INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MAN
Overview
Anthropology is a holistic study of humankind at all points of human
existence and in all locations throughout the world. It is distinct from history which
deals primarily with the study of human events since the advent of written
language. The field of anthropology is generally divided into two broad areas:
physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. Physical anthropology examines
the biological basis of human existence. It covers such topics as evolution and early
forms of man, the physical characteristics of race, and primatology. Cultural
anthropology looks at behaviors found in groups of humans. While it may focus at
times on specific behaviors, the ultimate goal of the anthropologist is to reveal
broad patterns of behavior that are found in many groups or universals. One of the
most revealing types of universal is the creation myth. Virtually all cultures have
some sort of explanation for where it originated. It is as if there is a basic human
need to rationalize our existence. Studying a creation myth tells much about a
culture's world view, what it values and how it sees itself.
The creation myth that is fundamental to western society is that which is
articulated in the opening books of the bible, commonly called Genesis. This
thousands of years old account continues to be a pivotal origins explanation for
many people. During the medieval period it came to be fused with certain writings
from the ancient world but this dogmatic body of beliefs was called into question
during the scientific revolution that grew out of the Renaissance. Researchers found
inconsistencies with the observed physical state of the universe, the world and
nature. At first these researchers either hid their findings or were prosecuted for
defying dogma. Eventually, however, of more liberal intellectual atmosphere
enabled them to express new theories more freely, paving the way for the
revelations of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: anthropology,
archeology, catastrophism, creation myth, creationism, diluvialism, dogma,
essentialism, faith, fixity of species, fundamentalism, genesis, geocentric
universe, heliocentric universe, immutability, Old Testament, preformation,
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primatology, psychology, scala naturae, scholasticism, sociology, systema
naturae, transformism, universal, Zoonomia.
Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: Georges Louis
Buffon, Nicholas Copernicus, Georges Cuvier, Erasmus Darwin, Galileo Galilei,
James Hutton, Jean Baptiste Lamarck, John Lightfoot and James Ussher, Carolus
Linnaeus (Carl Von Linne), Charles Lyell, Ptolemy
Explain into what two broad areas the study of anthropology is divided.
Explain how Genesis fulfills the definition of a myth as given in class.
Recount the creation story lined out in Genesis
Trace the process through which the Ptolemaic view of the universe and the
Greek notion of essentialism come to be incorporated into Christian doctrine
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(dogma)?
Explain why was the heliocentric model of the universe proposed by Copernicus
and demonstrated by Galileo considered a threat by the Roman Catholic Church?
Summarize the two basic tenets of scientific method were practiced by Galileo?
Describe the process by which Lightfoot and Ussher arrived at their age for the
earth.
Explain how the appearance of fossils brought Genesis into question.
Explain how the biblical tale of the Noachian Flood was:
incorporated into explanations of geological phenomenon such as marine
fossils in dry locations and the fossil remains of extinct species.
incorporated by Cuvier into his catastrophic theory of earth formation.
Differentiate between uniformitarianism and catastrophism.
Be able to use the theory of transformism in its three steps to explain how a real
animal of your choice has come to be changed from an earlier ancestor.
Content
I. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
A. Psychology
B. Sociology
C. Anthropology
1. physical anthropology
2. cultural anthropology
II. CREATION MYTHS
A. Creation Myths of Different Cultures
B. Judaeo-Christian Creation Myth
III. THE GREATEST REVOLUTION
A. Genesis and the Biblical Era
B. Church Dogma
1. Ptolemy
2. medieval scholasticism
C. Advances in Astronomy
1. Nicholas Copernicus
2. Galileo Galilei
D. Changing Views of Earth's Origins
1. creationism
2. diluvialism
3. catastrophism
4. uniformitarianism
IV. THE EVOLUTION OF EVOLUTION
A. Classical World to the Scientific Revolution
1. Plato and essentialism
2. immutability
3. preformation
4. scala naturae
B. Age of Enlightenment
1. Carolus Linnaeus
2. George Louis Buffon
3. Jean Baptiste Lamarck and "transformism"
4. Erasmus Darwin and Zoonomia
Assessment Examples
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Analyze a sample of a creation myth from a culture by:
identifing components that give specific information about the environment
in which that culture lives.
speculating on what that culture holds as moral appropriate behavior.
speculating on what that cultures values.
In a group with other students, read a creation myth from another culture and
perform that creation myth as a skit.
After being given a set of hypothetical environmental and cultural conditions for
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a fictional culture, write a plausible creation myth for that culture.
In a well constructed essay trace the shift in European thought regarding the
formation of the universe and earth beginning with Biblical explanations and
ending with the writings of Lyell and Hutton.
In a well constructed essay trace the various explanations about the
reproduction of species and production of new species from the time of Plato to
the period just prior to Charles Darwin
Recommended Materials
Asimov, Isaac. The Wellsprings of Life.
Asimov, Isaac. Creations.
Bible.
Bronowski, Jacob. The Ascent of Man. Boston/Toronto: Little, Brown and Company,
1973.
Hamblin, Dora Jane. "Has the Garden of Eden Been Located at Last?" Smithsonian,
May 1987, 127.
Leakey, Richard. Origins. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977.
Lewin, Roger, In the Age of Mankind. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1988.
EVOLUTION AND MAN
Overview
By the middle of the nineteenth century many naturalists were beginning to
question the notion that all species existed unchanged since a point of divine
creation in the past. Two Englishmen, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace
would both come up with the same sensible explanation for how new species came
to be but popular posterity would remember Darwin more than the Wallace. Aside
from personal finances (Darwin came from a rather well-off family) there were
striking similarities in their lives and temperaments. Both travelled to the tropics as
naturalists and both would receive profound inspiration for their independently
conceived theories when reading Thomas Malthus's "Essay on the Principle of
Population." Although abstracts of their theories were presented in tandem at a
meeting of the Linnean Society Darwin's Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection was the most widely read treatise on this new theory. At first vilified by an
outraged public, Darwin suffered scathing personal attacks in the popular press for
stating that all creatures, including man, were descended from more primitive
creatures, opinion eventually swayed in Darwin's favor and Descent of Man was well
received from the start. No greater proof of the acceptance of Darwin's ideas can be
given than the fact that after death he was buried with grand honors in Westminster
Abbey.
Since Darwin's triumph his theory has been refined with new knowledge of
fossils and genetics. In recent decades the theory of "punctuated equilibrium"
competes with the gradualist theories of traditional Darwinists but it still relies on
the basic tenets of natural selection. Meanwhile, fundamentalists opposed to the
removal of a divine role or purposeful guiding force in explanations of life's origins
have been actively proposing counter-arguments and seeking equal time for the
presentation of their point of view in American classrooms.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
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Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: H.M.S. Beagle,
Galapagos Islands, “Essay on the Principle of Population”, geometric increase,
arithmetic increase, natural selection, Origin Of Species, 1860 Oxford Debate,
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Descent Of Man, homologous structures, rudimentary organs, vestiges,
embryology, social darwinism, eugenics, racialism, punctuated equilibrium, punk
eke, evolution by jerks, fundamentalism, Scopes Trial, monkey trial, creationist,
creation science
Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: Charles
Darwin, Captain Hugh Fitz-Roy, Thomas R. Malthus, Alfred Russell Wallace,
Archbishop Samuel “Soapy Sam” Wilberforce, Thomas H. “Darwin’s Bulldog”
Huxley, Herbert Spencer, Sir Francis Galton, Count Joseph de Gobineau, Stephen
Jay Gould.
Briefly describe Charles Darwin's circumstances before making his voyage on
the H.M.S. Beagle including references to:
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his childhood.
his education at Edinburgh and Cambridge.
his training as a naturalist.
how he secured a position on the Beagle.
Explain why Darwin believed the Galapagos Islands "remarkable in space and
time."
Highlight the main points in Malthus's work that impressed Darwin and explain
how they inspired him to come up with his theory of natural selection
List the 5 points to Darwin's theory of natural selection.
Explain what prevented Darwin from making his theory public at first.
Recount the circumstances surrounding Wallace coming up with his own theory
of natural selection and his correspondence with Darwin.
Briefly summarize the exchange that took place between Wilberforce and Huxley
at the 1860 Oxford debate.
Describe Darwin's view of the evolutionary relationship between man and the
apes.
Explain how Darwin accounted for the very first spark of life.
Explain how a new species comes about according to the principles of
punctuated equilibrium.
List the basic differences and similarities between Darwin's account of natural
selection and punctuated equilibrium.
List and explain the basic tenets held by creation scientists.
Describe the rationale and tactics creationists have used to bring their point of
view into the classroom.
Content
I. CHARLES DARWIN
A. Young Charles Darwin
1. family life
2. education
B. Voyage of the Beagle
1. a naturalist's job
2. the Galapagos Islands
C. Birth of a Theory
1. Malthus' "Essay on the Principle of Population"
2. natural selection
D. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
1. Alfred Russell Wallace
2. publication and response to the book
3. 1860 Oxford Debate
a. Archbishop Samuel Wilberforce
B. Thomas H. Huxley
E. The Descent of Man
1. supporting evidence for evolution
II. MISUSE OF DARWIN'S THEORIES
A. Social Darwinism, Herbert Spencer
B. Eugenics, Sir Francis Galton
C. Racialism, Count Joseph de Gobineau
III. PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
A. New Knowledge since Darwin
1. more detailed fossil record
2. deeper understanding of genetics
B. Stephen Jay Gould's Theory
1. role of population groups
2. role of natural selection
C. Opposition to Punctuated Equilibrium
IV. FUNDAMENTALISTS AND THE CREATION SCIENCE MOVEMENT
A. Scopes Trial
B. Current Status of Creation Science Movement
Assessment Examples
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Make a map that charts the voyages of both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell
Wallace.
Draw a poster that illustrates one or all five of the main steps leading to natural
selection as outlined in class.
Hold a four way debate between students in which each of the following sides is
represented: the traditional Darwinian evolutionist, the punctuated
equilibriumist, the creation scientist, and the strict fundamentalist.
After reading a cross section of writings in support of evolution and in support of
creationism, students will write personal essays that assess these two positions
and explain the individual student's current position on this issue.
In a well constructed essay, discuss the relationship between Darwinian
evolution and punctuated equilibrium that explains how these theories are alike
and how they are dissimilar.
Recommended Materials
Bronowski, Jacob. The Ascent of Man. Boston/Toronto: Little, Brown and Company,
1973.
Clark, Ronald W. The Survival of Charles Darwin. New York: Random House, 1984.
Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man.
Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
Darwin, Charles. The Voyage of the Beagle.
Dawkins, Richard. The Blind Watchmaker. New York: W.W. Norton & Company,
1986.
Desmond, Adrian and James Moore. Darwin. New York: W.W. Norton & Company,
1992.
Miller, Jonathan and Borin Van Loon. Darwin for Beginners. New York: W.W. Norton
& Company, 1982.
Moore, Ruth. Evolution. New York: Time-Life Books, 1964.
PRIMATOLOGY
Overview
While Charles Darwin believed that man and the African apes shared a
common ancestor, he was not the first person to see the similarities between man
and other animals. In his Systema Naturae Carolus Linnaeus identified the group he
called "primates" which included man, apes, the monkeys and the prosimians.
Generally primatology refers to the study of the non-human primates. Much can be
learned about human behavior from studying the living primates. In addition, the
physical similarities between man and the other primates can give clues to the
shape and form of man's earlier ancestors. The earliest primates were probably
arboreal, tree dwelling, and all living primates show the legacy of these origins
whether or not they continue to be arboreal. There are adaptations and
characteristics that all primates share in common including highly developed vision
and hands (and except for man, feet) which are capable of grasping. Furthermore,
humans share specific physical features with the apes (not to mention an
extraordinarily high genetic similarity.) An understanding of these specific
similarities as well as differences enables the anthropologist to interpret fossil finds
as either in the ape lineage, the human lineage, or something in between.
Some of the most exciting work in primatology has been in the observation of
primate behavior. Since the 1950s there have been many landmark studies with
profound implications for the study and understanding of human behavior. The first
of these studies tended to take place exclusively in a controlled laboratory
environment. Although these kinds of studies continue to this day an important
precedent was established with Jane Goodall's study of chimpanzees in the wild. Her
renown would inspire other primatologists such as Dian Fossey and Barbara Smuts
to look at the other apes as well as monkeys doing what they do naturally. By
studying the behaviors of the living primates we have gained insights not only into
the possible behavior of early ancestors, but also in modern human behavior. The
higher primates are capable of a range of complex behaviors including nurturing,
organizing alliances, tool-making, and planned violence.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: primate,
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primatology, anthropomorphism, sociobiology, arboreal, terrestrial, “Leakey's
ladies”, Gombe Stream Research Center, Dr. Harlowe's experiments with baby
rhesus monkeys, surrogate mother, new world monkeys, old world monkeys,
prehensile grip, opposable thumb, scissors thumb, prehensile tail, ischial
callosities, stereo vision, Koshima Island macaques, University of Amsterdam
experiment with savanna chimpanzees, brachiation, knuckle walking,
bipedalism, pongid, hominid, hominoid, Asian apes, African apes, great apes,
sexual dimorphism, prognathism, pelvis, foramen magnum, lesser apes,
chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, orangutan, gibbon.
Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: Carolus
Linnaeus, Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, Birute Galdikas, Harry Harlowe, Barbara
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Smuts, Frans De Waal, Louis Leakey, Robert Sapolsky.
Draw or fill in a simple primate family tree that shows the relationship between
the following:
prosimians new world monkeys old world monkeys apes man
Explain how old world monkeys and new world monkeys are different from each
other in their:
faces hands (thumbs) tails hind ends (ischial callosities)
List those main physical characteristics that are unique to primates.
Explain how the distinguishing characteristics of the primates are indicative of
the primates' arboreal origins.
List and describe the 5 basic levels of primate social organization.
List those main characteristics that are unique to hominoids (man and the apes.)
List and describe the main skeletal differences between a modern human and a
modern ape.
Content
I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRIMATES
A. Taxonomy - Kingdom, Phylum, Order, Family, Genus, Species
B. Types of Primates
1. prosimians
2. new world monkeys
3. old world monkeys
4. hominoids - apes and man
II. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRIMATES
A. Mammals
B. Arboreal Adaptations
C. Unique Characteristics
1. grasping hands and feet
2. importance of vision
III. THE HOMINOIDS - APES AND MAN
A. Physical Characteristics
1. body similarities
2. genetic relationship
B. The Living Apes: Classification
1. Asian apes and African apes
2. great apes and lesser apes
C. The Living Apes: Species
1. gibbon
2. orangutan
3. gorilla
4. chimpanzee
5. bonobo
D. Telling a Modern Ape from a Modern Human
1. body differences related to bipedalism
2. differences in the skull/face
IV. STUDYING PRIMATE BEHAVIOR
A. Noted Primatologists
1. "Leakey's ladies"
a. Jane Goodall
b. Dian Fossey
c. Birute Galdikas
2. Dr. Harry Harlowe's work with juvenile rhesus monkeys
3. studies of baboons
a. Barbara Smuts
b. Robert Sapolsky
B. Types of Primate Relationships
1. mother/offspring
2. male/female
3. adult/nonoffspring young
4. young peers
5. harems
C. Species Levels of Social Organization
1. solitary
2. family group
3. single male/multiple female
4. multimale
5. loose communities
Assessment Examples
• Research a single species of primate noting such information as:
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their place in the "primate family tree."
where that primate is found.
the social organization of that primate.
physical characteristics of that primate.
the current number estimated to be alive today.
what, if anything, is endangering future survival of the particular primate.
Select any two of the three women known as “Leakey’s Ladies.” (Jane Goodall,
Dian Fossey, or Birute Galdikas) In a well constructed essay discuss the work,
lives and personalities of the two that you select. Compare and contrast these
individuals and assess the value of their scientific contributions.
Demonstrate an understanding of the rules of dominance and submission in a
baboon troop by role playing the various situations a baboon might encounter in
the troop.
Use proper vocabulary to point out the specific differences between a modern
chimpanzee and modern man as illustrated by a diagram of their skull and
skeleton. Pay special attention to how these changes are related to their different
forms of locomotion.
Discuss the parallels between human behavior and specific levels of primate
social organization as covered in class.
Recommended Materials
Goodall, Jane. The Chimpanzees of Gombe.
Leakey, Richard. Origins. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977.
Lewin, Roger, In the Age of Mankind. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1988.
Zihlman, Adrienne. The Human Evolution Coloring Book. New York: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1982.
Among the Wild Chimpanzees (video). Washington, D.C.: National Geographic.
Monkeys, Apes and Man (video). Washington, D.C.: National Geographic.
INTRODUCTION TO PALEOANTHROPOLOGY
AND THE EARLY HOMINIDS
Overview
No study of past life forms has generated so much controversy as the search
for fossils of modern man's ancestors. When remains of the Neanderthals were first
discovered in the middle of the nineteenth century, just a few years before Darwin's
Origin of Species was published, no one guessed that they were looking at an ancient
and different form of man. By the turn of the century, however, budding
paleoanthropologists were beginning to comb European and Asian sites looking for
fossils of early humans. Unfortunately one of the most celebrated of these early
finds, Piltdown Man, turned out to be a hoax. When legitimate fossils were
unearthed in South Africa and identified by Raymond Dart in the 1920s much of the
scientific community rejected his finds. Cultural bias dictated against acceptance of
an African origin for mankind. In fact, it has recently and clearly been demonstrated
that cultural bias and current intellectual and social trends have much more to do
with interpreting the past than many anthropologists would care to admit.
The timeline for human evolution has been drastically revised in the past few
decades. From the 1950s into the 1970s it was believed that the ape/human split
occurred at a point in time nearly twenty million years ago. For the most part the
findings of geneticists like Vince Sarich indicating a split of five to ten million years
ago were rejected. Ramapithecus, dating to nearly fifteen million years old and
known only through dental fragments, was enthusiastically and prematurely hailed
as a likely ancestor. A series of exciting finds culminating in the 1970s with the
discovery of the fossil nicknamed "Lucy" shifted focus to the genus originally
identified by Raymond Dart, the australopithecines. Taken along with a refinement
and broader acceptance of the genetic evidence, anthropologists now agree that the
split between the human and ape lineage was probably somewhere between five
and ten million years ago after all. Perhaps some of the earlier types of
australopithecus were direct human ancestors but it appears as if several species
branched off and co-existed with the first members of genus Homo.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: Eoanthropus
dawsoni, Piltdown Man, “brain first theory”, Ramapithecus, “Flintstone model of
human evolution", Great Rift Valley, Olduvai Gorge, Lake Turkana, Laetoli, Awash
River Valley, South African lime caves, !Kung, Taung child, hominid, pongid,
savanna, bipedalism, prognathism, sagital crest, canine teeth, foramen magnum,
dental arch, gracile types, robust types, Australopithecus africanus, Ardipithecus
ramidus, Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis," Lucy", forensic
anthropology, Australopithecus aethiopithecus, Paranthropus aethiopithecus,
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Australopithecus robustus, Paranthropus robustus, Australopithecus boisei,
Paranthropus boisei
Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: David Pilbeam ,
Misia Landau, Raymond Dart, Robert Broom, Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Donald
Johanson, Owen Lovejoy
Describe the process of fossilization and explain why fossil teeth are found more
than other parts of the skeleton.
Explain why the period between four and eight million years ago for human
development?
Link current trends in society to corresponding shifts in emphasis on early man
studies during the twentieth century.
Explain why anthropologists in the early twentieth century so eager to accept
Piltdown man as a valid ancestor.
Reconstruct the reasoning and evidence behind Ramapithecus being accepted
then later rejected as a human ancestor.
Explain Charles Darwin’s reasoning behind postulating an African origin for
man.
Present the arguments supporting the premise that Africa is “cradle of
mankind.”
Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of hominid fossil
hunting in the Great Rift Valley and the South African lime caves.
Describe the two avenues of genetic research that support an African origin for
man.
Reconstruct Raymond Dart's argument for the Taung child being a human
ancestor and explain why most scientists originally rejected his thesis.
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Identify features of australopithecus that are pongid, and features that are
hominid.
Recount the evidence which indicates the australopithecines were bipedalists.
Explain why anthropologists are beginning to classify the robust
australopithecines as a separate genus: paranthropus.
Translate the Latin scientific names for the early hominids in this unit into
English.
Place the hominids in this unit on a time line.
Content
I. SEARCHING FOR EARLIEST MAN
A. Fossils and Paleoanthropology
1. fragmentary nature of fossils
2. closing the gaps in the fossil record
B. Affect of Current Ideas on Interpretations of the Past
1. cultural biases
2. parallels between evolutionary accounts and hero tales
C. False Ancestors
1. Piltdown Man
2. Ramapithecus
a. David Pilbeam
b. interpreting the evidence
II. AFRICAN ORIGINS FOR HUMANKIND
A. Darwin's Hypothesis
B. Fossil Evidence
1. Great Rift Valley
a. Olduvai Gorge
b. Lake Turkana
c. Laetoli
d. Awash Valley
2. South African lime caves
C. Genetic Evidence
1. similarity to African apes
2. genetic diversity of the !Kung
III. THE TAUNG CHILD
A. Raymond Dart
B. A New Hominid: Australopithecus africanus
1. brain cast features
2. dental features
3. placement of the foramen magnum
C. Rejection Then Acceptance by the Scientific Community
1. reasons for rejection
2. Robert Broom's fossil finds
3. Louis Leakey's work
IV. THE AUSTRALOPITHECINES
A. Age and Geographic Range
B. Physical Characteristics: Transitional Ape to Human
1. brain
2. skull, face and teeth
3. body
C. Bipedalism
1. theories why bipedalism evolved
2. Ardipithecus anamensis
D. Species of Australopithecus
1. gracile types
2. robust types
Assessment Examples
• In a well constructed essay, discuss the savanna hypothesis as it relates to the
development of human bipedalism. Recount reasons given for why adaptation to
savanna life led to bipedalism and explain why the savanna hypothesis has been
called into question in the past few years.
• Use proper vocabulary to point out the specific differences between an
australopithecus, a modern chimpanzee, and modern man as illustrated by a
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diagram of their skull and skeleton. Pay special attention to how these changes
are related to their different forms of locomotion.
Assume the character of Richard Leakey. Write an open letter to Donald
Johanson expressing your views of the place of the australopithecines in the
human family tree.
Draw a map of Africa that includes the Great Rift Valley. On that map, locate and
label significant sites early hominid fossils have been found including: Laetoli,
Hadar, Swartkrans, Sterkfontein, Lake Turkana, the Olduvai Gorge.
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View the opening sequence to the film 2001. Describe the way the early
hominids are portrayed and explain the basis of the "killer ape" hypothesis that
was current when the film was released in 1968.
Recommended Materials
Gore, Rick. "The First Steps." National Geographic, February 1997, 72.
Leakey, Richard. Origins. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977.
Lewin, Roger, In the Age of Mankind. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1988.
Zihlman, Adrienne. The Human Evolution Coloring Book. New York: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1982.
"The Children of Eve." Nova, . (video)
"The Story of Lucy." Nova: In Search of Human Origins, 1994. (video)
"The Human Puzzle." Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution, 1994. (video)
"Giant Strides." Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution, 1994. (video)
"Life Before Man." The Emergence of Man. Time-Life . (filmstrip)
THE ARRIVAL OF MAN:
EARLY MEMBERS OF GENUS HOMO
Overview
The australopithecines were a very successful group, living for about two and
one half million years. For at least the last half million years of their existence they
shared space with a new group of hominids, genus Homo. The original members of
this new genus were virtually identical to their australopithecine cousins from the
neck down but had a significantly larger brain. The oldest documented member of
this genus, Homo habilis, emerged in Africa some time before two million years ago.
It is believed that habilis was probably responsible for developing the oldest type of
stone tool first identified at the Oduvai Gorge and dating back to two and one half
million years ago. Homo habilis also was a confirmed meat-eater although whether
they were predominantly hunters or scavengers of the meat they ate continues to be
a subject of controversy. In addition, it is believed that habilis had a brain that was
capable of simple language. Homo erectus appeared about 1.8 million years ago, two
hundred thousand years before the habilis lineage disappeared. Homo erectus would
be responsible for many of humanity's advancements: first use of fire, first
documented use of built shelters, first habitation out of Africa. Controversial fossils
from Asia call into question how soon after appearing in Africa erectus left. The
picture is even further confused by the insistence on the part of some
paleoanthropologists that certain African specimens previously labeled as erectus
are better placed in an entirely separate species: Homo ergaster. Recent finds from
Indonesia indicate that erectus may have hung on there until a mere fifty thousand
years ago.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: Homo habilis, OH 62,
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ER 1470, Broca's area, oldowan stone tools, pebble chopper, flakes, Java man,
pithecanthropus, dragon bones, Peking man, Turkana boy, Homo ergaster,
acheulean hand axe, fire maker, fire keeper, potassium argon dating, scavenging.
Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: Eugene Dubois,
Richard Leakey, Kamoya Kimeu.
Using proper vocabulary, describe how Homo habilis was most like and most
different from australopithecus.
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Explain how the discovery of OH 62 change anthropologists reconstructions of
Homo habilis.
Describe the evidence that indicates Homo habilis may have had the capability of
simple language, and explain how may it have been different from our language.
Discuss the evidence that has caused some anthropologists to cast early man as a
scavenger of the meat he ate rather than a hunter.
Describe the two types of tools that are classified as Oldowan style and explain
how they may have been used.
Map or describe the geographical distribution of Homo erectus remains.
Using proper vocabulary, describe the physical difference between Homo erectus
and Homo sapiens.
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List the significant cultural advances made by Homo erectus.
Content
I. HOMO HABILIS - "HANDY MAN"
A. Fossil Evidence
1. age - 1.9 to 1.6 million years old
2. found in east Africa
3. important specimens
a. ER 1470
b. OH 62
B. Physical Features
1. brain - 800 cc
a. much larger than australopithecus
b. Broca's area and capacity for language
C. Skull and Face
1. similarities to australopithecus
D. Body
1. conservative features
2. importance of OH 62
E. Evidence for Culture
1. shelters and activity sites
2. Oldowan style tools
a. flakes
b. pebble choppers
3. role of meat eating and procurement
II. HOMO ERECTUS - "UPRIGHT MAN"
A. First Finds
1. Java Man
a. Eugene Dubois
b. Pithecanthropus erectus
2. Peking Man
a. Gustav Koenigswald
b. "dragon bones"
B. Recent Finds
1. many similar types found throughout Africa, Europe and Asia
2. Turkana Boy
a. 1.6 million years old
b. 5'4" 12 year old boy - tall for a youth
c. remarkably complete
d. Homo ergaster - "active man"
C. Conclusions from the Fossil Evidence
1. lived 1.8 - .2 million years ago
a. new evidence: maybe in Java recently as 50,000 years ago
2. physical features
a. brain from 880 - 1,100 cc
b. primitive facial features
c. modern body features
D. Evidence for Culture
1. new stone tool technology - Acheulian style
2. homes
3. use of fire
a. oldest dated to 1.5 million years ago
b. fire keeper or fire maker?
4. hunting strategies and meat procurement
E. Migration Patterns
1. first hominid outside of Africa
2. originally believed to be a slow migration, now evidence from Asia
says possibly quite rapid
Assessment Examples
• In a well constructed essay, speculate on how early man first obtained fire, what
impact it had on early man's life, and what the difference is between a fire
keeper and a fire maker.
• In a well constructed essay, discuss the topic of how anthropologists have
approached meat procurement in early hominids. Make references to arguments
for and against hunting and scavenging as well as the research and experiments
that have addressed this controversial issue.
• Use proper vocabulary to point out the specific differences between Homo
habilis, Homo erectus, and modern man as illustrated by a diagram of their skull
and skeleton.
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Construct a timeline/family tree that shows the relationship between Homo
habilis, Homo erectus, and modern man. Also indicate dates for the earliest stone
tools, earliest use of fire, and earliest date for the appearance of the Acheulian
tool making tradition.
Write a prose narrative from the point of view of the Turkana Boy describing a
normal day in his life before his untimely death at the age of twelve.
Recommended Materials
Allman, William F. "The First Humans." U.S. News & World Report. February 27,
1989, 53.
Gore, Rick. "Expanding Worlds." National Geographic. May 1997, 84.
Leakey, Richard. Origins. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977.
Lewin, Roger. In the Age of Mankind. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1988.
Zihlman, Adrienne. The Human Evolution Coloring Book. New York: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1982.
"The Children of Eve." Nova, . (video)
"Surviving in Africa." Nova: In Search of Human Origins, 1994. (video)
"The Human Puzzle." Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution, 1994. (video)
"Giant Strides." Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution, 1994. (video)
"The First Men." The Emergence of Man. Time-Life . (filmstrip)
GENUS HOMO: NEANDERTHALS AND CRO MAGNONS
Overview
The exact dating for the appearance of the first Homo sapiens is debated as
new fossils come to light and known fossils continue to be re-examined. There is
general agreement that Homo sapiens is definitely established as a species by two
hundred thousand years ago. Meanwhile, hominids living in an area that stretched
from the Middle East through Europe, the Neanderthals, may or may not have been
members of the species sapiens. Originally cast as sub-human brutes, excavations in
recent decades indicate that the Neanderthals cared for their sick and disabled, and
buried their dead with respect and ritual. The earliest known fossils of modern man
Homo sapiens sapiens, have been found in southern Africa dating to fifty thousand
years ago and slightly younger specimens have been found on all the continents
except for Antarctica and the Americas. How and why they replaced the
Neanderthals in their home region is not known for sure although several
provocative theories have been forwarded. Where ever the remains of Homo sapiens
sapiens have been found they have been associated with finely crafted artifacts and
representational art. Some of the most famous cultural remains from this period are
the sculptures and cave art produced by a group known as the Cro Magnons.
Eventually, Homo sapiens sapiens in several areas began to abandon a nomadic
hunter and gatherer way of life in favor of settled villages and agriculture. This
would eventually lead to civilization.
Objectives
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: Neander Tal, hyoid
bone, grave offerings, Shanidar Cave, red ochre, “out of Africa” thesis,
multiregionalists, Cro Magnons, sympathetic magic, Mezhirich, atlatl, venus
figures.
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Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: Phil Lieberman,
Christopher Stringer, Allen Thorne, Erik Trinkhaus, Ralph Solecki.
Recount three explanations given for the first Neanderthal found other than that
it was an early form of man.
Describe Neanderthals been viewed prior to the findings of Ralph Solecki at
Shanidar Cave and explain how and why Solecki's finds changed that perception.
Analyze the features of a Neanderthal's body in regards to it having been well
adapted to living in a cold climate.
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Summarize the theory that the Neanderthal's brain may have been organized
differently from ours.
Using proper vocabulary describe the physical differencs between the
Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
Map or describe the geographic distribution of the Neanderthals and the Cro
Magnons.
Discuss the material culture of the Cro Magnons.
Explain what sympathetic magic is and why it is believed Cro Magnons practiced
it.
Describe the traits of a typical Cro Magnon "venus figure".
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Summarize the main theories as to why the Cro Magnons replaced the
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Neanderthals.
Content
I. THE NEANDERTHALS
A. Physical Traits
1. body
2. face and skull
3. brain
a. different size
b. theory of different functions
B. Range
1. when first appeared
2. where remains are found
a. central Asia, Middle East, Europe
b. edge of last glaciation
C. Lifestyle of the Neanderthals
1. adaptation to cold environment
a. caves and dwellings
b. fire use
c. evidence for clothing
2. hunting and technology
a. Mousterian tool making tradition
b. hunting and butchering techniques
3. language
a. differently configured vocal apparatus
b. possibility of sign language
4. culture
a. burial of their dead
b. caring for infirm
c. violence and cannibalism
d. skull cults
D. Extinction of the Neanderthals
1. gone by 25,000 BP
2. theories why replaced by the Cro Magnons
II. THE FIRST HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS
A. Difficulty of Assigning Dates
1. archaic Homo sapiens
2. transitional features from Homo erectus
B. Conflicting Hypothesis
1. majority view: "Out of Africa" - Homo sapiens sapiens originated in
Africa
a. Klaises River Mouth caves
2. minority view: multiregionalists - Homo erectus evolved into Homo
sapiens around the world
a. Allen Thorne and the Australian evidence
C. Modern Man Around the World
1. in Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia by 40,000 BP
a. travel routes
b. ice age land bridges
2. first humans in the Americas
a. Clovis barrier - 12,000 BP
b. Monte Verde, Chile - 20,000+ BP
III. THE CRO MAGNONS
A. Cultural Distinction
1. physiologically like us
2. geographic range: western Asia, Middle East, southern Europe
3. 50,000 BP - 12,000 BP
B. Explosion of Creativity
1. art
a. paintings and sculptures of animals they hunted
b. sympathetic magic
2. venus figures
a. exagerated female features
b. possible Earth mother goddess
3. new technology
a. complex housing
b. improved tool making tradition
c. tailored clothing
Assessment
• Pretend to go back in time to witness a Neanderthal funeral. In a well
constructed essay, describe in first person what you see and explain the meaning
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behind the Neanderthals' ritual.
Pretend that you have the opportunity to date a Cro Magnon. Explain to your
protesting parents the reasons why they should not be so concerned since your
Cro Magnons date's people are so much like us.
Reproduce in three dimensions using clay or some other appropriate medium a
venus figure like those produced by the Cro Magnons.
Make and use an atlatl then write about the experience.
After looking at a photograph of an actual Cro Magnon painting, try to tell the
story that the painting was meant to tell.
Recommended Materials
Begley, Sharon. "The Way We Were." Newsweek, November 10, 1986. 62.
Gore, Rick. "The Dawn of Humans; Neandertals." National Geographic, January 1998,
2.
Leakey, Richard. Origins. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1977.
Lewin, Roger. In the Age of Mankind. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1988.
White, Randall. Dark Caves, Bright Visions. London: W.W. Morton & Co., 1986.
Zihlman, Adrienne. The Human Evolution Coloring Book. New York: Barnes & Noble
Books, 1982.
"The Children of Eve." Nova, . (video)
"The Creative Revolution." Nova: In Search of Human Origins, 1994. (video)
"All in the Mind." Ape Man: The Story of Human Evolution, 1994. (video)
"The Neanderthals." The Emergence of Man. Time-Life . (filmstrip)
"The Cro Magnons." The Emergence of Man, Time Life . (filmstrip)
INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE
INTERPLAY BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Overview
With the Cro Magnons the matter of physical anthropology becomes
negligible as they were essentially anatomically modern humans. Cultural
anthropologists known as archeologists have tried to use the artifact record, and
experimental archeology based on observation of primitive peoples in historic times
to reconstruct the lifeways of the Cro Magnons. Of course, under these
circumstances the archeologist labors under the caution that without first hand
observation of the living people theories and assumptions could always be wrong.
The cultural anthropologist working with a living culture does not have this
disadvantage but his work is not necessarily made any easier. Starting from a broad
concept of culture that defines it as the total way of life of a people, the cultural
anthropologist tries to make sense of humor behavior from an holistic perspective.
There are many ways to examine a culture. An anthropologist might do field work as
a participant observer in one specific culture or research a specific practice such as
marriage rituals in a cross-cultural analysis. Another anthropologist might try to
analyze the nature of culture assessing, for example, what a cultural group holds to
be ideal behavior as opposed to the actual behavior practiced by members of that
culture. Anthropologist Leslie White has developed a simple and useful model for
looking at a culture that diagrams the relationship between a culture, its belief
system and attitudes, the technology developed by the culture, and the environment
the culture inhabits. The arctic dwelling people known as the Inuit and the ancient
Anasazi whose culture thrived in what is now the "four corners region" of the United
States provide a handy case study in environmental or ecological anthropology that
can be readily illustrated using Leslie White's construct.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: culture,
acculturation, archeology, artifact, participant observer, field work, informant,
ethnocentrism, cross cultural methodology, culutural relativism, manifest
function, latent function, technology, ecological anthropology, case study,
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ethnography, experimental archeology, Leslie White's "culture triangle".
Define culture and identify the attributes of culture.
List and describe at least three different ways to go about studying a culture.
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of studying a culture through its
artifacts as an archeologist does and studying a culture by becoming a
participant observer.
Describe the process of becoming an anthropological participant observer.
Explain why the anthropology participant observer cannot become a full
member of the culture being observed and continue to produce valid research.
Identify the latent and manifest functions of practices found in our culture.
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Demonstrate an understanding of Leslie White's culture triangle by applying it to
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our culture and other cultures studies in this course from this point forward.
Use specific examples to illustrate the way the Inuit have used culture to adapt to
their environment.
Use specific examples to illustrate the way the Inuit have used technology to
adapt to their environment.
Know the meaning of Inuit words such as kayak, umiak, mukluk, and parka.
Explain how the traditional Inuit way of life has come into conflict with western
post-industrial society.
Assess the impact of white culture on the Inuit way of life.
Trace the periods of development in the Native American peoples that led to the
Grand Period Anasazi.
Use specific examples to illustrate the way Anasazi technology was used to adapt
to their environment.
Explain why and how Anasazi agricultural practices had a negative impact on
their environment
Describe the main features of Anasazi architecture.
Recount the main theories given as to how and why the Anasazi vanished.
Content (12 PT BOLD, ONLY FIRST LETTER CAP, NO COLON)
I. THE STUDY OF CULTURE
A. Culture
1. defined
2. purpose of culture
B. Attributes of Culture: Culture is ...
1. learned (acculturation)
2. shared
3. cumulative
4. diverse
5. a system
C. Ways to Study Culture
1. archeology - the artifact record
2. material culture and nonmaterial culture
3. participant observation - field work
a. avoid ethnocentrism
b. need for objectivity
4. ideal behavior vs. real behavior
5. latent and manifest functions of a practice
6. cross-cultural methodology
7. Leslie White's culture triangle
TECH N OLOGY
TH E
CU LTU R E
B E L I E F S Y S T E ME N V I R O N M E N T
8. ecological anthropology
II. CASE STUDY: THE INUIT
A. Origins
1. Asian ancestors
2. late comers to America - about 7,000 years ago
B. Physical Traits
1. facial features
a. narrow nasal passages
b. big jaws
c. epicanthic fold
2. body
a. long trunk, short limbs
b. good adaptation to cold
C. Technology
1. materials available in arctic
a. marine and arctic mammals
b. scarcity of wood
c. "Copper Eskimos"
2. clothing
3. boats
a. umiak
b. kayak
4. lighting and heating
5. housing
6. hunting tools and practices
a. harpoons
b. sled and dogs
D. Belief Systems
1. mythology
2. mating practices
3. death
4. importance of self sacrifice
III. CASE STUDY: THE ANASAZI
A. Location and Environment
1. "four corners" region
2. semi-arid steppe
a. advantages and disadvantages
b. available wild foods
c. agriculture
B. Early Periods of Development
1. Paleo-Indians (10,000-2,000 BP)
2. Basketmakers (2,000 BP- 550 AD)
3. Modified Basketmakers (550 - 750 )
a. pottery
b. agriculture
c. settlements and architecture
4. Developmental Pueble (750 - 1100)
a. new architectural tradition: group homes
b. new architectural tradition: the kiva
c. water projects
C. Classic (Great Pueblo) Anasazi (1100 - 1270)
1. cliff houses
a. climatic advantages
b. defensive advantages
2. kivas and social organization
a. matrilocal settlement and matrilineal descent
b. main features
c. kiva activities
3. agriculture - dry farmig
4. health
5. extensive trade networks
D. The End of the Anasazi
1. cultural peak
2. collapse and abandonment
3. conflicting and complementary theories
E. Descendants of the Anasazi
Assessment Examples
• After reading or hearing an account of an anthropologists first encounter with a
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group, list and describe the hardships a participant observer might need to
overcome.
Select and research a culture writing a general ethnography of that culture that
includes such information as:
where they live.
the nature of their kinship system.
a description of their economy.
a description of their political system.
how their roles differ between male and female, and young and old.
what their major celebrations are.
what is valued most in that culture.
what their major rituals are.
Identify a local subculture and observe it as a participant observer would. Write
an ethnography of that group as they are engaged in a specific practice.
Research and reproduce in miniature or full size an item of Inuit material
culture.
In a well constructed essay, recount and evaluate the various theories that have
been proposed as to why the Anasazi disappeared.
Recommended Materials
Hansen, Jens Pederhart, et al. The Greenland Mummies. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.
Harris, Marvin. Cannibals and Kings.Vintage Books, 1991.
Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches. Vintage Books, 1989.
Harris, Marvin. Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology.
Longman Publishing Group, 1997.
Helm, June, ed. Handbook of North American Indians; Sub Arctic. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution. 1981.
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mankind. New York, London, Toronto: Marshall
Cavendish, 1984.
Ortiz, Alfonso, ed. Handbook of North American Indians; Southwest. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution. 1978.
Roberts, David, "The Old Ones of the Southwest." National Geographic, April 1996,
86.
Nanook of the North, 1922. (video)
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS:
CASE STUDIES IN WARFARE
Overview
Through cross-cultural studies anthropologists hope to discern basic
patterns and rules of human behavior. Often this proves to be problematic as
different anthropologists are likely to arrive at different conclusions while analyzing
the same phenomenon. In many cases this difference in interpretation stems from
the different anthropologists having different philosophical backgrounds. This is
apparent when one considers the various studies that have been conducted on the
issues of violence and warfare. Although there are many schools of thought on the
subject, three of the main explanations for why men go to war are historical,
materialist and sociobiological reasons. According to the historical theory, people go
to war for to answer needs that are deep rooted in a series of past events. Marvin
Harris, a well-known materialist, believes that people go to war in order to settle
disagreements over resources or access to resources. Finally, the sociobiologist war
is a genetically programmed behavior designed to give one racial group primacy
over another. There is a certain logic in each of these competing theories. Perhaps
their best measure is how well they explain documented cases.
Two very well known tribal groups who regularly engage in war are the
Baliem Valley Dani of New Guinea and the Yanomamo of Venezuela. The Dani were
documented by Robert Gardner in the early 1960s in the film Dead Birds. According
to their ritualized rules of warfare they must avenge the death of their kin brought
on by attacks from their neighbors across the valley who, in turn, are seeking to
avenge the death of their own kin brought on by the Dani. The origin of this tit-fortat exchange has been lost to time. When interviewed it is apparent that the Dani's
lives are largely ruled by obligations to appease the ancestors and avoid offending
spirits. Men go to war, they say, because they enjoy it and a kepu, or coward, is
reviled by the tribe.
The Yanomamo have been called by some anthropologists the most violent
people in the world. They had little contact with white people until the late 1950s
when missionaries tried to contact them. Soon after, anthropologist Napoleon
Chagnon commenced a study that would make him famous in anthropological
circles. Living among the Yanomamo, Napoleon Chagnon observed their cycle of
forging new alliances with rival villages, treacherous betrayal of old allies, stealing
of women, beating of wives, violent ritual duels and use of hallucinogens to contact
the spirit world. From the start Yanomamo boys are taught to be aggressive and to
hit their mothers and sisters. Yanomamo women practice a slow form of infanticide
by neglect, generally against female offspring. Yet the Yanomamo see themselves as
poor in women. The main goal of the surprise attacks conducted against other
villages is to abduct their women and bring them back to their own village as prizes
to be distributed to accrue prestige. Recently some anthropologists have tried to
explain Yanomamo violence as a reaction to white territorial encroachment.
In our culture modern technology has brought the potential for killing in war
to genocidal proportions (lending weight to the sociobiologists' argument.)
Needless to say, advances in civilization have not diminished the presence of war as
a cultural phenomenon. The anthropologist hopes to answer the question why.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: historical theory of
war, materialist theory of war, sociobiological theory of war, Dani, big-man, pigtreasure, kepu, Yanomamo, shabono, ebene, hekura.
• Identify and explain the significance of the following individuals: Marvin Harris,
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Robert Gardner, Napoleon Chagnon.
Summarize the historical theory for why war takes place and make up an
original example based on events of the twentieth century to illustrate it.
Summarize the materialist theory for why war takes place and make up an
original example based on events of the twentieth century to illustrate it.
Summarize the sociobiological theory for why war takes place and make up an
original example based on events of the twentieth century to illustrate it.
Evaluate the merits and short comings of the three theories for why war takes
place.
Locate where the Dani live on a map of the world.
Describe the main features of tribal life as generally found in New Guinea
including:
the role of pigs in economic life.
the attainment of status by men and becoming a "big man."
relationship with the spirit world.
Describe warfare as it is practiced by the Dani.
Offer an historical, materialist, and sociobioligical reason for why the Dani go to
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war.
Locate where the Yanomamo live on a map of the world.
Describe the dynamic nature of male/female relations among the Yanomamo.
Explain how and why the Yanomamo use hallucinogens.
Discuss the way violence permeates Yanomamo society.
Offer an historical, materialist, and sociobioligical reason for why the Yanomamo
go to war.
Content
I. THEORIES WHY MEN GO TO WAR
A. What is War?
1. early expressions of organized violence
2. rise of professional armies
3. ritual war versus total war
B. Historical Theory
C. Materialist Theory
1. Marxist underpinnings
2. Marvin Harris
D. Sociobiological Theory
1. role of genetics
2. Napoleon Chagnon
II. THE DANI AND PEOPLES OF NEW GUINEA
A. The Island of New Guinea
1. 2nd largest island in world
2. terrain: mountainous interior, coastal plains
B. Prehistory
1. disputed genetic origins of people of New Guinea
2. complex linguistic situation
3. archeology shows habitation to 10,000 BP
C. Features Common to Historic Period Cultures
1. political life
a. no chief or inherited rank
b. male competition for prestige
2. "big men"
a. relationships - kin, alliance, enemy
b. wealth - wonkonokake - "pig treasure"
c. gifts and obligation
3. warfare
a. alliance systems
b. ritual nature of war in forest and river
B. Day to Day Life
1. the shabono (living structure)
2. kinship, marriage patterns (bilateral cross-cousin marriage
3. foodways - mixed hunter, gatherers, agriculturalists
C. Violence and Warfare
1. attitudes towards women
2. ritualized duels
3. alliances, raids and warfare
D. Relationships with the Supernatural World
1. myths and mythology
a. origin stories
b. world view
c. hekura (spirits)
2. shamanism
3. ritual use of hallucinogens - ebene
E. Contact with Whites
1. missionary efforts
2. Napoleon Chagnon
3. white encroachment and effect on the Yanomamo
Assessment Examples
• In a well constructed status of the individual.
Recommended Materials
Allman, William F. "A Laboratory of Human Conflict." U.S. News & World Report,
April 11, 1988, 57.
Breeden, Robert L. ed. Primitive Worlds. Washington D.C.: National Geographic,
1973.
Chagnon, Napoleon. Yanomamo; The Last Days of Eden. New York: Harcourt Brace &
Co., 1992.
Harris, Marvin. Cannibals and Kings. Vintage Books, 1991.
Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches. Vintage Books, 1989.
Harris, Marvin. Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology.
Longman Publishing Group, 1997.
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mankind. New York, London, Toronto: Marshall
Cavendish, 1984.
Dead Birds, Parts 1,2,3. (video)
Warriors of the Amazon (video)
MAN AND THE SUPERNATURAL WORLD:
MAGIC AND RELIGION
Overview
Belief in the existence of supernatural beings such as spirits, ghosts and gods
seems to be universal, not in the sense that all persons have these beliefs but, rather,
that such beliefs are part of the culture of every known society. It seems clear that
belief in the spirit world fulfills a basic human need. Much of the behavior of
individual and of the society as a whole revolves around these belief systems. For
the most part, the goal of these behaviors is to get or stay on the right side of the
spiritual beings in which they believe. In visions, dreams, states of trance and
"possession," people receive convincing support for the existence of gods and
spirits. Passage into the mental state where contact with the spirit world takes place
can be facilitated by sensory deprivation, over-stimulation or the ingestion of
psychoactive substances such as peyote or hallucinogenic mushrooms. While it is
possible to explain away these experiences in scientific terms, however, the reality
of the experience for the participant cannot be discounted.
Anthropologists have divided the nature of society's relationship with the
spirit world along a continuum that has magic on one end and religion on the other.
Often a culture or practice can be placed along the continuum rather that at the
polar ends. As a rule of thumb, the less complex the level of social organization of a
group, the more likely that group will be closer to the magic end of the scale in its
practices related to the supernatural world. At that end the shaman is typically the
individual who has a special relationship with the spirit world. The shaman usually
has answered a calling that he or she received in a vision or dream and has little
choice in whether or not to become a spiritual leader. The training to become a
shaman is generally an individualistic, informal type of apprenticeship with an
established shaman. In religion, the spiritual leader is generally a priest who has
made a conscious decision to enter the priesthood. Training to be a priest is likely to
be formal, perhaps in a temple or school, and the same for all priests.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: animism, animatism,
mana, sinik, Holy Ghost, taboo, shaman, magic, religion, myth, irresistible calling,
ritual, vision, sacred, secular, superstition.
• Explain what function magic or religion serve for an individual and for a society.
• Explain the difference between "magic" and "religion."
• Trace the prehistoric and historic circumstances that led to the replacement of
shamanism by a priesthood.
• List the main features of a shamanistic society and shamanistic practices.
• List the main features of a religion oriented society and religious practices.
• Describe some of the psychological or physiological conditions that might induce
a vision state.
Analyze specific "lucky" and religious practices found in our culture in terms of
magic or religion as defined by anthropologists.
Content
I. CULTURAL BELIEF IN A SPIRIT WORLD
A. Found in all Known Cultures
1. paradox - found in all cultures but not all persons are believers
2. fulfills a variety of psychological and sociological functions
B. Sacred and Secular
1. cultures that separate sacred and secular
2. incorporation of sacred practices and secular practices
II. INHABITANTS AND THE FORCE OF THE SPIRIT WORLD
A. Spirit Beings
1. gods and goddesses
2. ancestral spirits
3. subdieties
B. Spirit Force
1. mana
2. animism
3. animatism
4. taboos
III. CONTACT WITH THE SUPERNATURAL WORLD
A. Visions
1. nature of visions
2. function of visions
3. psycho-physiological explanations
B. Magic
1. shamanism
a. becoming a shaman
b. the shaman's duties
2. societies where magic is typically found
3. direct intervention in the spirit world
C. Religion
1. priesthood
a. becoming a priest
b. the priest's duties
2. societies where religion is typically found
3. at the mercy of the spirit world.
IV. CASE STUDIES
A. Cargo Cults
1. New Guinea and Melanesia
2. contact with Allied forces during World War II
3. John Frumm
4. desires for liberation and material wealth
B. The Ghost Dance
1. late 19th century, defeated American Plains Indians
2. Wovoka - native prophet
3. messianic movement of deliverance
4. end of the movement
C. The Somba
1. sub-Saharan Dahomey
2. fusing sacred and secular with harvest rituals
3. importance of ancestor spirit appeasement
4. use of ritual for passage from one life stage to the next.
Assessment Examples
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In a well constructed essay, discuss the difference between magic and religion in
terms of how each emerged and how each is practiced.
Survey other students to find as many lucky, unlucky or superstitious practices
or beliefs held by these students. List all of these practices and try to place them
on a continuum as an anthropologist might categorizing them as magic or
religious practices.
Attend the worship services of two different religious, sects or cults. Write a
narrative describing each and compare and contrast the two services.
Make a poster that illustrates the difference between magic and religion,
shamanism and a priesthood.
Research a religion or belief system other than one of those covered in this unit.
Write a summary of the belief system and its accompanying practices and
explain how it guides the lives of the culture that follows it.
Recommended Materials
Breeden, Robert L. ed. Primitive Worlds. Washington D.C.: National Geographic,
1973. Cambell, Joseph. The Power of Myth. New York: Double Day, 1988.
Frazer, James. The Golden Bough.
Harris, Marvin. Cannibals and Kings. Vintage Books, 1991.
Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches. Vintage Books, 1989.
Harris, Marvin. Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology.
Longman Publishing Group, 1997.
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mankind. New York, London, Toronto: Marshall
Cavendish, 1984.
Inventing Reality (video)
MARRIAGE AND MATING
Overview
While marriage, families and spousal arrangements take a myriad variety of
forms the fact that they are found in all cultures indicates that it is a universal
behavior fundamental to human social existence. The marriage may or may not be
preceded by courting behavior. Courting does not necessarily result in marriage.
Likewise mating may take place before, after, within or without marriage. Often the
stated ideal behavior of a culture does not match up with the actual behavior of
individuals in these circumstances. Monogamy and polygyny are the two most
common forms of marriage found in the world. Even in societies where polygyny is
accepted most marriages are monogamous. Since the sex ratio tends to be about
even it is usually only the wealthier and more powerful men of high status who have
extra wives. Usually there are strict but often subtle rules that must be followed in
selecting a spouse. All cultures have incest prohibitions but not all cultures apply the
same definition for who is family and who is not. (Interestingly most cultures make
an exception in incest prohibition for cases of royalty.)
In many ways the marriage and mating practices of our culture are
inconsistent with general behaviors and trends observed by anthropologists. For
example, monogamy tends to be more typical of socially unsophisticated hunter and
gatherer cultures. In addition, the free will marriage is more likely to occur in
cultures that are not rich in material goods and technology. Generally arranged
marriages are the norm in cultures where families have expensive land or material
holdings. In addition, as our society enters into the twenty-first century there has
been a reappraisal of traditional assumptions surrounding marriage and family.
Objectives
Upon completing this unit students will be able to:
• Identify and explain the significance of the following terms: marriage, mating,
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courting, premarital mating, droites de seigneur, extramarital mating, incest
prohibition, levirate, sororate, dowry, exogamy, endogamy, arranged marriage,
freewill marriage, monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, polyandry.
Use proper vocabulary and terms to describe marriages in our culture and other
cultures.
Cite specific examples from other cultures to illustrate the meaning of the
various vocabulary words in this unit.
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Discuss the variety of types of marriage arrangements found in the world.
List the various ways marriage practices in our culture do not fulfill
anthropological assumptions about marriage practices in general.
Explain the relationship between marriage practices in a culture and the way
that culture regards the transfer of material goods from one generation to the
next.
Analyze the difference between ideal marriage and mating behavior in a culture
and the way members of that culture might actually behave.
Assess the importance of marriage in our current society and make tentative
predictions about the future of marriage in our society.
Content
I. MATING
A. Courting Rituals
B. Function of Mating
1. Inuit practices
2. Yanomamo practices
C. Types of Mating
1. ceremonial mating
a. vestal virgins
b. droites de seigneur
2. premarital mating
3. extramarital mating
D. Incest Prohibitions
1. cultural phenomenon
a. different definitions of who is family
2. exceptions to incest prohibition
a. royalty
b. Balinese twins
II. MARRIAGE
A. Earliest Function
1. role of exchange of goods and services
2. levirate and sororate
B. Choosing a Spouse
1. exogamy
2. endogamy
a. Hindu caste system
3. arranged marriages
4. freewill marriages
C. Monogamy
1. minority in world's cultures
2. typical of primitive, nonliterate, matriarchal societies
D. Polygamy
1. polygyny - multiple wives
a. most common in world
b. reasons it exists
c. as it exists in Islamic society
d. Mormon "celestial marriage"
2. polyandry - multiple husbands
a. very rare
b. tied to land inheritance patterns
Assessment Examples
• In a well constructed essay, describe the variety of marriage arrangements found
in the world using actual cultural groups to illustrate the different arrangements.
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Role play the parents of a young man and a young woman seeking the assistance
of a marriage broker to arrange a dowry agreement and marriage between the
young people.
Create a poster that illustrates the types of arrangements found for marriage in
different cultures.
Design a checklist for categorizing the different types of features found in
marriages throughout the world. Use the checklist to assess the features of
marriage found in our culture.
Research the marriage practices and rituals of a culture other than one studied
in this unit. Report the findings to the class.
Recommended Materials
Breeden, Robert L. ed. Primitive Worlds. Washington D.C.: National Geographic,
1973.
Cohen, David. The Circle of Life, Rituals from the Human Family Tree. San Francisco:
Harper, 1991.
Harris, Marvin. Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology.
Longman Publishing Group, 1997.
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mankind. New York, London, Toronto: Marshall
Cavendish, 1984.
Strange Relations (video)