associated with successful transition into
senior sport.
Additionally, there are no studies which identify whether or not the factors outlined in
the current thesis, and Stambulova’s (2003) model, may be associated with successful
transition into senior sport. Study 3 results suggested that coaches may not always be able to
assess whether or not athletes will be successful in senior sport. It may be useful to recognise
if the factors identified in Stambulova’s (2003) model could be associated with successful
transition as it will add to the existing knowledge, and could also help coaches identify
talented athletes who may be successful in senior sport and support their transition in a more
proactive and effective manner. For example, if it is identified that Stambulova’s (2003)
model may help predict factors associated with successful transition, coaches may be able to
identify weaknesses or resource deficits within individual athletes, such as a lack of player
motivation, and try to remedy this in a proactive manner.
As mentioned above, there are no regulated transition programmes which professional
football clubs are legislated to follow. Despite this, however, there are particular facets of
talent development and organisational structure which can have an influence on talent
development success. Bloom (1985) suggested that the process of identifying and nurturing
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talent is complex, and there is regular debate about whether or not talent development is
associated more with nature or nurture. Although some believe that talent is associated with
genetic heredity, others believe talent can be nurtured and developed through practice and
personal experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1998; Howe, Davidson & Sloboda, 1998; DurandBush & Salmela, 2001). Csikszentmihalyi (1998) concluded that nature and nurture both have
an influence on talent development. As nurture has an influence on talent development, the
environment and structure that organisations put in place to support talented athletes may
have a positive or negative effect on performance outcomes. For this reason is it important to
consider the role and programmes that clubs and organisations put in place to assist talented
athletes achieve their potential.
Although talent development is a complex phenomenon, there are a number of stages
that talented individuals and athletes go through before becoming successful (Bloom, 1985).
Bloom (1985) identified that talented individuals will go through: (a) the early years where
they are introduced to the activity by their parents, who then encourage play and enjoyment
of the activity before the child becomes engrossed; (b) the middle years, where the child
becomes increasingly dedicated to their activity, specialises (possibly to the detriment of
other activities), and increases the amount of practice they put in to their activity; and (c) the
later years, when the individual becomes determined to achieve expert status and is
extremely committed to, or obsessed with, their activity and will invest much more time and
effort to achieve this expert status.
Bloom’s (1985) work, which involved a range of talented individuals including
musicians, artists, scientists, and sports people, led to sport specific studies which identified
the specific stages athletes go through to achieve elite success. Côté (1999) identified three
stages of development which were specifically related to sport development, (a) the sampling
stage (age 6-12), which corresponds with the early years in Bloom’s (1985) model, where
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athletes will try a number of different sports before specialising and there is deliberate play
(i.e., there are no rules); (b) the specialising years, which corresponds with the middle years
in Bloom’s (1985) model, when athletes’ play becomes more structured and they spend more
time on their chosen sport; and (c) the investment stage, which corresponds with the later
years in Bloom’s (1985) model when athletes become motivated to achieve success in sport
and invest a majority of time on developing their skills to become prosperous.
Although there are a number of stages athletes will go through to become elite as
identified by Bloom (1985) and Côté (1999), there are a number of environmental and
organisational elements within these phases which can have an influence on athletes’
development (Bloom, 1985; Martindale, Collins and Daubney, 2005). Martindale et al.
(2005) identified five key generic themes from the literature associated with organisational
structure and the coaching environment, which were believed to be associated with effective
development of talent within sport. Martindale at al. (2005) suggest that organisations should
have or consider these elements in their programmes. These five factors included long-term
aims and methods; wide ranging coherent messages and support; emphasis on appropriate
development rather than early success; individualised and on-going development; and finally
integrated, holistic and systematic development.
Martindale et al. (2005) identify that there should be several long term aims and
methods within an organisation’s youth development programme. Organisations should have
a vision, purpose, and identity that is systematically planned and implemented (Martindale et
al., 2005). For example, there should be a consideration of how factors such as perceived
competence (Sternberg, 2000), long-term adherence (Deci & Ryan, 1985), and cognitive and
motor skills development (Ericsson, 1998) can influence individuals’ sport development and
senior team performance. Long term plans should be based around improving youth athletes’
skills and competencies in these areas, to ultimately improve their overall performance.
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Within a talent development programme there is a need to provide coherent support
networks and messages to athletes (Martindale et al., 2005). Utilisation of role models and
the availability of various support mechanisms (e.g., support for technical and emotional
issues) are believed to be crucial to the development of young athletes (Martindale et al.,
2005). A study by Moore, Collins, and Burwitz (1998) highlighted that although the
provision of support for elite athletes was helpful to their sport career and performances, it
was almost non-existent for developing athletes which may hinder progression.
The characteristics required to become an effective senior team athlete are considered
different to those associated with people who have the potential to become elite performers
(Bloom, 1985; Abbott and Collins, 2002). Martindale et al. (2005) emphasised that
organisations need to focus on highlighting appropriate development and not early success.
To this end, Martindale et al. (2005) proposed that there should be a developmental focus on
the characteristics required to become successful athletes such as fundamental mental skills
(e.g., concentration, attitudes, emotions, motivations), life skills (e.g., the ability to plan,
monitor, self-evaluate), and physical skills (e.g., physical fitness and strength).
To help promote talent success, Martindale et al. (2005) also suggest that
individualised and on-going development, where athletes receive individual goal setting and
review, can be implemented in organisations. Csikszentmihalyi, Whalen, Wong and
Rathunde (1993) suggested that such support can help with the individual development of
talented athletes as they have specific targets to aim for, and individual improvements to
make. This form of support also ensures that athletes receive regular formal and informal
communication, which relates back to the earlier point about ensuring athletes have
appropriate support mechanisms and messages (Martindale et al, 2005; Siedentop, 1978).
Martindale et al. (2005) specified that each of the four elements outlined above will
help to create an integrated, holistic and systematic approach to developing young players to
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become successful professional athletes. Equally, should the athlete not achieve success in
sport, programmes such as this will help to develop life skills which may be transferrable to
other walks of life or professions (Martindale et al., 2005).
Although there is literature which offers suggestions on the type of features which
should be included within development programmes, there is no evidence about whether or
not such literature is being utilised in real life situations. Despite this literature identifying the
key elements in talent development programmes, potentially variation in the structure and
running of football academies might have an effect on the types of programmes run, and
subsequently, the outcomes.
Firstly, individual clubs may have their own individual interpretations of how to
develop talented athletes, and may not include all the elements Martindale et al. (2005)
outlined in their work. Within many academies, the academy manager of head of youth
development is responsible for youth players’ development, and the strategic and day-to-day
management of the academy, which can include delegation of duties to coaches or
practitioners (Relvas et al., 2010). Additionally, the academy director or head of youth
development has the responsibility of reporting all work carried out in the youth development
set-up with those of overall responsibility within the team (which could be the first team
manager, sport director, or someone at board level who may be responsible for youth
development – this can vary from club to club, Relvas et al., 2010). These responsibilities can
mean that clubs’ philosophies and “ways” of developing talent can be controlled and
administered by the organisation, and consequently can vary among clubs.
Added, there is additional involvement from others such as board of directors which
can influence talent development. For example, Slack (1997) identified that the board of
directors can ultimately decide whether or not to invest millions of pounds in training
facilities (e.g., training pitches) for the academy. If this investment is at the cost of immediate
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success (i.e., the option of buying already established first team players) many clubs may be
unwilling to fund such facilities, which may hinder talent development (Martindale et al.,
2005).
Given that each club trying to develop talent is likely to have its own specific
programme due to the points mentioned above, an understanding of the types of programmes
already in place and the different practices, philosophies, and interventions that they have and
how these relate to development outcome rates, may enable a greater understanding of the
factors associated with the youth to senior transition and the youth environments that are
ultimately conducive to helping athletes achieve successful senior team performance.
According to Yin (2009), case studies have been utilised within various disciplines
including psychology, sociology, political science, and education, and cases can be
individuals, organisations, processes, or programmes. Case studies allow factors relevant to a
phenomenon to be studied in real-life contexts. The use of multiple sources of evidence, such
as documentation (e.g., reports and letters), archival records (e.g., computer files and
records), interviews, observations, and physical artefacts (e.g., technological devices or tools)
may be integrated to analyse particular contexts (Yin, 2009). In the current research, case
studies were an appropriate method because the aim of the study was to explore two football
clubs’ youth to senior support programmes and identify possible factors associated with
transition outcomes. Additionally, Patton (2002) argued that methodological triangulation
provides a single, well-integrated picture of the whole situation. By using a case study
methodology in the current study, I am able to assess the robustness of the knowledge gained
from previous studies in the thesis, because different methodologies have varying strengths
and weaknesses which, when utilised together, can complement each other (Patton, 2002).
For example, previous methodologies used in the current thesis have not been able to identify
what may be best practice when implementing a youth to senior transition programme. By
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utilising a case study methodology and studying the outcomes of two differing youth to
senior transition programmes, initial identification of good practice and whether or not the
factors Stambulova (2003) highlighted may be associated with the successful change, can be
gleaned.
The overall aims of the current study were to (a) explore the degree to which two
clubs addressed demands, resources, and barriers associated with the youth to senior
transition, (b) identify any initial evidence to support the hypothesis that factors listed in
Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain transition outcomes and guide
intervention development, which could justify future experimental research, and (c) highlight
any additional factors which may also be important to promote successful transition to the
first team. These aims build upon previous studies in this thesis by providing an
understanding of two real life contexts. The results of the current study may also offer
suggestions on ways of improving the youth to senior programmes already being run by
organisations. Ethically, it was not possible to manipulate the variables that I was assessing in
the current study as this would have involved providing a group of athletes with possible
support mechanisms which other athletes would not have received, placing them at a
disadvantage. However, I was able to study the factors involved in two naturally occurring
programmes and develop hypotheses that may guide future research about how these factors
may have influenced the youth to senior transition within these clubs.
7.2 Method
7.2.1 Design
The current study used a qualitative case study methodology, and the two cases in the
present study were the youth to senior transition programmes in two football clubs in the
highest national division in Scotland. The data collected included documents, relevant
websites, semi-structured individual interviews, group monthly meetings, and email
185
communications. Patton’s (2002) three steps for conducting a case study were followed in
each club: (a) assembling the raw case data, (b) constructing a case record, and (c) writing a
final case study narrative. In addition, I conducted a cross case analysis.
7.2.2 The Organisations
7.2.2.1 Organisation A. Organisation A is a Premier League club, and currently has
37 first team players and 118 youth team players. The youngest youth squad at Organisation
A is aged 11 and under, with the final youth squad players aged 20 and under. In addition to
the players signed to the club, there is a number of coaching and support staff who work with
the athletes. These include 28 coaches across all age groups, 4 physiotherapists, 4
physiologists, and 3 sport psychologists.
7.2.2.2 Organisation B. Organisation B is also a Premier League club. The club has
34 registered first team players and 112 players signed to their youth programme. The
youngest youth squad at Organisation B is aged 11 and under, with the final youth squad
players aged 20 and under. Again, in addition to the players signed to the club, there is a
number of coaching and support staff who work with the athletes. These include 24 coaches
across all age groups, 3 physiotherapists, and 2 physiologists.
7.2.3 Participants
The participants in the current study were selected purposefully to answer the research
question based on Patton’s (2002) strategy outlined in Chapter 3, and consisted of fourteen
male and three female participants (17 participants in total) who were invited to participate in
semi-structured interviews (aged 18 to 62). Participants’ mean age was 34 (SD ± 12), with
four respondents being coaches in the youth teams, two respondents being first team
managers and coaches, two respondents being players who have recently transitioned to the
first team, four respondents being players in the current youth set up, two sets of parents (two
male and two female participants), and one respondent being a sport physiologist. One case
186
had eight respondents, the other case had nine respondents. Table 7.1 outlines the personnel
interviewed within each club.
7.2.4 Procedure
After ethical approval for the study was gained from the Department of Sport and
Exercise Science, Aberystwyth University, initial contact with five managers of possible
clubs was made by letter, informing them of the purpose, risks, safeguards, and benefits of
the study. Informed consent was also received from all participants (see Appendix G for
information and consent forms for the study). Following this initial contact, stage one of data
collection involved initial screening of the five football clubs’ youth programmes to assess
their suitability for the study, during which I phoned the managers of the clubs and
interviewed them about the programme they had in place to support athletes moving to senior
sport, including (a) the demands, resources, and barriers associated with transition, and (b)
Table 7.1.
Interview Details
Interviewee
Youth Team
Coaches
Detailed Information
Organisation A
Organisation B
2 coaches
2 coaches
First Team
Coaches and
Managers
1 coach
1 manager
First Team
Players
1 player
1 player
Youth Team
Players
1 player
3 players
1 set of parents (1 mum and dad)
1 set of parents (1 mum and dad)
1 sport psychologist
None employed
Parents
Sport
Psychologist
187
the support they may have in place to help athletes (e.g., are players educated on the
transition and the difficulties they may face?). This initial screening process highlighted
whether or not the clubs’ youth to senior transition programmes demonstrated an
understanding of aspects covered in Stambulova’s (2003) model. The clubs representing the
extremes of this assessment were selected for further examination in the current study
because this allowed stronger analysis of the factors highlighted in Stambulova (2003) model.
In the initial assessment it was determined that Organisation A demonstrated a strong
understanding of the factors highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model, with the programme
implemented at the club designed to help the players deal with the demands and barriers of
transition. Organisation B, contrastingly, did not demonstrate an understanding of
Stambulova’s (2003) model, with their programme based upon athletes being able to manage
the transition effectively on their own. The differences in the programmes are discussed in
more detail in the results (7.3) and discussion (7.4) sections below.
After the managers of the two clubs chosen consented to participate, the second phase
of data collection started in July 2012 and concluded in September 2012. Multiple sources of
data, including individual interviews, and relevant documents (e.g., websites, brochures about
current programmes, reports of the committee meetings) were collected. Documentation
included numerous official webpages, reports of youth coaches’ committee meetings, and
supporting players’ documentation (e.g., player development brochures). The interview
schedule for the current study was based upon the previous literature (e.g., Pummell et al.,
2008; Stambulova, 2003). Interview topics included (a) what staff in each club believed were
their obligations when developing young players, and (b) exploring the programmes in place
at each club and the possible benefits of each programme. Interview schedules were reworded to suit the different personnel involved in the study (e.g., coaches and parents), but
broadly covered these topics (see Appendix H for interview schedules). Where required, I
188
went back to the clubs involved for further information on responses they gave to interviews,
and for further information on aspects of any sources of data that were unclear. In total fifteen
interviews took place with the seventeen participants (13 interviews involved a single
participant, two interviews involved two participants). Face-to-face interviews took place
with all the participants.
Additionally, throughout the study period, player retention and development rates,
outlined in Table 7.4, were also gained from a variety of sources, including the teams
involved in the study, other franchises not directly involved in the study but still involved in
the same league, and the league’s governing body. These data was collected to answer the
second research question of the current study, which aimed to assess whether or not factors
Stambulova (2003) highlighted may influence successful transition. These data is presented
in the results below (7.3).
7.2.5 Data Analysis
Interviews were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim following the procedures
outlined in Chapter 3. The average time for the interviews was 48 minutes, with interviews
ranging between 35 and 84 minutes long. In addition, a total of 127 pages of documentation
data were collected, including 21 webpages, 92 pages of youth team committee meetings, and
14 pages of youth player supporting documentation. A summary of the data collected can be
found in Table 7.2.
Data were arranged into chronological order, before thematic content analysis of all
the data took place, guided by Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition and the previous
youth to senior transition in sport literature (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008). Driven by Braun and
Clarke (2006), thematic content analysis helped to summarise key features, highlight parallels
and differences, and identify unanticipated insights emerging from the data.
7.2.6 Research Credibility
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In addition to the factors outlined in Chapter 3 (i.e., member checking), the current
study also used methodological triangulation (Yin, 2009) or the collection of multiple sources
Table 7.2.
Data Sources and Detailed Information of Data
Data Source
Interviews
Detailed Information
Organisation A
Organisation B
7 face-to-face
8 face-to-face
semi-structured
semi-structured
interviews with
interviews with
8 participants (1
9 participants (1
sets of parents
set of parents
were
were
interviewed
interviewed
together)
together)
Meetings
Youth
committee
meeting
minutes (2006 –
2012)
68 pages
Youth
committee
meeting
minutes (2010 –
2012)
24 pages
Webpages
Player profiles
Staff Profiles
Player
development
scheme
webpages
7 pages
3 pages
6 pages
Player
development
scheme
webpages
5 pages
Documentation
Player
development
brochures
14 pages
None Available
of evidence. By collecting multiple sources of evidence, corroboration of the findings can
occur, with potential differences also possibly highlighted. Member checking took place with
eight of the participants interviewed, who all agreed with my interpretation of what they had
said.
7.3 Results
7.3.1 Organisations’ Youth to Senior Transition Programmes
190
Organisation A had a youth to senior transition programme where many of the areas
of Stambulova’s (2003) model and the factors identified, were embraced. For example,
within this talent development programme, the club utilised the support of parents to help
athletes in transition. To help parents, the club educated them on what factors may influence
their child in the lead up to, and during, the transition to the senior team, and suggested ways
for parents to support their children.
Organisation B had a youth to senior transition programme which did not address
many of the factors highlighted by Stambulova’s (2003) model. For example, Organisation B
did not employ sport psychologists in support of their athletes, one comparison to the support
provided to the players in Organisation A. Similarly, Organisation B did not use parents as a
support mechanism to help athletes moving from youth to senior sport (Table 7.3
demonstrates a comparison between Stambulova’s, 2003, model, and Organisations A and B
of the current study).
7.3.2 Programme Feedback and Retentions
Following content analysis of the raw data, the factors identified in the data collected
are discussed below in relation to Stambulova’s (2003) model. Each organisation is discussed
in turn, before a comparison table of how successful each club is at producing first team
players is presented.
7.3.2.1 Organisation A. Organisation A’s youth policy included a number of the
factors emphasised in Stambulova’s (2003) model, with the data collected suggesting that
these factors were perceived to be crucial to determining whether or not athletes successfully
transition to senior sport.
7.3.2.1.1 Demands of Transition. During the youth set up committee meetings,
Organisation A had some meetings where they particularly focused on the demands of
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Table 7.3.
A Comparison between Stambulova’s (2003) model and the current thesis results, and
Organisations A and B
Stambulova (2003)
model and current
thesis results
Demands
Resources
Organisation A
Good understanding.
Demonstrated by:
 club actively assessing
and recognising demands
of transition in youth
committee meetings
 educating those involved
in transition that parents,
friends, and family may
put pressure on players to
be successful
Organisation B
Limited understanding.
Demonstrated by:
 those interviewed did
not highlight demands
associated with
transition and
suggested players who
cope effectively are
the players they wish
to keep for the senior
team
 players appearing
unsure of demands of
transition
Good understanding.
Limited understanding.
Demonstrated by:
Demonstrated by:
 introduction of sport
 limited sport science
science support for all age
support
group athletes
 no education given to
supporters on how
 parents’ nights to educate
mums and dads on factors
they could help with
associated with transition
athletic development
and how they may help
 perception that
their child move to senior
athletes who are able
sport
to move to senior
sport without support
 education of coaches
from transition experts to
are those who will be
discuss resources to aid
most successful
transition
 introduction of an
education brochure given
to athletes on difficulties
they may experience
moving to senior sport
192
Barriers
Good understanding.
Demonstrated by:
 acknowledgement in
player brochure and
meeting minutes that a
lack of physical and
mental preparation may
hinder athletes as they
move to senior sport
 acknowledgement in
player brochure and
meeting minutes that a
lack of support may
hinder athletes as they
move to senior sport
Mixed understanding.
Demonstrated by:
 a strong
understanding of
some of the barriers to
successful transition,
with the coaches
suggesting a lack of
technical knowledge
may hinder athletes as
they move to senior
sport
 a limited
understanding
demonstrated by club
as they believed
coaches could
undertake many of the
support roles (e.g.,
physiological support)
transition and what they could do to help athletes overcome these demands. One extract from
the minutes reads:
After consulting with the players, and through personal experience of the coaches
and management team, a list of problems the players may face when moving up to
the first team has been drawn up. These stresses can include, but are not limited
to, physical demands including the need to be quicker, stronger and have greater
cardiovascular endurance, psychological demands including greater motivation,
determination and drive, and working with new players who they see as ‘better’,
and the need to impress others including new teammates, coaches, friends, and
parents (April 2008, p. 2).
During interview, one of the youth coaches suggested that this list of demands associated with
the transition to senior football was crucial as it allowed the club to put appropriate resources
in place to help their players. He said:
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…when the new academy manager came in, we had a terrible youth set up, the
amount of players we had getting through to the first team was extremely low.
The new academy manager came in and wanted to work out what was going
wrong and on the back of that we created a list of things that were important and
could potentially hold some of the players back. This allowed us to support
players better, as we knew what kind of problems they may face. And this allowed
us to put things like the player brochure, and education sessions in place for the
following years. It’s our obligation to look after and support these players.
Finally, one of the coaches in the current study also highlighted an additional demand of
successful transition to the first team was the level and type of fan interaction a player has
after they move to the first team. The coach said, “…if the player gets a hard time from the
fans straight away, they become disillusioned and struggle, but conversely the opposite can
happen too, good support from fans can help the player”.
7.3.2.1.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. The programme
brochure for Organisation A suggested that there were a number of resources that their
players could use to help with their transition to the first team. Specifically, it was suggested
that the players could use their:
…personal determination, motivation and drive to be successful in the first team.
You need to work hard, and listen to the advice given. Rely on, and listen to, your
coaches, sport science staff, parents, and senior players. Above all, enjoy the
experience, it only happens once!
In addition, the parents themselves are also educated on how they might help their son
become a better athlete. During a series of “parents’ nights”, coaches and sport science
support staff educate parents on the possible difficulties facing their sons as they transition to
the first team. Additionally, parents are also offered support suggesting the best ways to
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provide emotional support in a football context. One male parent suggested this support was
crucial to the role of the parents in supporting the youth to senior change saying:
…the support given by the club was crucial to us as parents, as it gave us a better
understanding of what our boy was going through. He came back from training
crabbit [a Scottish word for grumpy], on a number of occasions, but we sort of
understood what he was going through and we let him deal with it in his own way.
The club had told us to just try and be there for him, so we did that best we could.
Further, parents were also educated on the difficulties they may face as their son moves to
senior sport, such as feeling helpless when their son was struggling to deal with the transition.
One parent said:
We never really thought it would affect us … but as soon as it started to happen,
him moving up and stuff it did. Seeing him go through a rough time, and in some
situations not being able to do anything about it must be one of the worst
nightmares of a parent, isn’t it? So we were struggling and falling out too, me and
[wife’s name]. But having that bit of knowledge from the parents night, it helped
us, because we knew what it was associated with … we knew some of the other
things we may fall out about, [and] we knew when he became a bit more relaxed
and stuff in the first team that it would all settle down and we would get our son
back!
This policy of education and support was implemented throughout the whole youth system,
with two coaches from Organisation A saying that they had been educated by transition
“experts”, two sport psychologists with previous experience of the youth to senior change,
who had discussed with them many factors which they did not even realise may influence
performance. For example, one of the coaches suggested that they were unaware how much of
an influence athletes’ background (e.g., parent and parental set up) may have on their ability
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to transition to the first team. Athletes were supportive of these educational programmes,
suggesting that they allowed them to talk to supporters about how they were feeling about the
transition, and any difficulties they were having with the change. One player said:
Knowing that my parents had been through the education, and had some kind of
understanding of the transition, it just made me feel more comfortable knowing I
could talk to them about it. It wasn’t even the act of talking to them, it was
knowing that they had that knowledge. I never spoke to them about how I was
feeling when I was moving up, but just being aware that I could speak to them
was enough to make me a bit more relaxed about it.
This quote highlights players’ perceptions of how knowledgeable their supporters are may
have an effect on how well they transition to senior sport. One player had also spoken to his
father about moving up to senior sport when he was struggling. He suggested that his dad’s
knowledge of some of the demands had meant they were able to have a conversation about
the difficulties he was experiencing which made him more relaxed and able to manage the
barriers and demands. He said:
I was really struggling at one point and I knew because my dad had some kind of
knowledge of what was going on I could talk to him. I was still nervous in case he
thought I was weak and couldn’t manage it, but I went and spoke to him, and we
both talked through our thoughts and feelings and stuff and it definitely helped me
relax and know that if I had problems the next time, [I could] go back and speak
to dad again.
Similarly, all the players from Organisation A, including youth team players and first
team players suggested that they received high levels of educational support about what to
expect in the first team. One player, who had recently moved up to the first team said:
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We are given support from the psychology guy, and he gives us, like, a realistic
picture of what to expect. He doesn’t gloss it up, you know? He tells you it is
gonna be hard work, but that we can use our parents, and coaches, and friends and
stuff to help us, and moan at them if we need someone to moan at. I think that
education really helped me, it really presented a realistic picture of what I needed
to do, but also gave me ways to help myself too.
Finally, Organisation A used a staggered entry system to support their athletes as they
moved to senior sport. Up to 6 months prior to permanently moving into senior sport, players
train once or twice a week with the senior team. This system of gradual introduction was
introduced as athletes’ had previously said that they struggled to integrate with the senior
players as they did not know them, and in some situations felt intimidated by them. One coach
said:
We brought it in so that they were a bit more comfortable around the guys, and so
that after summer they could hit the ground running, they knew the guys, and they
weren’t going to be overawed in their presence or what they say to them. We are
trying to get all those anxieties out of the road before they move permanently up
to the first team. They will never play full matches for the first team in this time,
it’s just about becoming familiar with the boys and routines.
One player said this approach had really helped him to become more integrated in the squad
and understand how hard he would need to work to become successful in senior sport. He
said:
I didn’t know any of the boys prior to moving up, and one day when I came in the
gaffer said to me, ‘you’re training with the first team today’. I hadn’t prepared for
it, I knew nothing about what I was doing, but it was a great experience and it
made me realise how hard I needed to work to get that good. It also made me
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more comfortable round those guys, just getting to know and chat to a couple of
them, something I had never done before. I done it once or twice a week right up
till I moved up, and there’s no doubt I became more relaxed and confident in the
environment.
This quote appears to suggest that previous exposure prior to moving up to senior sport can
have a positive effect on the experiences athletes will have when they permanently move up.
7.3.2.1.3 Barriers to Transition. Organisation A acknowledged presence of a number
of barriers to successful transition. The interviews and player development brochures given to
the players in Organisation A highlight that a lack of preparation, both physically and
mentally, and a lack of appropriate support can be barriers to transition. Specifically one of
the first team coaches interviewed said:
…we need to try and get the appropriate support in place, and that’s everyone,
coaches, sport science boys, parents, the player, their friends. We all need to work
together to create that support, but if they don’t have it, of course it becomes a
barrier. Very few players make it without the support.
Additionally, one of the players suggested that they had not followed the advice of the club
initially which talk to others about how they were feeling, and to train harder and longer to
enhance their own fitness levels:
The club gave me a training programme, and I never followed it, and the club also
told me to talk to people about how I was feeling. I done neither of those initially,
and it became a bit of a drain on me, and it became an obstacle to me moving up
to the first team. As well as the manager telling me if I didn’t do it he wasn’t
going to pick me, it also became a barrier because I wasn’t good enough to play
with those boys. I think it works to listen!
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Overall, Organisation A highlighted a number of the demands, resources, and barriers
which Stambulova (2003) associated with transition. Additionally, Organisation A appeared
to take a proactive approach to trying to support their athletes move to senior sport, providing
education programmes for parents on the factors which may be associated with the change. In
contrast, Organisation B, outlined below, does not appear to demonstrate the same
understanding of the factors Stambulova (2003) outline as maybe influencing transition.
7.3.2.2 Organisation B. When examining the youth set up paperwork (i.e., committee
meeting minutes), there were small amounts of data to suggest overlaps with Stambulova’s
(2003) model in comparison to Organisation A. I have presented the data available in the
same format as I did in Organisation A above, with the interview data I collected used as the
main source of clarification on the points raised.
7.3.2.2.1 Demands of Transition. Examining the committee meeting minutes, there
was limited evidence to suggest that Organisation B’s youth set up demonstrated an
understanding of the demands of transitioning from youth to senior sport in comparison to
Organisation A. When discussing this observation with one of the senior team coaches, he
explained:
…it’s not something we have tended to pay much attention to. The academy
manager suggests that the players we want are the ones who are able to deal with
whatever is thrown at them, rather than us helping them through it…no matter
what it is…He says that they are not going to get ‘help’ all the way through their
career, so they need to learn how to deal with that now. So we don’t have a ‘list’
of demands or whatever, we leave the boys to it.
Similarly, one of the players who moved up to the senior squad in the preceding year
suggested that they were completely unaware of the kinds of demands of transition they were
likely to face when moving up to the first team, saying, “…no one really spoke to us about the
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demands or whatever, it was more a case of deal with it”. Additionally, the parents
interviewed suggested that they were unsure of what their son was going through when
moving up to the first team, as they had not been informed, and had no concept of what they
could do to help:
…we have heard nothing from the club, it’s all seems a bit unclear and they don’t
always seem to know what they are doing… I think there are obvious things that
could be demands, like the pace and fitness of the guys in the first team, but I am
only guessing, surely the boys should be told?
Awareness of the need for youth players to establish themselves in the first team was,
however, shown. Prior to moving up to the first team permanently after the summer break, the
players were given the opportunity to train with the first team squad once or twice a week,
two or three months before their summer holidays. This programme is designed to, “…allow
the players to settle in better and establish themselves a bit more before they move up”,
according to one of the academy coaches interviewed. The coach also explained that by
moving youth athletes up to the senior team sooner, the club also try to establish earlier in the
process of transition if youth players can handle the expectation and demands that are going to
be placed upon them. Discovering if youth athletes are not able to manage moving up to
senior sport could save the club money (i.e., in wages), as they may not offer them contracts.
Athletes suggested that this method of introduction to the senior team was helpful to them, as
it allowed them to assess their ability, and fitness levels in comparison to the senior players.
One said, “It made me realise that if I did move to the first team, I wasn’t going to be like a
fish out of water and struggle to handle it.”
7.3.2.2.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. Organisation B had one
sport scientist appointed to work with every squad the club had, including all the youth teams
and the senior team. Acknowledging this perceived limited support, one of the academy
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coaches suggested that this resulted in the academy players being left behind as, “…they
aren’t the priority, the first team are”. Similarly, one of the youth team players interviewed
suggested that this lack of sport science support felt like an oversight on the part of the club
saying:
…it suggests the club don’t understand how important being physically fit at that
age can be to their players. If they had fitter and better prepared players, perhaps
they would cope better in the senior team, the boys all seem to get swamped
physically when they move up, which isn’t fair on anyone, least of all us, the
players themselves.
Additionally, Organisation B did not appear to use other sources of social support, such as
parents to help support athletes in transition. The parents interviewed suggested that they had
no concept of how to support their son through transition, saying, “…we don’t get any help to
support our son, we don’t know how to do it or what to say when he comes back feeling down
after a hard session, so I don’t think we do support him properly, no.” They also added that
they never felt they could be considered a resource to their sons because of this lack of
support from the club.
7.3.2.2.3 Barriers to Transition. Organisation B appeared not to show an
understanding that a lack of appropriate resources designed to assist athletes moving from
youth to senior sport may hinder athletic development. As discussed previously, there was a
lack of social support given to the players moving from youth to senior sport. When this
support is given to the players, it could be classed as a resource. In contrast, when this social
support is not given to players, it may be understood as a barrier to successful transition. One
of the youth team coaches interviewed, however, suggested that the support was provided
purely by the coaches saying:
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…we don’t really use much in terms of supporting the players apart from us
coaches. We can do most of the work required, like the fitness training and the,
like…looking after the players. With the amount of money and stuff that we have
to work with, it’s a case of us doing a lot of the work and it works well.
This viewpoint is in contrast to one of the other youth team coaches interviewed who said
that, “we, as coaches, need to realise our limits and bring in people like fitness coaches, and
psychologists, people who can help these guys better than we can. Most of the other guys here
don’t understand that”. It appears that Organisation B is not able to afford specialist support
for the athletes (e.g., sport physiologists) which may be having a detrimental effect on player
development. Additionally, one coach suggested that a lack of technical knowledge may
hinder athletes moving to senior sport, saying, “without the knowledge of their position, they
will have a difficult time”.
7.3.2.3 Comparison between Organisations A and B. As can be understood from
the results above, there are some marked differences between Organisations A and B in terms
of the way they view the youth to senior transition. Below, I will summarise the main
differences between the Organisations, and Table 7.4 highlights the main differences in player
development rates, using various outcome measures such as player retention and dropout rate,
which may illustrate the effectiveness of the two programmes.
7.3.2.3.1 Demands of Transition. From the results above, Organisation A
demonstrates a clear understanding of the demands of transitioning from youth to senior sport
as viewed through Stambulova’s (2003) model and the results of the current thesis.
Organisation B, in contrast, demonstrates limited understanding, and even the understanding
that is shown does not tend to lend itself to the creation of support mechanisms to support the
players in transition. Organisation B also appears not to want to help athletes as they want to
select the players who are able to manage the transition on their own. For example,
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Organisation A had specifically focused on producing a list of demands of transition which
they felt their players may encounter as they move from youth to senior sport. As a result of
this list, Organisation A then created a “parents’ night” where parents and players were
educated on possible demands youth athletes might face when moving up to the first team. In
contrast, Organisation B suggested that it was not something they had done because they
wanted players to be able to cope with their difficulties without help, as those were the type of
players who were “strong enough” to cope with first team football.
7.3.2.3.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition. Again, Organisations A
and B showed differing understandings of the resources which aid athletes in transition.
Organisation A, for example, had a large number of sport science support staff, including
sport physiologists and sport psychologists, and also utilised the support of coaches and
parents to help athletes move from youth to senior football. Parents’ nights were introduced in
Organisation A, where parents received lecture style presentations on the youth to senior
transition and the possible difficulties that their child may experience. One of the coaches
interviewed highlighted the perceived importance of this support, saying that the support from
these individuals was vital to help the athletes successfully move to senior sport. In contrast,
Organisation B employed one sport scientist with many observers, both in the club (i.e. youth
players), and external to the club (i.e. parents), believing this lack of support to be an
oversight on the part of the management because it leaves many of the players struggling
physically when they move up to the first team. Additionally, athletes in Organisation A were
given education about the transition, both via lecture style education programmes and via a
brochure which had been developed to explain the transition to senior sport and the factors
associated with it. This education contrasted to Organisation B, who appeared not to educate
their athletes on the transition, and as such it may be that many players lack knowledge of the
change negatively influencing their experiences.
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Table 7.4.
Player Development Programme Organisation Comparison Table
Organisation A
(89 players)
Player retention rate over the
past 5 years (i.e. players who
have been offered contracts to
remain with the team that they
have been with in their youth
career and played 1st team
football for that club)
36%
Organisation
B (103
players)
12%
League
Comparison
Percentage of players who,
having signed for the club that
they played youth football for,
have played over 20 x 1st team
games following their debut
24%
8%
No data
available
Player development rate over the
past 5 years (i.e. players who
have been released from their
contract with the case study
team, but have consequently
competed in a 1st team squad at
an equivalent or lower level
league team)
39%
16%
No data
available
Player dropout rate over the past
5 years (i.e. players who have
been released from their contract
and NOT remained in
professional football as a player)
25%
72%
54%
Money made from sale of assets
(players), developed in the youth
system
£3,460,000
£1,342,000
£1,100,000
Money invested in youth system
over the past 5 years (excluding
player wages)
£450,000
£520,000
£980,000
18%
7.3.2.3.3 Barriers to Transition. Organisation A appeared to show an understanding
of what factors may be considered a barrier to successful transition. Organisation A suggested
that without appropriate support in place to help engender successful transition from youth to
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senior sport, barriers to transition are formed, which agrees with Stambulova’s (2003) model
of transition. Contrastingly, many of those interviewed in Organisation B believed a lot of the
work could be done by coaches already employed by the club to support athletes through
transition from youth to senior football. For example, some coaches believed that players’
physical fitness could be controlled by the coaches in the club, rather than the need for
‘specialist’ intervention.
Although the above discussion of the Organisations highlights some marked
differences between the programmes in place at each club when compared with Stambulova’s
(2003) model of transition, Table 7.4 also suggests that these clubs have different success
rates when talent development rates are compared. From the table results, Organisation A
appears to engender successful transitions more readily, despite spending less money over the
previous 5 years. The table also demonstrates a comparison with the overall league averages
for the same period.
7.4 Discussion
The present study aimed to explore the youth to senior transition programme at two
football clubs and explore the degree to which they addressed demands, resources, and
barriers associated with the youth to senior transition, and assess whether or not the factors
highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model were associated with successful transition.
Another aim was to highlight any additional factors which may also be important to promote
successful transition to the first team. The results revealed that many of the factors
highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model were being understood and utilised differently
across the organisations. Causality between specific factors and positive or negative
outcomes of the transition from youth to senior sport could not be established in the current
study due to its descriptive design. Yet it did appear that when combined as part of an overall
youth programme, the package highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model may have been
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associated with higher overall levels of talent development and retention. These inferences
help justify experimental research. Future work which explores the causality between
different youth programmes and player development and retention rates may help to provide
a fuller understanding of what factors influence youth to senior transitions. Additionally,
some new factors which may be associated with the youth to senior transition were identified,
including athletes suggesting that when parents had knowledge of the transition process they
felt more comfortable about the move to senior sport
7.4.1 Organisations Understanding of the Youth to Senior Transition
Previous literature in the area (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008), and the previous studies in
the current thesis suggest that the factors highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model may
contribute to successful transition, and the current study extends understanding of the youth
to senior change by suggesting that these factors may also contribute in applied settings.
Organisation A, the organisation which demonstrated an understanding of the factors
highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model, had: (a) the highest player retention rate, (b)
highest rate of players who have over 20 first team games after making their debut, (c)
highest player development rate, and (d) lowest player dropout rate in comparison to
Organisation B, the organisation which did not have a programme which followed
Stambulova’s (2003) model. Additionally, the player development rates for Organisation A
were also better than the league averages (where league averages were available).
Organisation A took a proactive approach to discovering what factors influenced the
youth to senior transition in sport, creating a list of factors which it was believed contributed
to successful transition. Many of the factors on this list were concurrent with the factors
highlighted in the previous studies in this thesis and Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition
(e.g., physical demands). Previous literature has discussed the obligations of sport
organisations to support athletes’ career transitions, particularly through the retirement
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transition (e.g., Fleuriel & Vincent, 2009), but the current study is among the first to move
beyond this and investigate how these responsibilities may be enacted and the possible
consequences. Organisation B, contrastingly, did not believe they had many obligations in
supporting athletes, suggesting that the players they wanted to keep on for their first team
squad were the ones who were independently able to cope with the barriers presented to
them. This viewpoint is in contrast to much of the literature in the area (e.g., Bruner et al.,
2008), which suggests social support was crucial to aid athletes’ development and
performance. The results of the current study offer support to a formal proactive approach of
providing support to the players in the youth set up. In interpreting this result, I have assumed
that a lack of sport science and other support is a barrier to successful transition. Other
qualitative researchers who reinterpret the transcripts may not highlight this as a barrier to
transition, and may indeed highlight this lack of support as a positive in some situations (e.g.,
if there is sport science support provided by coaches which saves money for the club). As I
was interpreting the results in relation to Stambulova’s (2003) model, which highlights social
support as an important resource and a lack of support a barrier to successful transition, I
deduced from the data that a lack of support was a barrier. Additionally, member checking
with many of the participants, a critical friend and two further qualitative researchers who
had a knowledge of the research area highlighted that my interpretation that a lack of support
was a barrier and not a resource was what they believed.
The results of the current study also highlighted the role of the coach, another factor
which has been discussed in previous literature. Stambulova (2003) suggested that social
support can be utilised as a resource to successful transition, which the current study results
parallel. Stambulova (2003) does not specify, however, what happens when support is
provided by those who are perhaps not fully qualified, or have a knowledge of that field. For
example, Organisation B suggested that much of the support provided to athletes is able to be
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provided by the coaches (e.g., sport science support). This view was in contrast to
Organisation A, who employed a number of specialist sport science supporters. Perhaps by
providing this specialist support, Organisation A is providing better assistance to the athletes
moving to senior sport. The players may be receiving a more rounded package of specialist
knowledge and experience which one individual may not have. For example, an experienced
sport physiologist may have a greater understanding of how to help players with their
physical development when compared to a coach who may only have limited training in this
field. Coaches may be constrained by financial restrictions within the organisation, which
may mean, for example, that they are unable to employ sport science staff to support their
athletes. If restrictions are being placed on coaches, ensuring they themselves have a greater
education (on aspects such as sport physiology and sport psychology) may help them support
the athletes transitioning from youth to senior sport. The club may need to weigh up whether
bringing in specialist support will make the youth development programme more lucrative.
For example, by bringing in more sport scientists, does this mean that more players will be
successful in the first team, and will more players be sold for a profit? If this success of
players creates equal or greater value in monetary terms, it may be beneficial for the club to
consider investing in specialist support for the athletes. Future research which assesses
whether or not coaches want to employ specialist support, and in most cases are being
constrained by organisations, may highlight what support is required for coaches (i.e.,
education on the constraints of their role and how specialist intervention may help).
One of the coaches interviewed (from Organisation B) also raised the possibility of
conflict between the club and coaches, when he intimated that he believed the club needed to
employ more specialist sport science staff to support athletes moving from youth to senior
sport. This view was in contrast to other coaches employed by the club. This contrasting view
may result in animosity between employees of the club, which again may hinder athletes’
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development because some coaches may not understand or want to fulfil the role set out to
them by the club. Jowett (2003) suggested that coaches and athletes may often have crises
relationships, but a small amount is known about what impact coaches within a single
organisation falling out with each other may have on athletes’ development. For example, if
coaches are left to deal with the physiological preparation of the players, yet one coach does
not believe this to be his or her role, the players may not receive any physiological support at
all and consequently fall behind the other players in the squads physical fitness levels. Future
research may look at such internal conflict and determine what impact it does have on
athletes’ development.
Finally, both Organisations raised the possibility of a staggered introduction into
senior sport. Stambulova’s (2003) model does not highlight or suggest what effect exposure
to senior sport, prior to permanently changing to that environment, may have on transitional
experiences of athletes. Both Organisations introduced their youth players into the senior
team gradually before the permanent change to senior sport, as they believed that this helped
to ensure that players were less overawed by the prospect of entering the first team
permanently after the summer break. Bruner et al. (2008) suggested that previous exposure to
senior sporting environments may have a positive effect on the transition experiences of
youth athletes. The results of the current study parallel Bruner et al. (2008), suggesting that
this type of entry into the first team is perceived to help athletes transition into senior sport.
Athletes in the current study suggested that a staggered approach had a positive influence on
their transition permanently into senior sport as it gave them the opportunity to assess their
ability level against those they will be training with, and integrate themselves into the squad.
Overall, perhaps previous exposure to senior sport may help reduce demands and barriers
associated with transition. Stambulova’s (2003) model does not highlight that previous
exposure to senior sport may influence the youth to senior transition and the factors athletes
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associate with the change (e.g., a reduction in anxiety associated with integrating themselves
into the squad). Adjustment to Stambulova’s (2003) model to accommodate this change is
presented in the overall discussion, when exposure to the senior team prior to transition is
highlighted as a possible contributing factor.
7.4.2 Additional Research Results
In addition to providing support to the players, Organisation A also offered support to
the parents of athletes in their youth set up, inviting them to education night sessions, where
they were taught about the demands that their sons may experience. Parents were also given
education on the ways they could help their sons as they transition to senior sport.
Stambulova’s (2003) model does not highlight whether or not supporters’ knowledge of the
youth to senior change may influence athletes’ transitional experiences. Athletes in the
current study suggested that, knowing their supporters were informed of the factors
associated with the youth to senior change, made them feel more relaxed about the process
and talking to their supporters about the move. For example, in Organisation A where the
coaches were taught about the youth to senior transition and the factors which may be
associated with the change, athletes suggested that they felt more relaxed about the transition.
Additionally, Harwood, Drew, and Knight (2010) highlighted that the parents of
footballers in youth football academies may experience stressors, in addition to those which
their son may face. Participants from Organisation A in the current research appear to
acknowledge these stressors. The study is among the first to suggest that some clubs may be
helping to support parents. Within the current study, parents in Organisation A appeared to
suggest the support they received helped them, in turn, to support their child’s development
as athletes. In contrast, the parents in Organisation B appeared to suggest they would like to
have more knowledge on the transition process. Further research is required to determine the
effectiveness of such support strategies. These results parallel the caring for the carer
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literature which is present within the medical professions. Walshe, Payne, and Luker (2012)
suggested that when carers were not appropriately supported (i.e., educated so they had a
knowledge of the medical condition they were helping manage, and how to help the person
with the illness), they may experience a lowering of their own health status and anxiety
associated with how to support those they are helping. The results of the current study
suggest that parents may be experiencing anxieties associated with their knowledge of the
youth to senior transition (i.e., they wish to have more knowledge of the transition), and
future research is required to determine how these anxieties may influence their and their
children’s lives.
Finally, the interaction athletes who move up to the first team have with fans may
influence their transition experience. Stambulova’s (2003) model does not outline the
influence that those outside of a transition (i.e., those who are not regularly supporting and
interacting with athletes throughout the move) may have on the actual transition process. One
of the coaches in the current study highlighted that when players experience negative
responses from the fans after moving up to the first team, they may struggle to become a
successful athlete. If athletes are performing well and working hard during training and are
selected for the first team, before experiencing this negative reaction from fans, they may
then believe that the hard work they put in has been worthless resulting in negative reactions
in themselves. Contrastingly, positive reinforcement from fans may encourage athletes to
work harder and become more successful. Tauer, Guenther, and Rozek (2009) suggested that
crowds at home were predominantly supportive of home team athletes. Although more
research is required on the influences of fans on athletes moving into senior sport, and how to
provide the best support to these players, perhaps playing them at home in their first match
may be most effective and supportive.
7.4.3 Strengths and Limitations
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The present study is the first to examine what factors are considered important by
individual clubs in their youth to senior transition programmes using a case study
methodology, exploring whether or not these factors may be associated with positive or
negative outcomes of talent development (e.g., percentage of players retained for the first
team). This knowledge compliments the understanding of the youth to senior transition in
sport presented in Studies 1, 2, and 3 of the current thesis, suggesting that many of the factors
highlighted may be associated with positive changes. Additionally, unique findings, such as
previous exposure to senior sport prior to permanently moving up, are a further strength of
the study. The current study’s findings contribute to existing within-career transition research
by documenting organisational status and strategies clubs may employ to support athletes’
transition to senior sport, something which has not previously been researched in the area.
The results revealed perceived insights into the factors which may be influential for talent
development and could contribute to an understanding of the role and function of clubs
supporting athletes in transition. Additionally, the current study may also provide guidance
for individuals in other organisations who want to develop and improve athletes’ youth to
senior support programmes.
The present study has several limitations. Firstly, as discussed above, the current
study is not able to determine causality between the factors identified in Stambulova’s (2003)
model of transition and transition outcomes. While causality cannot be gleaned, ruling out
alternative hypotheses will strengthen the case for the outcomes of transition being as a result
of the factors identified in Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition. Firstly, one rival
hypothesis may be that Organisation A has spent more money on their youth system than
Organisation B. As can be seen in Table 7.4, Organisation B actually spends more money in
their youth set up despite having lower player development rates, meaning that financial
investment can be ruled out as an alternative hypothesis. Another rival hypothesis may be
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that Organisation A has better players. While this hypothesis is difficult to completely rule
out, Organisation B has had more players competing at youth international level over the past
five years (seven players compared to five players from Organisation A). This suggests that
at youth level, Organisation B has had better players than Organisation A, but fewer players
still make it to senior sport level. Caution over these figures is needed, however, as players
capped at international level are selected based upon the subjective opinion of a manager (or
group of coaches) who may have a particular liking for a team or player, which distorts these
results. A final alternative hypothesis may be that the coaches within Organisation A are
better. Again, this hypothesis is difficult to rule out, but four coaches from Organisation B
had experience in first team and international level football, arguably one of the biggest
accolades as a coach in football. In contrast, Organisation A had no coaches who had any of
this experience. These results may be because the coaches in Organisation A had no
motivation to coach in senior sport, and wanted to help support young athletes move to senior
sport.
As the study was conducted using a small number of participants from only two
organisations, the results may not be statistically generalisable to other clubs or youth to
senior transition programmes. The aim of the current study, however, was not to generate
statistically generalisable findings, rather it was to carry out an in-depth analysis of two clubs
and their organisational views on the youth to senior transition, which may help others to
reflect on, and develop, their own programmes further. This transfer of knowledge may allow
clubs to reflect on areas which need improving in their own programmes, but equally may
also highlight areas of good practice, such as introducing a staggered entry system into their
first team squad. Another limitation of the study is that although data was collected from a
wide range of people from both organisations, this consisted of a small number of people
from each group. For example, both organisations only had one set of parents interviewed,
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which may be limiting the dataset. It may be useful to examine more individuals from each of
the different groups to get a fuller understanding of the perceptions of the youth to senior
transition programmes being implemented within each organisation. In the current study,
however, the participants recruited were the only ones who showed a willingness to take part.
7.4.4 Future Research Directions
Firstly, the results of the current study suggest that the factors raised in Stambulova’s
(2003) model may be able to describe and predict athletes’ transitional experiences. Future
large sample quantitative research which experimentally examines whether or not the factors
Stambulova’s (2003) model raised are associated with effective transition is warranted
because it will help evidence whether or not the model accurately describes all youth to
senior moves.
Future research may also focus on examining clubs in different cultures, religious
backgrounds, and countries, to examine whether or not these differences may have an
influence on the youth to senior transition programmes in place. For example, some countries
such as Spain and Holland invest greater finance in youth development than any other
countries, as a percentage of their overall turnover each year (European Club Association,
2012). This financial investment may mean that they are able to provide greater support (e.g.,
sport science support, education programmes) to youth athletes to help their development,
which, in turn, may lead to a greater percentage of player retention. Such research may
enhance the knowledge on the youth to senior transition in sport, and allow practitioners to
support athletes from different backgrounds and cultures appropriately.
Finally, future research could explore the transition outcomes of other models of
transition. For example, Lazarus and Folkman (1984), Schlossberg (1981), and Taylor and
Ogilvie (1994) have all described potential outcomes to transition. In the current study,
Stambulova’s (2003) model was the only model assessed. When considering that there are
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many overlaps between many of the models of transition and stress identified (e.g., Lazarus
& Folkman, 1984) and Stambulova’s (2003) model, there may be scope to develop a stronger
understanding of the topic based upon a combination of these models should they all
accurately predict transition factors and outcomes. Future research which explores this in
more depth will add to the existing knowledge on transitions from youth to senior sport and
may allow development of such an integrated framework.
7.5 Conclusion
The current study was designed to build upon the results of Studies 1, 2, and 3 of the
current thesis, and the previous literature already present in the study area, by analysing two
real life youth to senior transition programmes and the possible factors which may influence
talent development. The results from the current study answer questions related to the type
and availability of social support (e.g., lack of sport science support), and practical issues
related to athletes’ career transitions from youth to senior sport (e.g., education of parents and
players on factors influencing the youth to senior team transition). The findings of the current
study help to extend the knowledge on the youth to senior transition in sport through filling
the gaps between previous academic findings and the actual youth to senior transition
programmes already in place to assist athletes. For example, the results reveal that even
though there are findings to support the implementation and use of supporters in a structured
manner, individual clubs may not adhere or utilise this support (e.g., Organisation B).
Additionally, the results of the current study also suggest that a proactive intervention
programme, with gradual exposure to the senior team environment may be beneficial to youth
athletes in terms of their development.
Finally, the findings from the current study overlap with the findings of Studies 1, 2
and 3 of the current thesis and suggest that many of the factors highlighted in Stambulova’s
(2003) model may have an impact on athletes’ youth to senior transition (e.g., personal
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motivation and determination). Player development and retention rates also suggest that
Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain youth to senior transition outcomes. The
following chapter will discuss this finding and the main findings of all four studies in the
present thesis, which had an overall aim of gaining an understanding of the youth to senior
transition in sport, and the factors which may influence such a transition.
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Chapter Eight
General Discussion
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8.1 Overview of Thesis and Results
The overall purpose of this thesis was to examine the youth to senior transition in
football from the perspectives of the athletes and supporters involved in the change. This
programme of research had four specific aims. The first was to examine athletes’ and
supporters’ experiences of the youth to senior transition in sport. Despite a plethora of
research on retirement from sport transition (e.g., Park et al., 2012), few studies have assessed
the youth to senior change, and those which have tended to focus solely on athletes’
perception of the transition. The second aim was to examine and clarify the demands,
resources, and barriers athletes experience moving from youth to senior sport. For example,
previous research (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press; Pummell et al., 2008) has suggested that
motivation for transition is perceived to be an important resource as it has an influence on
how well athletes may transition to senior sport. No research had, however, examined the
different types of support (e.g., emotional or technical support) offered to athletes, or who
might provide this support during transition. The third aim of the programme of research was
to examine ways in which factors highlighted in the first and second aims above parallel and
develop those identified in Stambulova’s (2003) model of transitions in sport. Although some
models of transition had been proposed in previous youth to senior transition research, no
studies had assessed their suitability in describing factors associated with the change in
specific contexts such as professional football. Following a critique of the literature,
Stambulova’s (2003) model appeared to offer the best explanation of the factors associated
with the youth to senior transition in sport and as such was the model which underpinned the
current thesis. Finally, the current research aimed to identify any initial evidence to support
the hypothesis that factors listed in Stambulova’s (2003) model may be able to explain
transition outcomes and guide intervention development, which could justify future
experimental research. Stambulova’s (2003) model offers suggestions as to possible
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outcomes of the transition process (e.g., effective or ineffective transition), but they have not
been evaluated in previous research. Models which are able to help predict the outcome of
transitions may be useful because they may allow athletes and supporters to put appropriate
provisions in place (e.g., helping athletes to build up internal coping mechanisms in
preparation for transition) to better assist those going from youth to senior sport.
To achieve these aims, Study 1 examined coaches’ perception of the transition from
youth to senior sport, Study 2 focused on parents, sport physiologists, sport psychologists,
physiotherapists, and a sport therapists’ understanding of the transition, Study 3 examined
player and coaches’ perspectives of the change longitudinally, and Study 4 focused on model
testing, examining if the factors highlighted in Stambulova’s (2003) model may contribute to
successful changes. Studies 1, 2, and 3 contributed to answering the first three research
questions outlined above. Study 4 also contributed to research questions two and three but
also helped answer the fourth research question focusing on model testing. Specific answers
to each aim were detailed in Chapters 4 to 7. The purpose of this chapter is to summarise the
main findings, contextualise them in the current literature and Stambulova’s (2003) model,
and suggest implications of the current research.
8.2 Main Findings and Theoretical Implications
From a theoretical perspective, the current thesis supports the use of Stambulova’s
(2003) model as a basis for researching and understanding the professional football youth to
senior transition, because many of the factors highlighted in her model were discussed by
participants as influencing the change (e.g., demands, resources, and barriers). Additions to
Stambulova’s (2003) model can also be made based upon the current thesis, with results
revealing some factors (e.g., athletes’ history including previous exposure to senior sport)
may influence transition experiences, and are not mentioned or adequately captured in the
original framework. As such, the current thesis adds depth to Stambulova’s (2003) model, a
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level of detail that may help people involved in the transition. The main findings of the thesis
and the factors found to be associated with transition will be discussed in the paragraphs
below, before a revised version of Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition based upon these
findings is presented.
8.2.1 Demands of Transition
Stambulova (2003) outlined that there were a number of transition demands that
resulted from conflict between “what the athlete is” and “what the athlete wants or ought to
be”. The results of the current thesis support this section of the model, with the participants in
all the studies suggesting demands associated with the youth to senior transition. These
demands included perceptions that senior sport placed much higher technical, physical, and
mental demands on athletes. Some demands highlighted reflected Stambulova’s (2003)
model and the exiting literature (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008); some were unique and perhaps
reflect the football context, for example, the technical demands athletes may experience.
8.2.2 Resources which Aid Athletes through Transition
Throughout the current thesis, internal and external resources were highlighted as
factors which could help mediate the demands and barriers of transition. For example,
determination and motivation to be successful were suggested by athletes and supporters as
resources which could assist in the process, which parallels much of the previous work in the
area (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008). Additionally, support from others was considered by athletes
and supporters as positively influencing transitional experiences, again supporting work of
others (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008). Building on the previous literature, results of Studies 1, 2,
and 3 of the current thesis consistently suggested that support was important, but additionally
the type of support that each person provided to athletes in transition was considered.
Generally, there was consensus of agreement that coaches and fellow players provide
technical support. Fellow players, sport scientists, family, and friends provide emotional
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support. Parents also believed that coaches should provide emotional support, however, this
view contrasted all others interviewed in this thesis. Sport scientists and family provide
tangible support, and family and clubs provide financial support. This knowledge adds to
Stambulova’s (2003) model. Stambulova (2003) did highlight that resources were important
to help athletes transition to senior sport. In her model, however, specific internal and external
resources, and providers, are not emphasised.
8.2.3 Barriers to Transition
Stambulova (2003) suggested that barriers to transition included internal and external
factors which interfere with the coping process. The results of all the studies in the current
thesis highlighted a number of internal and external barriers associated with the youth to
senior change, including a lack of personal knowledge or preparation for the transition, and an
absence of, or provision of the wrong type of, social support. Some of these barriers parallel
previous work (e.g., Finn and McKenna, 2010). For example, as discussed above, it was
suggested in the current research that parents should provide emotional support to athletes. In
addition, the results of the current thesis also suggest that at times athletes believed that
parents were putting pressure on them to be successful and, in some cases, not affording them
any or enough emotional support. This suggests that, although Stambulova (2003) highlights
the influence of support to overcome barriers, the type and amount of support that athletes
receive also needs to be considered.
8.2.4 Individual Variation
Study 3 of the current thesis also highlighted that, although there may be a number of
perceived demands, resources, and barriers associated with transition for some athletes, others
may not identify many at all. Individual variation in athletes need to be accounted for when
considering how well they will transition to senior sport, and supporting them in the most
appropriate way. For example, due to differences in athletes’ upbringing and background,
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they may react differently to the demands placed upon them. Some athletes may react well to
an aggressive coach who criticises them when they make a mistake. Other athletes, however,
may react badly to this approach. Previous research (e.g., Morris & Eubank, in press) has
failed to individually characterise athletes, with most research suggesting that all athletes
associate the same demands with transitioning from youth to senior sport. Additionally,
Stambulova’s (2003) model does not suggest that there may be individual variation among
athletes which could influence how successfully they transition. If those providing support
(e.g., coaches, sport psychologists) better understand that there are individual demands that
athletes associate with the move to senior sport, they may be able to provide better support
because they could manage the specific difficulties that those moving experience.
8.2.5 Transition is a Dynamic and On-going Process
Stambulova (2003) highlighted that a dynamic balance between resources and barriers
was crucial if athletes were to transition successfully. Resources identified throughout the
current programme of research has highlighted that the barriers can be internal and external,
which parallels Stambulova’s (2003) model (e.g., athlete knowledge and motivation, or social
support). This identification of the internal and external resources supports the current body of
research already available on career transitions in sport (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008; Pummell et
al., 2008). Additionally, the results of the current research also suggest that the resources and
barriers to transition may dynamically change throughout the transition process, an aspect
which appears under developed in Stambulova’s (2003) model. For example, in the first
interview in Study 3, the avoidance group suggested they used repression as a resource to help
manage the demands and barriers associated with the transition. The resources the athletes
then started to use after 6 months include other internal resources such as motivation and
determination to succeed. After moving into senior sport, the athletes then started to use both
internal (e.g., internal motivation) and external resources (e.g., social support). What these
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results suggest is that the transition process as a whole is a dynamic process, and that
transition demands, resources, and barriers which manifest themselves may constantly
change. This process can be likened to the idea of homeostasis, because it appears as though
there is a dynamic push and pull of factors as athletes strive to perform their best in the first
team, and their ability to cope with the present circumstance may mediate this. For example,
if athletes are able to deal with demands and barriers to transition on their own then this type
of coping may be appropriate. However, in situations where athletes do not have the
knowledge and understanding to cope effectively on their own, they may seek support. Future
research may wish to try and present a number of case studies of athletes in transition to
highlight the dynamic process of the move to senior sport. These case studies may help
practitioners understand the process and the change in factors that may influence the move to
senior sport, in more detail.
8.2.6 Cycles of Transition
Additionally, the results of the current thesis suggest that athletes have experienced a
number of transitions which are considered similar to the youth to senior transition, and the
knowledge and coping resources they have built up throughout these transitions may
influence how well they move up. Previous literature and models of transition (e.g.,
Wylleman and Lavallee, 2004) has suggested that there may be a number of specific
transitions that athletes may experience throughout their careers (e.g., youth to senior and
retirement changes). However, this work does not specify that transitions may be continually
happening. Additionally, Stambulova’s (2003) model does not appear to suggest that
transitions are continually happening throughout athletes’ youth careers. In Studies 1 and 3,
coaches and players highlighted that the experiences athletes have had from the ages of 13 or
14 help them build various competencies, such as knowledge of positions in the team and
their role. What athletes learn varies depending upon the coaches they work with, meaning
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this knowledge and experience can influence players in different ways (e.g., different coaches
may help athletes build up distinct coping resources). This knowledge helps us to appreciate
how people may acquire varying profiles of coping resources to support transitions. If
appropriate resources are not acquired over athletes’ youth careers, they may not be able to
successfully manage the move into senior sport. Accordingly, creating programmes where
athletes’ knowledge and education of transition processes can be managed across their youth
career to ensure they develop the suitable competencies may help support them as they move
to senior sport. For example, if at the age of 13 athletes are taught about the possible benefits
they may obtain from seeking out social support, and at 14 they are taught about internal
resources, and this process carries on where they are educated on additional factors associated
with transition until they move to senior sport, they may have built up appropriate internal and
external resources to make the change easier to manage.
8.2.7 Stambulova’s (2003) Model may help Identify Outcomes of Transitions
Study 4 offers the first, preliminary, indication that Stambulova’s (2003) model can
offer a useful explanation regarding the outcomes of transition. Study 4 focused on two clubs
which were differed on their knowledge and understanding of the factors described in
Stambulova’s (2003) model. The findings suggest that the club and athletes who
acknowledged, and factored into their youth development system, the aspects associated with
transition according to Stambulova’s (2003) model had better outcomes. Causality cannot be
established from the results of Study 4 because of the descriptive design. These data,
however, support the development of hypotheses that may be tested empirically. Previous
literature, although in most cases based upon previous models of transition (e.g., Bruner et al.,
2008), has not explored the relationship between factors raised in the models and transition
outcomes, which the current thesis has tried to do.
8.2.8 Situation-Specific Factors may Influence Change
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Previous research (e.g., Pummell et al., 2008) had suggested that support from
organisations could influence the youth to senior transition. Building upon this work and
adding to Stambulova’s (2003) model, Study 4 suggested that the specific interventions that
clubs employ may influence how successfully athletes transition. For example, when athletes
had previously been exposed to the senior team during their youth careers, they believed that
they integrated more easily into the senior squad. Athletes from both Organisations in Study 4
were integrated into the senior team in a staggered manner. The results of the study suggested
that the players from both teams found this beneficial because they felt more comfortable in
the senior team environment as they already knew the senior players and had an
understanding of, for example, the skill and fitness levels they needed to achieve. This is one
example of interventions clubs may use to assist athletes as they move to senior sport.
Another highlighted in the current research is education of parents on the process of moving
to senior sport, which parents and athletes both found beneficial to their transitional
experiences. There may, however, be additional interventions which clubs use which have not
been highlighted in the current research.
Overall, Stambulova’s (2003) model appears to need extending to fully describe the
youth to senior transition in sport. All of the aspects covered in Stambulova’s (2003) model
are highlighted in the current research as being important to the transitional process. However,
some novel aspects emerged. Given emergent thesis findings, an adapted version of
Stambulova’s (2003) model is presented after a summary of the changes has been outlined in
the following section.
8.3 Adaptations to Stambulova’s (2003) Model of Transition
As has been highlighted, there have been a number of advancements in knowledge
made by this thesis, which provide development on Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition.
In summary, the following serve to elucidate this point:
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
Prior to the youth to senior transition, athletes may have experienced a number of
changes which have similar demands, resources, and barriers, suggesting that the
transition to senior sport is a culmination of these changes and the coping resources
they have acquired throughout their careers. If athletes have built up appropriate
coping resources to deal with demands and barriers across their youth career, they
may transition more effectively into senior sport (Studies 1 and 3).

Athletes may associate different demands, resources, and barriers with the youth to
senior transition. Results of the current thesis suggest that, although some athletes
may associate particular demands, resources, and barriers with the move to senior
sport, other athletes may associate different contributing factors (Study 3).

Situational factors and specific interventions that clubs employ may influence how
successfully athletes transition. For example, previous exposure to the senior sport
environment may have an influence on athletes’ ability to transition into that
environment (Study 4).

Factors associated with transition are constantly in flux, and may vary depending
upon the time in transition. Study 3 of the current thesis highlights this most
explicitly, with the demands, resources, and barriers athletes reported as being
associated with transition changing between each interview.
An adapted model of transition (Stambulova, 2003) is presented below (Figure 8.1) to
accommodate these advancements in knowledge.
Within the adapted model, the transitions demands box has been removed from
Stambulova’s (2003) model, and this has been replaced by two boxes, individual aspects and
environment. The individual aspects box highlights that aspects such as athletes’ history will
influence the transitional experience. History can include, for example, what experience and
characteristics athletes may have developed as a result of previous youth transitions. Other
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historic elements of athletes’ lives (e.g., previous attributes gained in education) may also
influence transition, as described in Lavallee and Wylleman’s (2004) model. Additionally,
the individual aspects box also highlights that the perceived demands, resources, and barriers
could affect the youth to senior transition experience of athletes. Secondly, the box
environment highlights that situation factors, including, for example, situation specific
interventions (e.g., exposure to the senior environment prior to a permanent move) and the
actual demands, resources, and barriers may change athletes’ transitional experiences.
The dynamic balance of resources and barriers box of Stambulova’s (2003) model has
been renamed to dynamic balance. Both the individual aspects and environment boxes feed
into this box, and it has been renamed to signify that the aspects that athletes experience and
associate with transition may be continually changing. To be able to cope with moving to
senior sport, a dynamic balance between the demands, resources, and barriers associated with
transition needs to be achieved. Achieving this balance is going to be influenced by the
individual aspects and environment that athletes have developed, perceive and experience. To
further signify the dynamic element of the model and to signify the on-going process of
change, a two way arrow has been added between the dynamic balance and coping boxes.
This signifies that both elements cannot be seen as impartial to each other, athletes’ ability to
cope with transition to senior sport is as a result of a dynamic balance between all elements
associated with transition. Similarly, the dynamic balance is achieved when athletes’ cope
with associated transition difficulties.
Finally, to identify what effective and ineffective coping may result in, underneath the
coping box, three types of transition are identified: successful transition, unsuccessful
transition, and exit transition. As discussed in the definition of transition in the introduction,
a successful youth to senior transition is defined as when athletes achieve good performance
outcomes and health and wellbeing. Any other youth to senior transition is unsuccessful. For
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Individual Aspects
e.g., History
e.g., Perceived demands,
resources, and barriers
Environment
e.g., Club interventions
e.g., Actual demands,
resources, and barriers
Dynamic balance
Crises-prevention
interventions
Coping
Successful transition
Unsuccessful transition
Exit transition
Effective intervention
Psychological crisescoping or clinical
intervention
Ineffective or no
intervention
Figure 8.1. Adapted athletic career transition model representing the youth to senior
transition in football (Adapted from Stambulova, 1997, 2003).
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example, athletes may be performing well in senior sport, but may not have good
psychological health and wellbeing. If athletes have experienced an unsuccessful youth to
senior transition, interventions can be administered. Whether or not this is a psychological
crises-coping or clinical intervention depends on the severity of the negative symptoms
athletes are presenting. Subsequently, intervention such as this may be effective or
ineffective. If athletes experience a positive intervention, it is expected that they will
experience a delayed, but successful, youth to senior transition. When athletes’ interventions
are unsuccessful, or no intervention is administered, it is expected athletes will experience an
exit transition. Exit transition is when athletes leave professional sport. It is conceivable that
there may be similar aspects associated with transition out of sport when compared with the
youth to senior transition. However, it is beyond the scope of this thesis to discuss which
factors are associated with the exit from sport transition, and the adapted model of youth to
senior transition I have presented stops at the exit transition element.
Although an adapted model has been proposed, throughout the current thesis there
were a number of strengths, delimitations, and limitations which need to be considered when
analysing how effectively the work advances the knowledge available on the transition from
youth to senior sport. These will now be discussed.
8.4 Strengths
One of the major strengths of this thesis is the novel area within which the research
was pursued, in particular the examination of the factors associated with the transition from
youth to senior football from a range of people associated with the transition, including
athletes and supporters. This thesis attempts to deal with a number of criticisms of the
previous research, including limited theory-based research, by examining the strengths and
weaknesses of a model of transition which had been presented as depicting changes in sport.
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A further strength of the thesis was the homogenous sample which was examined.
Although this has its limitations (discussed below), sampling such a specific group of people
means that a richer and more detailed understanding of the transitional experiences in football
is established. Other athletes and supporters may be able to draw parallels between their own
personal experiences and that of those in the current research which could mean they may
gain a greater understanding of how to deal with such situations or demands, and give them
an understanding of how other athletes managed to cope with similar situations.
A final strength of the current research was the use of qualitative research methods
throughout. For some time, there has been considerable debate on the benefit and weaknesses
of using quantitative and qualitative research methods (Patton, 2002). With this relatively
new area of research enquiry, there is a need to explore, in depth, the factors associated with
the youth to senior transition. For example, given the lack of research examining coaches’
perception of the youth to senior transition, there was a need to initially explore the area and
therefore a qualitative method of enquiry, when respondents were able to highlight any
factors they associated with transition, was the method of choice (Patton, 2002).
8.5 Delimitations and Limitations
Delimitations of the current thesis included the purposeful sampling technique used
throughout all the studies. Additionally, the studies also only included participants from
homogenous groups of professional football clubs. While this was a strength of the thesis
because it meant that a detailed understanding of the context was gleaned, it was also a
weakness as it may mean that the findings may not transfer to other populations (e.g.,
professional cricketers). All studies in the current thesis used purposeful sampling which is
not necessarily representative to other populations. The results of the current thesis cannot be
statistically generalised to athletes from other sports, competitive levels, or cultural
backgrounds. Instead, purposeful sampling focuses on gaining an in-depth understanding
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from which readers can draw parallels to their own story, something this specific sample
allows (Patton, 2002).
In addition, during the initial stages of this thesis, it was decided to ground the entire
thesis within one theoretical framework of transition (Stambulova, 2003). Although the thesis
has assessed and suggested that Stambulova’s (2003) framework, with adaptations, is
applicable to the youth to senior transition in sport, alternative frameworks have been
presented in the literature to explain transitions in sport (e.g., Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994;
Pummell, 2008). Drawing from multiple theories may enable a broader critique of the youth
to senior transition in sport and the factors associated with change.
Another potential limitation of the thesis is whether or not the model used within the
thesis (i.e., Stambulova, 2003) is clearly testable. Stambulova’s (2003) presents a number of
overall areas (e.g., demands, resources, and barriers), and gives examples of each area (e.g.,
internal and external resources). As each area only includes examples and not specific factors
associated with transition, the underlying factors are much more difficult to examine in detail.
Hence, rather than test the model per se, the current study aimed to identify the factors
associated specifically with the youth to senior transition in football and add specific factors
to each element in the model, which it has been done. The current research has added depth
to the model, helping to identify specific factors associated with the youth to senior transition
in football, which makes the model more testable in future research. Future research may
explore specific factors in other contexts when using Stambulova (2003) to add further depth
to the model, or test others models of transition which do give specific examples associated
with transitions.
Finally, a further limitation of the research is that the research results
may have been influenced by my own personal biases and idiosyncrasies (Patton, 2002). One
of the main criticisms of qualitative research is that it is impossible for the results not to be
influenced by researcher biases. Additionally, the results may also be influenced by social
231
desirability, when the athletes answered questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably
by others or recall bias, when the athletes are unable to fully or accurately describe and
explain their experiences. I have tried to alleviate these difficulties by using a range of
techniques, such as triangulation and member checking to reduce the impact of such
prejudices. Further, I tried to reduce factors such as recall bias by carrying out a longitudinal
study, assessing the transition process as it happened. Such techniques were used consistently
throughout the studies in this thesis, and this was detailed in Chapter 3 and in the individual
studies (Chapters 4 to 7). However, no qualitative research methods will ever fully alleviate
bias or factors such as social desirability, and this needs to be considered when reviewing the
results (Patton, 2002).
8.6 Practical Implications
The current programme of research has highlighted a number of potential factors
influencing successful transition. Knowledge of these factors could be useful to aid future
youth athletes moving to the senior team. Introducing education programmes, where players,
coaches, parents, and support staff are informed of the factors associated with transition, and
how they can build up coping resources to manage the demands and barriers, may help them
to prepare for the change. Study 3 identified that readiness for the transition into senior sport
can be a factor which influences the outcome of athletes’ transitional experiences, with
failure to prepare for the demands and barriers perhaps one of the major reasons some fail to
cope. Introducing educational programmes may help alleviate this, and examining influential
factors for individual athletes may help them to better prepare for the transition to senior
sport.
Throughout these programmes, educating coaches, support staff, parents, other
family, friends and teammates on their role in transition, and how to appropriately match their
assistance to athletes’ needs, may help athletes. For example, parents should be encouraged to
232
provide emotional and tangible support. Coaches should also be encouraged to provide
technical support throughout transition to encourage athlete development. Additionally,
ensuring and encouraging supporters to carry out the correct role (e.g., ensuring that parents
do not try to provide technical support which may have a hindrance on the development of
their child) is another practical implication of the results. If supporters do try to provide
support which is not wanted or is out with the boundaries of their expertise, they may be
providing contrasting information to athletes. This type of support could mean players
become confused and this could have a negative effect on their transition to senior sport.
Other implications from the current programme of research include further
recommendations for the organisations supporting athletes in transition. For example, clubs
could be encouraged to introduce a staggered entry system to help athletes moved to senior
sport, which the current thesis results suggest is conducive to successful transition.
Additionally, the results of the current thesis suggest that the process of moving to senior
sport is an evolving process, where the knowledge and experience athletes have developed
throughout their career can influence how successfully they move to senior sport.
Organisations should be encouraged to develop programmes where they are gradually
progressing and assessing athletes’ knowledge and experiences, so that players develop the
required competencies to be successful in senior sport. Further, clubs should be encouraged
to discuss with their players that moving to senior sport is a similar process to what they will
go through during their youth career as they move up through the age restricted teams. This
knowledge imparted on the players may mean that they have a greater awareness of the
process and how best to manage associated demands and barriers.
Finally, according to the results of the thesis, programmes which closely match the
factors identified in Stambulova’s (2003) model may be the most successful. However, there
may be occasions when organisations have not been able to create programmes based fully
233
upon this model, due to, for example, financial or staff limitations. Organisations then have to
decide which aspects of the programme are most important to their athletes’ development and
decide whether or not to recruit appropriate staff members to ensure all aspects of the model
are covered.
8.7 Future Directions
Over the past few years, there has been a growing body of research which has
examined the youth to senior transition in sport (e.g., Finn & McKenna, 2010; Pummell et al.,
2008). Despite this, there are a number of areas which still need to be examined so that more
athletes can be supported to make such a change.
The current thesis, along with other research in the area (e.g., Bruner et al., 2008) has
highlighted a number of factors believed to be associated with transition. However, due to the
way data was collected, the results of the study are not necessarily statistically generalisable
to other contexts. In order to assess whether or not the factors associated with transition in the
current research are statistically generalisable, it may be appropriate to do a large sample
quantitative study which assesses each contributing factor in relation to all sport transitions.
Such research may also help to identify the most important factors associated with transition,
which could mean clubs are able to prioritise the issues they are able to manage. This can be
especially important for organisations with smaller budgets, which may only be able to fund a
smaller number of programmes or interventions, in comparison to clubs who can manage all
factors associated with the change to senior sport.
Future research may also wish to explore the idea of a ‘delayed transition’. Although
athletes’ performances may be judged as soon as they move up to senior sport, and they are
categorised as experiencing a successful or unsuccessful transition, Stambulova (2003) has
suggested that if athletes are experiencing a difficult transition and there is a need for
intervention, which they subsequently receive, they may experience a successful outcome.
234
This successful transition could be delayed (i.e., the successful transition does not occur
immediately after athletes move up, rather it may take months or years of intervention).
Future research which explores this concept and whether or not it does occur in the youth to
senior transition will help advance knowledge on this move.
Researchers (e.g., Taylor & Ogilvie, 1994), have suggested that athletes’ control over
their decision to retire from sport has an effect on the quality of their transition. Study 3 of
the current research highlights that some athletes may feel unsure about whether or not they
wish to carry on into senior sport and that they are unsure what to expect when moving up to
senior sport, which suggests they may lack control over their transition experience. This
apparent lack of control may have a negative effect on their transition to senior sport.
Research which explores whether or not this factor is associated with the youth to senior
transition may help advance knowledge in this area.
Models of counselling athletes in crises transition have started to emerge (e.g.,
Stambulova, 2011), however, their effectiveness has yet to be empirically evidenced in
relation to the youth to senior transition in sport. Evidence of the efficacy of these types of
interventions will help sport psychologists and others support athletes who require extra
assistance. In Study 3 for example, some athletes identified that they perceived a lack of
support from others. Although the majority of athletes in the current study were able to
manage the transition demands and barriers, this lack of support may have resulted in crises
transitions in some situations. When crises transitions are identified, there is a need for
empirically supported programmes that can be used to help athletes in transition (for
example, by support from sport psychologists and others).
Wylleman and Lavallee’s (2004) model highlighted that there may be a number of
different transitions in and outside an athletes’ career which may occur at the same time.
There is a lack of research which focuses on how influential such additional transitions may
235
be on athletes moving from youth to senior sport. Additionally, other factors external to sport
may also influence changes. For example, if athletes have a child during the period they are
moving into senior sport, this may have an influence on the coping process they need to go
through in order to be successful. They may lose the support of their partner or parents who
wish to look after the child more, which can result in a loss of some of the required support.
Research which assesses the influence of additional transitions or factors external to the
youth to senior transition is warranted, because it may assist organisations in developing
better support mechanisms for athletes.
During this thesis, the sport which has been used as a medium to study the youth to
senior transition is football. After moving into senior sport, footballers at the highest level
tend to focus specifically on their football career, and perhaps do not consider, for example,
academic or vocational qualifications until towards the end of their career. Bruner et al.
(2008) suggested that each sport may have their own personal transition demands, which may
need to be considered. Perhaps assessing models of transition in relation to the different
‘types’ of sport, for example individual or team sports, or sports where education programmes
are considered important, may further assess the suitability of such theoretical models.
Throughout the current thesis, only the performance indices of successful transition
have been examined. Future research which explores both the performance and health and
wellbeing indices will help advance the knowledge on the youth to senior transition. For
example, athletes may be experiencing good performance outcomes but not stable
psychological health and wellbeing, and vice versa. In such instances, the type and
availability of support to athletes may need to change (e.g., athletes with poor psychological
health and wellbeing may need more emotional support than they would otherwise receive),
to better support them in making the youth to senior transition in sport.
Finally, Study 3
highlighted that some athletes may be released after their youth career. Unfortunately, the
236
two players released who were part of the sample of Study 3 did not wish to continue taking
part in the study. However, the fact that two players were released highlights another
important area which is much understudied, how do players who are released at the end of
their youth career cope with having to build, and develop, a new life for themselves. Brown
and Potrac (2009) assessed de-selection and identity issues associated with being released
after a youth career, but more research is required to assess whether or not models, such as
Stambulova (2003), are appropriate in assessing such a change. Such research may also
highlight how we can best prepare athletes who may be released at the end of their youth
career to cope with possible psychological difficulties, such as identity foreclosure.
8.8 Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, this thesis achieved its main purpose and the aims. First, the thesis
expanded the knowledge available on the youth to senior transition in sport by providing an
in-depth exploration of the transition, and the associated demands, resources, and barriers
from the perspective of athletes, coaches and various supporters (e.g., physiotherapists, and
parents). Additionally, another aim of the thesis was to assess the appropriateness of
Stambulova’s (2003) model of transition in predicting the factors associated with transition.
By comparing the factors of transition highlighted in this thesis to Stambulova’s (2003)
model, this aim has been achieved. Finally, by assessing Stambulova’s (2003) model of
transition and player development and retention rates, the last aim to assess the degree
Stambulova’s (2003) model may be related to desired outcomes of transition, has been met.
The literature is advanced by providing further evidence to support the use of models
of transition to help predict and support athletes’ youth to senior transitions. An adapted
model of transition, modified from Stambulova (2003), has also been proposed which better
explains the youth to senior transition in elite football. Additionally, other factors identified
have been highlighted as important to transition, for example, the level and type of athletes’
237
support from others such as coaches, fellow players, and sport science staff. Further research
which builds upon this series of studies will lead to a greater understanding of whether or not
individual sports have their own factors associated with transition, and how other factors of
life (e.g., education) influence the youth to senior change. Finally, the thesis has contributed
to the wider psychological literature on transitions and change by supporting theory that
suggests society and social constructs may have an influence on how successfully people may
manage transitional difficulties (e.g., France, Bottrell & Haddon, 2012). The findings of the
current thesis may allow those experiencing transitions in other areas of life to draw parallels
between their lives and those of the sample studied in the current work. This better
understanding of their experiences may mean they have a greater knowledge of the factors
associated with moving to a new situation, and how to manage the difficulties which may
make it problematic.
238
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development and social support. Paper presented at the 12th Annual Conference on
Counseling Athletes, Springfield, MA.
Wylleman, P., & De Knop, P. (1998, August). Athletes' interpersonal perceptions of the
"parent-coach" in competitive youth sport. Paper presented at the 24th Congress of the
International Association of Applied Psychology, San Francisco, CA.
Wylleman, P., De Knop, P., Ewing, M., & Cumming, S. (2000). Transitions in youth sport: A
developmental perspective on parental involvement. In D. Lavallee & P. Wylleman
(Eds.), Career transitions in sport: International perspectives (pp. 143-160).
Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
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Wylleman, P., De Knop, P., Menkehorst, H., Theeboom, M., & Annerel, J. (1993). Career
termination and social integration among elite athletes. In S. Serpa, J. Alves, V.
Ferreira, & A. Paula-Brito (Eds.), Proceedings of the 8th World Congress of Sport
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Wylleman, P., & Lavallee, D. (2004). A developmental perspective on transitions faced by
athletes. In M. Weiss (Ed.), Developmental Sport Psychology. Morgantown, WV:
Fitness Information Technology.
Wylleman, P., Lavallee, D., & Alfermann, D. (Eds.). (1999). FEPSAC Monograph Series.
Career Transitions in Competitive Sports. Lund: European Federation of Sport
Psychology FEPSAC.
Wylleman, P., Theeboom, M., & Lavallee, D. (2004). Successful athletic careers. In C.
Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied psychology (pp. 511-517). New York:
Elsevier.
Wylleman, P., Vanden Auweele, Y., De Knop, P., Sloore, H., & De Martelaer, K. (1995).
Elite young athletes, parents and coaches: relationships in competitive sports. In F.J.
Ring (Ed.), The 1st Bath Sports Medicine Conference (pp. 124-133). Bath, United
Kingdom: University of Bath – Centre for Continuing Education.
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Zaichkowsky, L., King, E., & McCarthy, J. (2000). The end of an era: The case of forced
transition involving Boston University football. In D. Lavallee & P. Wylleman (Eds.),
Career transitions in sport: international perspectives (pp. 195-205). Morgan Town:
West Virginia University.
A1
Appendix A: Information Sheet and Consent Form Used in Study 1
Transitioning from youth to senior football: The coaches’ perception of
transition demands, resources, and barriers athletes’ experience.
Dear (Participants Name),
You are invited to take part in the above named research study. Below is some
information to help you decide if you want to take part.
Who are the researchers?
Robert Morris (rom10@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621947)
Dr David Tod (dvt@aber.ac.uk; 01970 628567)
Dr Emily Oliver (ejo@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621543)
What is the purpose of this study?
The aim of this study is to gain a greater understanding of the youth to senior sport
transition, and the possible demands, barriers, resources, and support mechanisms
athletes experience as they move up from youth to senior football.
Do I have to take part?
No. It’s up to you to decide whether or not to take part. Even if you do decide to take
part, you may withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. If you wish to
withdraw from the study please contact the principle investigator (Robert Morris) on
any of the details above.
What will I have to do?
Once you have agreed to take part, you will take part in 1 interview on your
experiences of the youth to senior transition in sport and the stressors athletes may
experience. Interviews will be approximately between 30 and 60 minutes long.
What happens at the end of the study?
The information collected during the study will be written up as part of a PhD thesis
and as scientific papers. Your interviews may be used but your personal details will
not be published and all data will be anonymous.
Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?
Yes. All data collected will be stored securely until the end of the research project
when it will be destroyed. Any data published will be anonymous.
Are there any risks?
A2
It is not anticipated that you will experience pain, discomfort, inconvenience, or
danger beyond what you might normally experience in the course of your daily life.
What are the benefits of taking part?
This study may help sport psychologists, coaches, support staff and fellow players
support athletes in transition from youth to senior football.
Questions?
If you have any questions or concerns about any aspect of this study, please feel
free to contact the principal researcher, Robert Morris, who will discuss these with
you.
What next?
If you wish to take part you will be asked to fill in an informed consent form, and we
will arrange the first interview.
If you have any further questions about the research project, please do not hesitate
to contact me. Thank you for your time.
Yours sincerely
Robert Morris
A3
Transitioning from youth to senior football: The coaches’ perception of
transition demands, resources, and barriers athletes’ experience.
If you understand the study procedures and the information given to you in the
information sheet and are happy to participate in the study, then please read and
sign the following consent. You will be given a copy of the information sheet and this
consent form, signed and dated, for your records. If you would like more time to
consider your participation you are welcome to take as much time as you need.
I agree to take part in the Aberystwyth University research study entitled
“From youth to senior sport: The coaches’ perception of transition demands,
resources, and barriers athletes’ experience.” I understand that my
participation is voluntary and that I can choose not to participate in part or all
of the project and that I can withdraw at any stage without having to give a
reason. I have been given the right to ask questions about the project and
have had any questions I asked satisfactorily answered. I understand what my
participation will involve and I hereby volunteer to participate in this study.
Participants Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
Researchers Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
A4
Appendix B: Interview Schedule (Study 1)
Introduction
1. Can you describe your football involvement? Probes: Playing career, coaching career,
successes
2. Can you describe your experiences of the youth to senior transition in football? Probe:
How long have you worked with athletes who have transitioned?
Facilitating the Transition
3. What factors do you believe are important to help young footballers make the
transition?
4. Who or what could footballers not transition without? Probe: Role, how does this
help?
5. What is your role in facilitating this transition?
Challenges
6. What do you feel are some of the challenges young footballers may face as they move
from youth to senior level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
7. What strategies do / have your players used previously to deal with these challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
8. What do athletes who move up to the first team do that others don’t to prevent them
dropping out?
9. What do you feel that can be done to help athletes make the step up to senior football?
10. What do footballers need to prepare for in order to succeed at a professional level?
Probe: Drawing on your experiences, what do you think is important to help people
coming through?
Summary
11. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the youth to senior transition?
A5
Appendix C: Information Sheet and Consent Form Used in Study 2
Transitioning from youth to senior football: Supporters’ perception of
transition demands, resources, and barriers athletes’ experience.
Dear (Participants Name),
You are invited to take part in the above named research study. Below is some
information to help you decide if you want to take part.
Who are the researchers?
Robert Morris (rom10@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621947)
Dr David Tod (dvt@aber.ac.uk; 01970 628567)
Dr Emily Oliver (ejo@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621543)
What is the purpose of this study?
The aim of this study is to understand the youth to senior sport transition, and the
demands, barriers, resources, and support mechanisms athletes experience as they
move from youth to senior football.
Do I have to take part?
No. It’s up to you to decide whether or not to take part. Even if you do decide to take
part, you may withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. If you wish to
withdraw from the study please contact the principle investigator (Robert Morris) on
any of the details above.
What will I have to do?
Once you have agreed to take part, you will interview once on your experiences of
the youth to senior transition in sport and the stressors athletes may experience.
Interviews will be approximately between 30 and 60 minutes long.
What happens at the end of the study?
The information collected during the study will be written up as part of a PhD thesis
and as scientific papers. Your interviews may be used but your personal details will
not be published and all data will be anonymous.
Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?
Yes. All data collected will be stored securely until the end of the research project.
Any data published will be anonymous.
Are there any risks?
A6
It is not anticipated that you will experience pain, discomfort, inconvenience, or
danger beyond what you might normally experience in the course of your daily life.
What are the benefits of taking part?
This study may help sport psychologists, coaches, support staff and fellow players
support athletes in transition from youth to senior football.
Questions?
If you have any questions or concerns about any aspect of this study, please feel
free to contact the principal researcher, Robert Morris, who will discuss these with
you.
What next?
If you wish to take part you will be asked to fill in an informed consent form, and we
will arrange the first interview.
If you have any further questions about the research project, please do not hesitate
to contact me. Thank you for your time.
Yours sincerely
Robert Morris
A7
Transitioning from youth to senior football: Supporters’ perception of
transition demands, resources, and barriers athletes’ experience.
If you understand the study procedures and the information given to you in the
information sheet and are happy to participate in the study, then please read and
sign the following consent. You will be given a copy of the information sheet and this
consent form, signed and dated, for your records. If you would like more time to
consider your participation you are welcome to take as much time as you need.
I agree to take part in the Aberystwyth University research study entitled
“Transitioning from youth to senior football: Supporters’ perception of
transition demands, resources, and barriers athletes’ experience.” I
understand that my participation is voluntary and that I can choose not to
participate in part or all of the project and that I can withdraw at any stage
without having to give a reason. I have been given the right to ask questions
about the project and have had any questions I asked satisfactorily answered.
I understand what my participation will involve and I hereby volunteer to
participate in this study.
Participants Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
Researchers Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
A8
Appendix D: Interview Schedule (Study 2)
Introduction
1. Can you describe your experiences of the youth to senior transition in football? Probe:
How long have you known/worked with athletes who have transitioned?
Facilitating the Transition
2. What factors do you believe are important to help young footballers make the
transition?
3. Who or what could footballers not transition without? Probe: Role, how does this
help?
4. What is your role in facilitating this transition?
Challenges
5. What do you feel are some of the challenges young footballers may face as they move
from youth to senior level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
6. What strategies do/has the player(s) used previously to deal with these challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
7. What do athletes who move up to the first team do that others don’t to prevent them
dropping out?
8. What do you feel that can be done to help athletes make the step up to senior football?
9. What do footballers need to prepare for in order to succeed at a professional level?
Probe: Drawing on your experiences, what do you think is important to help people
coming through?
Summary
10. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the youth to senior transition?
A9
Appendix E: Information Sheets and Consent Forms Used in Study 3
Longitudinal examination of footballers moving from youth to senior sport:
The players’ perspective.
Dear (Participants Name),
You are invited to take part in the above named research study. Below is some
information to help you decide if you want to take part.
Who are the researchers?
Robert Morris (rom10@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621947)
Dr David Tod (dvt@aber.ac.uk; 01970 628567)
Dr Emily Oliver (ejo@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621543)
What is the purpose of this study?
I hope to gain a greater understanding of the youth to senior football transition, and
the possible demands, resources, and barriers you may experience as you move up
from youth to first team, or leave professional sport.
Do I have to take part?
No. It’s up to you to decide whether or not to take part. Even if you do decide to take
part, you may withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. If you wish to
withdraw from the study please contact the principle investigator (Robert Morris) on
any of the details above.
What will I have to do?
Once you have agreed to take part, you will take part in 4 interviews (one every three
months) between December 2011 and December 2012. Interviews will be about 30
to 60 minutes long, during which you will be asked to answer questions on your
experiences of the youth to senior transition.
What happens at the end of the study?
The information collected during the study will be written up as part of a PhD thesis
and as scientific papers. Your interviews may be used but your personal details will
not be published and all data will be anonymous.
Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?
Yes. All data collected will be stored securely until the end of the research project
when it will be destroyed. Any data published will be anonymous.
Are there any risks?
A10
It is not anticipated that you will experience pain, discomfort, inconvenience, or
danger beyond what you might normally experience in the course of your daily life.
What are the benefits of taking part?
You will be given the opportunity to discuss your transition experience and discuss
any difficulties that you may encounter and you may benefit from talking about your
experiences. Research assessing the youth to senior change in football may help
sport psychologists, coaches, support staff and fellow players support young
professional football players who are struggling to deal with the transition.
Questions?
If you have any questions or concerns please feel free to ask me, Robert Morris.
What next?
If you wish to take part you will be asked to fill in an informed consent form, and we
will arrange the first interview.
If you have any further questions about the research project, please do not hesitate
to contact me. Thank you for your time.
Yours sincerely
Robert Morris
A11
Longitudinal examination of footballers moving from youth to senior sport:
The players’ perspective.
If you understand the study procedures and the information given to you in the
information sheet and are happy to participate in the study, then please read and
sign the following consent. You are free to keep a copy of the information sheet and
this consent form, signed and dated, for your records. If you would like more time to
consider your participation you are welcome to take as much time as you need.
I agree to take part in the Aberystwyth University research study entitled
“Longitudinal examination of footballers moving from youth to senior sport:
The players’ perspective.” I understand that my participation is voluntary and
that I can choose not to participate in part or all of the project and that I can
withdraw at any stage without having to give a reason. I have had any
questions I had about the project satisfactorily answered. I hereby volunteer to
participate in this study.
Participants Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
Researchers Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
A12
Longitudinal examination of footballers moving from youth to senior sport:
The coaches’ perspective.
Dear (Participants Name),
You are invited to take part in the above named research study. Below is some
information to help you decide if you want to take part.
Who are the researchers?
Robert Morris (rom10@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621947)
Dr David Tod (dvt@aber.ac.uk; 01970 628567)
Dr Emily Oliver (ejo@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621543)
What is the purpose of this study?
I hope to gain a greater understanding of the youth to senior football transition, and
the possible demands, resources, and barriers athletes experience as they move up
from youth to first team, or leave professional sport.
Do I have to take part?
No. It’s up to you to decide whether or not to take part. Even if you do decide to take
part, you may withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. If you wish to
withdraw from the study please contact the principle investigator (Robert Morris) on
any of the details above.
What will I have to do?
Once you have agreed to take part, you will take part in 4 interviews (one every three
months) between December 2011 and December 2012. Interviews will be about 30
to 60 minutes long, during which you will be asked to answer questions on your
experiences of the youth to senior transition.
What happens at the end of the study?
The information collected during the study will be written up as part of a PhD thesis
and as scientific papers. Your interviews may be used but your personal details will
not be published and all data will be anonymous.
Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?
Yes. All data collected will be stored securely until the end of the research project
when it will be destroyed. Any data published will be anonymous.
Are there any risks?
It is not anticipated that you will experience pain, discomfort, inconvenience, or
danger beyond what you might normally experience in the course of your daily life.
A13
What are the benefits of taking part?
Research assessing the role of those providing psychosocial support to athletes
making the youth to senior change in football may help sport psychologists, coaches,
support staff and fellow players assist athletes in transition.
Questions?
If you have any questions or concerns please feel free to contact me, Robert Morris.
What next?
If you wish to take part you will be asked to fill in an informed consent form, and we
will arrange the first interview.
If you have any further questions about the research project, please do not hesitate
to contact me. Thank you for your time.
Yours sincerely
Robert Morris
A14
Longitudinal examination of footballers moving from youth to senior sport:
The coaches’ perspective.
If you understand the study procedures and the information given to you in the
information sheet and are happy to participate in the study, then please read and
sign the following consent. You will be given a copy of the information sheet and this
consent form, signed and dated, for your records. If you would like more time to
consider your participation you are welcome to take as much time as you need.
I agree to take part in the Aberystwyth University research study entitled
“Longitudinal examination of footballers moving from youth to senior sport:
The coaches’ perspective.” I understand that my participation is voluntary and
that I can choose not to participate in part or all of the project and that I can
withdraw at any stage without having to give a reason. I have had any
questions I had about the project satisfactorily answered. I hereby volunteer to
participate in this study.
Participants Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
Researchers Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
A15
Appendix F: Interview Schedules (Study 3)
Interview 1: Players
Introduction
1. Can you describe your football involvement? Probes: Playing career, successes,
failures
Thoughts and feelings now, 4/5 months prior to transition
2. What are your feelings about the forthcoming transition period? Probes: Excitement,
nerves, anxieties, stress?
Facilitating the Transition
3. What factors do you believe are important to help you make the transition?
4. Who or what could you not transition without? Probe: Role, how does this help?
Challenges
5. What challenges have you overcome in the past to get to this position?
6. What do you feel are some of the challenges you may face as you try to move from
youth to senior level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
7. What strategies do / have you used previously to deal with these types of challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
8. What do you feel can help you make the step up to senior football?
9. How do you believe you need to prepare to succeed at a professional level? Probe:
What characteristics do you to develop to be successful?
10. How do you feel about the possibility you may be released at the end of this season?
11. Have you ever considered dropping out? If so, why? If not, why do you think some
players drop out?
Moving Forward
12. What do you think is important now if you are to continue to make progress?
Summary
13. What are your expectations for the next 4 or 5 months?
14. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the situation you are currently in?
A16
Interview 2: Players
Introduction
1. Can you describe your football involvement over the past 4 months? Probes: Playing
career, successes, failures
Thoughts and feelings now, 1 month prior to transition
2. What are your feelings about the forthcoming move to senior sport? Probes:
Excitement, nerves, anxieties, stress?
Facilitating the Transition
3. What factors do you believe are important to help you make the transition?
4. Who or what could you not transition without? Probe: Role, how does this help?
Challenges
5. What challenges have you overcome in the past to get to this position?
6. What do you feel are some of the challenges you may face as you try to move from
youth to senior level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
7. What strategies do / have you used previously to deal with these types of challenges?
8. What strategies are you currently using to help deal with the youth to senior
transition?
Minimising Talent Loss
9. What do you feel can help you make the step up to senior football?
10. How do you believe you need to prepare to succeed at a professional level? Probe:
What characteristics do you to develop to be successful?
11. How do you feel about the possibility you may be released at the end of this season?
12. Have you ever considered dropping out? If so, why? If not, why do you think some
players drop out?
Moving Forward
13. What do you think is important now if you are to continue to make progress?
Summary
14. What are your expectations for the next 2 months, before you move into senior sport
and after?
15. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the situation you are currently in?
A17
Interview 3: Players
Introduction
1. Can you describe your football involvement over the past 2 months? Probes: Playing
career, successes, failures
Thoughts and feelings now, 1 month post move to senior sport
2. What are your feelings about the move to senior sport now you have moved up?
Probes: Excitement, nerves, anxieties, stress?
Facilitating the Transition
3. What factors do you believe are/ have been important to help you make the transition?
4. Who or what could you not transition without? Probe: Role, how does this help?
Challenges
5. What challenges have you overcome in the past to get to this position?
6. What do you feel are some of the challenges you are facing since you moved from
youth to senior level? Probe: What has made the transition hard?
7. What strategies do / have you used previously to deal with these types of challenges?
8. What strategies are you currently using to help deal with the youth to senior
transition?
Minimising Talent Loss
9. What do you feel can help you make the step up to senior football?
10. How do you believe you need to prepare to succeed at a professional level? Probe:
What characteristics do you have to continue to develop to be successful?
11. Since moving up, have you ever considered dropping out? If so, why? If not, why do
you think some players drop out?
Moving Forward
12. What do you think is important now if you are to continue to make progress?
Summary
13. What are your expectations for the next 4 or 5 months in senior sport?
14. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the situation you are currently in?
A18
Interview 4: Players
Introduction
1. Can you describe your football involvement over the past 4 months since moving up
to senior sport? Probes: Playing career, successes, failures
Thoughts and feelings now, 4 or 5 months post move to senior sport
2. What are your feelings about the move to senior sport now you have moved up and
been involved in the set up for 4 or 5 months? Probes: Excitement, nerves, anxieties,
stress?
Facilitating the Transition
3. What factors do you believe are important to help you make the transition and
continue to make progress?
4. Who or what could you not transition without? Probe: Role, how does this help?
Challenges
5. What challenges have you overcome in the past to get to this position?
6. What do you feel are some of the challenges you are/ have faced since you moved
from youth to senior level? Probe: What has made the transition hard?
7. What strategies do / have you used previously to deal with these types of challenges?
8. What strategies are you currently using to help deal with the youth to senior
transition?
Minimising Talent Loss
9. What do you feel that can/has help you make the step up to senior football?
10. How do you believe you need to prepare to succeed at a professional level? Probe:
What characteristics do you to continue to develop to be successful?
11. Have you ever considered dropping out? If so, why? If not, why do you think some
players drop out?
Moving Forward
12. What do you think is important now if you are to continue to make progress?
Summary
13. What are your expectations for the next 6 months in senior sport?
14. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the situation you are currently in?
A19
Interview 1: Coaches
Thoughts and feelings now, 4/5 months prior to transition
1. What are your thoughts about the forthcoming transition period for X?
2. How do you think X perceives his current situation prior to transition?
3. What has been difficult for X over the past few months to get to this position?
Facilitating the Transition
4. What has been your role over the past few months to help prepare X for the
transition?
5. Can you tell me what your current relationship is like with X?
6. Who or what else has been important to X’s progress in the past few months?
7. What other factors do you believe are important to help X make the transition?
Challenges
8. What do you feel are some of the challenges X may face as they try to move from
youth to senior level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
9. What strategies has X used / has your team adopted to overcome these challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
10. What do you feel that can be done to help X make the step up to senior football?
Probes: Why do you feel this, prior experience, information and training?
11. What do you believe X needs to prepare for in order to succeed at a professional
level?
12. What characteristics does X need to develop? Probes: Psychological, physical,
technical, social?
Moving Forward
13. What do you think is important now if X is to continue to make progress?
14. Based on your experience, what advice would you give players wanting to make it to
the stage X is at now?
Summary
15. What are your expectations of X over the next 4 or 5 months? Probes: Where X will
be in 4/5 months, intermediary stages X will go through in the next 4/5 months?
16. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the X’s situation at this stage?
A20
Interview 2: Coaches
Thoughts and feelings now, 1 month prior to transition
1. What are your thoughts about the forthcoming change to senior sport for X?
2. How do you think X perceives his current situation prior to the change?
3. What has been difficult for X over the past few months to get to this position?
Facilitating the Transition
4. What has been your role over the past few months to help prepare X for the
transition?
5. Can you tell me what your current relationship is like with X?
6. Who or what else has been important to X’s progress in the past few months?
7. What other factors do you believe are important to help X make the transition?
Challenges
8. What do you feel are some of the challenges X may face as they try to move from
youth to senior level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
9. What strategies has X used / has your team adopted to overcome these challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
10. What do you feel that can be done to help X make the step up to senior football?
Probes: Why do you feel this, prior experience, information and training?
11. What do you believe X needs to prepare for in order to succeed at a professional
level?
12. What characteristics does X need to develop? Probes: Psychological, physical,
technical, social?
Moving Forward
13. What do you think is important now if X is to continue to make progress?
14. Based on your experience, what advice would you give players wanting to make it to
the stage X is at now?
Summary
15. What are your expectations of X over the next month?
16. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the X’s situation at this stage?
A21
Interview 3: Coaches
Thoughts and feelings now, 1 month post movement to senior sport
1. What are your thoughts about the change to senior sport for X?
2. How do you think X perceives his current situation post change?
3. What has been difficult for X over the past few months to get to this position?
Facilitating the Transition
4. What has been your role over the past few months to help X after the change?
5. Can you tell me what your current relationship is like with X?
6. Who or what else has been important to X’s progress in the past month since moving
up?
7. What other factors do you believe have been/are important to help X make the
transition?
Challenges
8. What do you feel are some of the challenges X may face moving forward at senior
level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
9. What strategies has X used / has your team adopted to overcome these challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
10. What do you feel that can be done to help X make the step up to senior football?
Probes: Why do you feel this, prior experience, information and training?
11. What do you believe X needs to prepare for in order to succeed at a professional
level?
12. What characteristics does X need to develop? Probes: Psychological, physical,
technical, social?
Moving Forward
13. What do you think is important now if X is to continue to make progress?
14. Based on your experience, what advice would you give players wanting to make it to
the stage X is at now?
Summary
15. What are your expectations of X over the next month?
16. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the X’s situation at this stage?
A22
Interview 4: Coaches
Thoughts and feelings now, 4/5 month post movement to senior sport
1. What are your thoughts about the change to senior sport for X?
2. How do you think X perceives his current situation post change?
3. What has been difficult for X over the past few months to get to this position?
Facilitating the Transition
4. What has been your role over the past few months to help X after the change?
5. Can you tell me what your current relationship is like with X?
6. Who or what else has been important to X’s progress in the past few months since
moving up?
7. What other factors do you believe have been/are important to help X make the
transition?
Challenges
8. What do you feel are some of the challenges X may face moving forward at senior
level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
9. What strategies has X used / has your team adopted to overcome these challenges?
Minimising Talent Loss
10. What do you believe X needs to prepare for in future in order to succeed at a
professional level?
11. What characteristics does X need to develop? Probes: Psychological, physical,
technical, social?
Moving Forward
12. What do you think is important now if X is to continue to make progress?
13. Based on your experience, what advice would you give players wanting to make it to
the stage X is at now?
Summary
14. What are your expectations of X over the next month?
15. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to the X’s situation at this stage?
A23
Appendix G: Information Sheets and Consent Forms Used in Study 4
Transitioning from youth to senior football: Exploring the youth transition
pathway of two professional football clubs.
Dear (Participants Name),
You are invited to take part in the above named research study. Below is some
information to help you decide if you want to take part.
Who are the researchers?
Robert Morris (rom10@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621947)
Dr David Tod (dvt@aber.ac.uk; 01970 628567)
Dr Emily Oliver (ejo@aber.ac.uk; 01970 621543)
What is the purpose of this study?
The aim of this study is to understand the youth transition set up in place in
professional clubs to help prepare athletes for the youth to senior sport transition.
Further, this study aims to gain an understanding of how you feel the current set up
at your club influences athletes preparation for the youth to senior transition.
Do I have to take part?
No. It’s up to you to decide whether or not to take part. Even if you do decide to take
part, you may withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. If you wish to
withdraw from the study please contact the principle investigator (Robert Morris) on
any of the details above.
What will I have to do?
Once you have agreed to take part, you will take part in 1 interview on your
experiences of the youth set up in place at your club and how you feel this set up
influences the youth to senior transition. Interviews will be approximately between 30
and 60 minutes long. You may also be asked if you mind being filmed during
committee meetings on the youth to senior transition.
What happens at the end of the study?
The information collected during the study will be written up as part of a PhD thesis
and as scientific papers. Your interviews may be used but your personal details will
not be published and all data will be anonymous.
Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?
Yes. All data collected will be stored securely until the end of the research project
when it will be destroyed. Any data published will be anonymous.
A24
Are there any risks?
It is not anticipated that you will experience pain, discomfort, inconvenience, or
danger beyond what you might normally experience in the course of your daily life.
What are the benefits of taking part?
This study may help sport psychologists, coaches, support staff and fellow players
support athletes in transition from youth to senior football.
Questions?
If you have any questions or concerns about any aspect of this study, please feel
free to contact the principal researcher, Robert Morris, who will discuss these with
you.
What next?
If you wish to take part you will be asked to fill in an informed consent form, and we
will arrange the first interview.
If you have any further questions about the research project, please do not hesitate
to contact me. Thank you for your time.
Yours sincerely
Robert Morris
A25
Transitioning from youth to senior football: Exploring the youth transition
pathway of two professional football clubs.
If you understand the study procedures and the information given to you in the
information sheet and are happy to participate in the study, then please read and
sign the following consent. You will be given a copy of the information sheet and this
consent form, signed and dated, for your records. If you would like more time to
consider your participation you are welcome to take as much time as you need.
I agree to take part in the Aberystwyth University research study entitled
“Transitioning from youth to senior football: Exploring the youth transition
pathway of two professional football clubs.” I understand that my participation
is voluntary and that I can choose not to participate in part or all of the project
and that I can withdraw at any stage without having to give a reason. I have
been given the right to ask questions about the project and have had any
questions I asked satisfactorily answered. I understand what my participation
will involve and I hereby volunteer to participate in this study.
Participants Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
Researchers Signature
Date
____________________________
_____________
A26
Appendix H: Interview Schedules (Study 4)
Athletes’ Interview Schedule
Thoughts and feelings now
1. What are your thoughts about the change to senior sport now you have made the
transition? Probe: What have you found easy, difficult?
Facilitating the Transition
2. Can you tell me what support you received from your club prior to and during
transition to senior sport? Probe: Who from, what did it involve?
3. What else did the club do to support you moving up to senior sport? Probes:
Psychological, physical, technical, social preparation?
Challenges
4. What do you feel are some of the challenges you may face moving forward at senior
level? Probe: What makes the transition hard?
5. What strategies have you/ your team adopted to overcome these challenges?
6. Are you supported in overcoming these challenges? Probe: How
Moving Forward
7. What do you think is important now if you are to continue to make progress in senior
sport?
8. Have the club supported you with these factors you consider important?
Summary
9. Overall, do you feel that the programme you experienced at [club] helped you
transition more smoothly to senior sport? Probes: If yes, why? If no, why not?
10. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to this interview?
A27
Supporters’ Interview Schedule
Introduction
1. Can you describe your experiences of the youth to senior transition in football? Probe:
How long have you known/worked with athletes who have transitioned?
2. What do you believe your role is in supporting athletes in transition?
Facilitating the Transition
3. Can you tell me what support your club provides prior to and during transition to
support athletes moving to senior sport? Probe: Who from, what did it involve?
4. What else do the club do to support athletes moving up to senior sport? Probes:
Psychological, physical, technical, social preparation?
Challenges
5. What do you feel are some of the challenges athletes’ may face moving forward at
senior level? Probes: What makes the transition hard? Psychological, physiological,
technical, social demands?
6. What strategies have you/ your team employed to overcome these challenges?
7. Do you support athletes in overcoming these challenges? Probe: How?
Moving Forward
8. What do you think is important to athletes if they are to continue to make progress in
senior sport after they have moved up to senior sport?
9. Do the club support athletes with these factors you consider important? Probe: How
do the club help alleviate difficulties and support progression post youth to senior
change?
Summary
10. Overall, do you feel that the programme you have at [club] helps athletes’ transition
more smoothly to senior sport? Probes: If yes, why? If no, why not?
11. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to this interview?
A28
Parents Interview Schedule
Introduction
1. Can you describe your experiences of the youth to senior transition in football? Probe:
How did you feel when you found out [players’ name] was going to be moving into
senior sport? Excited, nervous?
2. What do you believe your role was in supporting [players’ name] in transition?
Facilitating the Transition
3. Can you tell me what support the club provided prior to and during transition to
support [players’ name] and yourselves prior to and during the youth to senior
transition? Probes: Support [players’ name] received, Support you received? Who
from, what did it involve?
4. What else did the club do to support athletes moving up to senior sport? Probes:
Psychological, physical, technical, social preparation?
Challenges
5. What do you feel are some of the challenges [players’ name] may face moving
forward at senior level? Probes: What makes the transition hard? Psychological,
physiological, technical, social demands?
6. What strategies that you are aware of does [players’ name] employ to overcome these
challenges?
7. Do you support [players’ name] in overcoming these challenges? Probe: How?
Moving Forward
8. What do you think is important to [players’ name] if he is to continue to make
progress in senior sport?
9. Do the club support [players name] with these factors you consider important? Probe:
How do the club help alleviate difficulties and support progression post youth to
senior change?
Summary
10. Overall, do you feel that the youth to senior programme at [club] has helped [players’
name] transition more smoothly to senior sport? Probes: If yes, why? If no, why not?
11. Overall, do you feel that the youth to senior programme at [club] has helped you
understand the transition and the factors associated with it? Probes: If yes, why? If no,
why not?
12. Is there anything I should have asked you which I didn’t, and you think is important
to this interview?