Gender and Crime
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2012), 74.5% of the over twelve
million people arrested in the United States in 2012 were male, reflecting an international
trend that has existed for centuries. It was once thought that female crime rates would
come to approximate those of males as the genders assumed more similar roles in society.
But this so-called “gender gap” in crime still remains with only a 2.9% increase in female
crime rates observed in the last 10 years (FBI 2012). Studies have shown that the social
status of male and female criminals are generally the same, disproportionally representing
those with a low level of education, minorities, and the under- or unemployed
(Steffensmeier 1996). Something, then, has to account for this disparity in crime rates
between the genders. Psychological motivation, as manifested in the stereotypes,
physicality, and mental traits of the genders, can be shown to greatly impact the gender gap
in crime.
Stereotypical gender roles influence motivations to commit crime. Men are usually
viewed as aggressive and dominating while women are seen as caring and nurturing.
Criminal behavior is typically associated with masculine rather than feminine qualities.
Aggression, independence, and dominance seem to lead naturally to deviance while most
crime seems directly opposed to the nurturing feminine image. In fact, Dr. Steffensmeier, a
criminologist at Penn State University, noted that “the cleavage between what is considered
feminine and what is criminal is sharp, while the dividing line between what is considered
masculine and what is criminal is often thin” (Steffensmeier, 1996, 19). Another study
noted that “in committing crime, females violate their gender role expectations” (KoonsWitt, 2003, 1). Women may lose motivation to commit criminal acts from these social
stereotypes of gender and criminals, afraid that a stigma may be attached to them for
exhibiting more masculine qualities in their actions.
Like most stereotypes, there are some good reasons for these ideas of traditional
gender traits to exist, as exhibited by innate physical and mental differences between the
genders. Physical differences are due largely to testosterone, a hormone found biologically
in both men and women but in much higher amounts in men. Elevated levels of
testosterone cause increased bodily and muscular growth and strength and tend to make
men naturally more aggressive and dominant. Studies have linked typical masculine
testosterone levels to increased aggression (Archer 2006) and risk taking (Coren 2008). In
general, it was noted that “behavior associated with testosterone can lead to trouble with
the law.” (Dabbs, 1997, 477). Conversely, lower levels of testosterone make women
physically weaker, less aggressive, and more group-oriented. For these reasons, females are
less likely to commit crime than males and when they do, they often act in groups or as
accomplices to male criminals (Steffensmeier 1996).
Key mental differences also exist between the genders. Fumagalli et al (2009) found
a fundamental difference in moral reasoning between the males and females. While men
tended to make moral decisions based on abstract concepts like justice and fairness and
preferred to deal with such problems themselves, women based their reasoning on the
choice that would cause the least amount of moral and physical pain to others and were
less likely to act on their own. Women criminals are also more likely to have a history of
psychological disorders and are more likely to be victims of physical, sexual, or drug abuse
(Chambers 2001, Steffensmeier 1996), which may contribute to their likelihood to commit
crime. Another study showed that women are actually more likely to deal with negative
emotions that could lead to crime (such as anger) in constructive ways and often empathize
with crime victims, deterring them from committing crime themselves (Knight 2002).
Finally, males are typically rewarded for taking risks in childhood (Bowen 2009) and
usually receive a higher payoff from the crimes that they commit (Bowen 2009,
Steffensmeier 1996), which also makes them more motivated to commit crime.
These differences in motivation combine to significantly impact the crime rate.
Violent crime, which includes murder, rape, and robbery, exhibits the largest difference in
crime rates between the genders, with only 20% of these offenses committed by females
(FBI 2012). As we have seen, men are motivated primarily by power and individualism and
are more likely to take risks and act aggressively. Men are thus more likely to participate in
violent crime. On the other hand, women turn to violence typically as a last resort when
under extreme stress. A study noted that “females appeared motivated by selfpreservation” (Chambers, 2011, 15), and Steffensmeier (1996) found that “for women to
kill, they generally must see their situation as life-threatening, as affecting the physical or
emotional well-being of themselves of their children” (p. 23). These findings that help
explain psychological motivation in crime while also reaffirming stereotypical gender
qualities.
On the other side of the spectrum is white collar crime, a category that includes
forgery, fraud, and embezzlement. The difference in this crime rate is still significant, with
males committing 59.9% of these offenses (FBI 2012). Men have a more individualistic
moral sense, are higher risk takers, and typically have a higher payoff, and so are more
motivated to commit these crimes. Because females, on the other hand, are more
empathetic, do not take as much risk, and have a far lower payoff, they are less likely to
commit white collar crime. Steffensmeier (1996) showed that women do not take
advantage of opportunities to commit these offenses nearly as often as men, and the rates
even decrease as women climb company ranks, providing further evidence of the moral
difference between the genders.
Because the traditional gender roles, physical qualities, and mental traits of the
genders differ systematically, psychological motivation between them also varies.
Masculine qualities naturally lead to a higher level of motivation for men to commit crime—
the gender gap is real. In light of this conclusion, Steffensmeier (in Swayne 2013) went as
far as to suggest that more females should be appointed to high-level corporate positions to
guard against white collar crime. Approaches to criminal outreach and rehabilitation
should also be reconsidered, as most female criminal rehabilitation programs are based on
male models and have been shown to be relatively unsuccessful in preventing crime
recurrence (Chambers 2011). Male programs should be reformed as well in order to
decrease the overall crime rate and make America a safer place to live.
References
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