The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the proper personal communication skills and
effective group decision making skills to aid new students in the University of Wisconsin Green Bay’s
communication program on how to effectively hold a group meeting.
It is important for new communication students to understand that there are certain functions
that must be performed in order for groups to function appropriately. These three functions are task
functions, maintenance functions and personal functions.
Based on the three functions above we have come up with a checklist of three individual
communication skills that are vital to group success; listening skills, expressive skills and the overall
group process such as self-understanding.
In order to keep new communication groups focused on their task at hand a similar list of three
important decision making processes was also created. These processes are as follows, agenda creation
processes, problem solving processes and outcome management.
To aid in the understating of the above criteria a video has been made to highlight how not to
act while in a group setting. At first students will see a group “self-destruct” by not following the
guidelines of proper group management. After viewing and explaining what went wrong during the first
meeting in the video the students will be shown effective techniques to help make their group work in a
timelier and more effective manner.
1
What is communication? According to Webster’s Dictionary communication is the exchanging of
thoughts, opinions or information through different channels. Communication starts with a sender that
wishes to send a message to the receiver. Upon sharing his message the Sender encodes his message to
figure out exactly what it is that he or she is trying to convey. Upon figuring this out the Sender then
chooses a medium in which to send the message to the Receiver. The Receiver then gets the message
and starts to decode it to understand what point the Sender was trying to make. After this is figured out
the Receiver sends his feedback to the Sender at which point the Sender formulates an idea based on
what the Receiver has said.
Noise
Medium is
selected to
carry the
message
Sender
(Encodes a
Message)
Ideas ar
formulated
based on
feedback
provided by the
Receiver
Receiver
(Decodes the
message and
provides
feedback)
Feedback is
provided
through a
selected
medium
Noise
This process sounds simply enough right? But we have not mentioned the factor of noise yet.
Noise in the communication system makes things unclear and can change the shape of a message which
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in turn can mean it is interpreted by others differently than we meant to convey. The problem of noise
only gets more complicated when working in group settings.
It is inevitable at some point in your life you will have to participate in a group either by choice
or because your boss has a project he needs done before next week Friday. Because people work in
groups frequently, you would think that there would be an understanding on how to effectively work
with group members but this is not usually the case. Everyone has experienced that “one group” that
seemed to never get anything accomplished. This is due to break down of critical components caused
by noise that are need for group success such as a bad atmosphere, unclear group objectives,
communication break downs and not having a protocol to handle problems that may arise to name a
few.
However these group breakdowns can be fixed by having a better understanding of small group
communication skills and tools that help to facilitate group success. The rest of this paper will aid new
communication students in developing a checklist of three communication skills and important decision
making processes that are need for group success to help block out noise and create a successful
working environment.
3
Working effectively in small groups is not an easy task. Small groups face many difficulties that
make it hard to stay focused such as coping with interpersonal conflicts and deciding how to make
decisions correctly and in a timely manner.
Small group success depends on three main functions; they are task, maintenance and personal
functions. Each of these functions helps small groups to stay focused and direct the group into achieving
its goals. Task functions help to keep the group focused and direct the group in the right path to achieve
its goal. Maintenance functions help group members to stay involved and allow everyone to contribute
to their maximum potential. Personal functions address the issue of personal needs in the group and
ensure the group as a whole functions in the best way possible. These three functions are
complimentary which means all of them must be maintained if a group is going to work well.
Task
Maintenance
Initiating
Information seeking
Encouraging
Information giving
Expressing group feelings
Clarifying
Comprimising
Implementing
Setting standards
House keeping
Personal
Self-understanding
Inter-personal understanding
Active listening
Managing Conflict
Recognition
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A breakdown of these three main functions will help people new to small groups get a better
understanding of what is expected of themselves and their group members.
As stated above task functions help to keep the group focused and directed towards achieving
its goals. Group members should be ready to initiate one another and start working together towards
the group’s common purpose. If information is not sought out about the task at hand group meeting will
go nowhere. Members should be ready to actively seeking out opinions and facts about their project
which can be done through brainstorming. Interrelated to information seeking is information giving. If a
group member knows something that other members do not, that piece of information should be
shared to help the group gain a better common understanding. We are all humans and make mistakes, if
one group member cannot interpret something other group members must be willing to help in
clarifying information to that individual. Group members must also implement their actions because
group meetings are not an end to themselves, they must perform a function to create a platform for
subsequent action by group members.
Personal functions address the issue of personal needs in the group and ensure the group as a
whole functions in the best way possible. Members should have a self-understanding of themselves and
their individual behaviors, actions and reactions. Knowing this will help make a difference in how
individuals communicate with other group members and how well they are able to identify and manage
potentially interruptive conflict. Members should have an open mind and the ability to have interpersonal understanding of their group members. Inter-personal understanding is the ability to
understand another person’s point of view. By having this ability a degree of tolerance will be built to
other group members and their opinions which will help reduce unproductive or emotionally based
conflict.
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Maintenance functions help group members to stay involved and allow everyone to contribute
to their maximum potential. Negativity ruins communication in groups. Group members should be ready
to encourage their group members. This means making group members feel welcomed, being
responsive to others and giving recognition to group members that have contributed a good idea. We
are all unique individuals with different ideas and opinions. The problem of conflicting ideas will arise
while working in groups. In order to effectively handle this group member’s should be willing to
compromise with one another to reach the best outcome on the project they are working on. Groups
must also set standards for group actions. These standards will help aid in keeping the group focused
and on task without creating resentment or hostility towards other members.
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After analyzing the main components of small group communication we have come up with
three recommended individual communication skills that new communication students should have
while working in a small group setting. These skills are listening skills, expressive skills and skills for
managing the overall group process.
Listening Skills
Expressive Skills
Overall Group Process Skills
Listening skills are vital to small group success. Communication is a two way process, if a
discussion is to be productive all communicating should be understood clearly. In order to understand
communication group members must be active listeners.
Active listening is a communication technique that requires the listener of a message to
interpret and evaluate what they hear. To be active listener group members must concentrate on what
others are saying. In active listening situations it is important to let the person who is doing the talking
to finish their message before interrupting and chiming in with your opinion. Before expressing your
point of view get the person who was doing the speaking to confirm your understanding. This can be
done by reflecting back on what the speaker just said.
Interpersonal listening is another form of listening that is needed in small group communication.
Interpersonal listening is the ability to understand another person’s point of view. Interpersonal
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listening does not solely help group members to understand other points of view but also encourages
many more ideas to be submitted to the group. This is due to group members feeling better understood
and feeling less likely to have their ideas ignored or ridiculed.
Expressive skills give information to others. The information that is given through these skill
ranges from recognition to expressing feelings or concerns when managing conflict. Recognition is an
important aspect of expressive skills because if group members do not feel valued they will not put forth
the effort as someone who is perceived as more important to the group. It is important when working in
small groups to make sure all group members contribute recognition to each other otherwise
unfounded recognition can be just as bad and group members may view receiving recognition as a
sarcastic attack. Managing conflict is the second aspect of having expressive skills. The key to managing
conflict in a small group setting is to recognize the type of communicator other group members are.
Once this is established other members will be able to handle the conflicting situation accordingly.
Collaboration is the desired way of doing this; it leads to a win-win scenario and gets the best results for
all individuals involved. However in order for collaboration to work properly all group members must
understand and think of conflict rationally and keep emotional responses out of the equation.
Thirdly it is important for communication students to possess skills that help to manage the
overall group process. The capacity for individual group members to see and understand their own
behavior, actions, and reactions will help them to communicate more effectively and identify conflict.
For example saying “Yes, I agree with that” to your group members while your arms are crossed and you
are looking in the opposite direction convinces no one of you approval. Understanding your own
reactions will help group members to communicate a clearer message. Self-understanding can be
developed by objectively evaluating your communication style. In order to aid in this you can use a
Personal Communication Assessment Test. A Personal Communication Assessment Test will allow group
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members to analyze their personal communication skills by highlighting the levels of competency in
communication, identifying their strengths and weaknesses and will allow them to formulate a plan to
continuously improve.
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Now that the knowledge of how the communication process works, the three main functions of
small groups communication and three important communication skills have been laid out it is time to
address important decisions making skills that will help to aid in small group communication. These
three skills consist of agenda creation processes, problem solving processes and outcome management
processes.
Agenda Creation Process
Problem Solving Process
Outcome Management
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Now that the knowledge of how the communication process works, the three main functions
that are needed for successful group communication and three important communication skills that are
vital to group success have been laid out it is time to address important decisions making skills that will
help to aid in small group communication. These three skills consist of agenda creation processes,
problem solving processes and outcome management processes.
According to John E. Tropman, author of Making Meetings Work a meeting is a deal between
the participants of a meeting and those who have called the meeting. The underlying assumptions of
this deal are that participants are expected to be treated well, involved and use their time productively.
On the side of the meeting caller there are assumptions as well. Meeting callers or project group
managers assume that participants of the meeting will act responsively and will assist in and aid in high
quality decision making.
Meeting Callers
Participants
Expect to be
treated well
Participants will
act responsively
Be involved
Assist in the aid
of high quality
decision making
Have their time
used
productively
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By having an agenda created for a meeting the meeting caller will help introverted group
members to prepare for the meeting and will allow extroverted group members stay focused during the
course of the meeting.
Based on the information above this is where the first important decision making process
agenda integrity comes in. There are two main rules to agenda integrity. The first is deal with all items
on the agenda. Rule number two states do not deal with any items not on the agenda.
Great meetings require work by the group members involved. A perfect example of this can
once again be reflecting in Tropman’s book, Making Meeting Work. Tropman gives the following
example to highlight this statement.
“For example consider how you felt as a high school student when a teacher suddenly announced on Thursday that there was going to be a quiz
on Friday. You canceled your plans with friends and roped your parents into helping you, and went in there ready for bear. Suddenly the
teacher said, “Well I’ve decided to postpone the quiz.” The surge of anger you felt at that point is pretty similar to what meeting participants
feel when they are prepared for a meeting and get side tracked.”
Tropman’s example highlights agenda integrity perfectly. Because people have prepared for
analyzing certain material in their meetings it is only fair to honor that expectation.
It is also just as important to not talk about items that are not on the agenda. These items
should be considered new business and be set aside for future meetings. A great way to deal with these
new ideas or tasks is to use a “dinger.” The word dinger can be used to represent a tool that will be used
to stop a person if they get off track or out of focus with the meeting’s agenda. A second tool which can
be used to deal with new ideas or tasks is a parking garage. The parking garage is a list that can be made
of new ideas that group members have come up with during your current meeting. By creating this list
group members along with the meeting callers will be able to go back and refer to what topics should be
addressed next time.
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In order for a group to stay on track deadlines need to be met and there must be structure in
the way a group works, this is where the second important decision making skill temporal integrity
comes in. Temporal integrity has three main parts they are as follows:
-Start the group meeting on time
-End on time
-Keep a rough time order interior to the meeting
There is also an implicit fourth point to temporal integrity and that is do not jerk those
participants around who have prepared for a meeting to accommodate the schedule of those who have
not.
By ensuring that everyone arrives to your meeting on time and ensuring its starts when stated
this will help members of small groups to avoid creating anger which if caused will make prepared
members not want to participate. The second part of temporal integrity is ending on time. A lot of
meetings today tend to run a couple of minutes over there stated time limit. In today’s complex and
crazy world it is fair to say that most people who attend meetings expect them to be finished on time
because more than likely they have a scheduled commitment right after a meeting lets out. In order to
get out on time it is critical to start one time. Secondly as the meeting progresses one should make
adjustments and watch the clock. There is no reason to punish those individuals that have other
commitments on their schedule.
The third part of temporal integrity is keeping a rough time order to the meeting. Time order is
defined as allocating times in some relationship to the importance of the items on the agenda. One way
to insure the agenda is made correctly is to use a Pert Chart. A Pert Chart which stands for Program
Evaluation and Review Technique allows for randomness and activity completion times. Groups should
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use Pert Charts to help pinpoint where they need to be in their overall meeting process and to analyze
how far away they are from completing their objective. Pert Charts also help in aiding in agenda creating
by allowing users to view where they are on a project and where they should be. Below is a sample of a
Pert Chart to help you get a better understanding of how they are utilized.
The third and final decision making skill that is needed for group success is an understanding of
fraction rules. Fraction rules are “agenda creating rules” that help group facilitators to plan out a
meeting. Fraction rules can be broken down into two main sections managing the agenda organization
and managing the agenda design.
First we will talk about managing the agenda’s organization. There are many rules that can be
used to assist small group members in organizing an agenda; one of these rules is the rule of halves. This
rule asks that group members from a previous meeting send items for consideration to be featured in
the next meeting up till the halfway point a future meeting. The meeting organizer also culls the
environment for other source of agenda items and at the halfway point begins to organize the upcoming
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meeting. It is here that organizer begins to assess what to include in the upcoming meeting, this is done
in three ways sifting, disaggregating and sorting. Sifting is the process of considering each item and
assessing whether it is truly an item or not. Disaggregating is a process of looking at items and breaking
them into appropriate pieces. Sorting involves classifying an item on how it should be presented in a
meeting. An item can be presented as an announcement item, decision item or a discussion item.
A second fraction rule that is helpful when working in small groups is the rule of sixths. This rule
suggests that one sixth of the items in a meeting should suggest the past and about four sixths address
the present and the last sixth addresses the future. Items addressing the past should help to take care of
any items that have not been completed or fully discussed from the previous meeting. The present or
“here and now items,” are the current items that need attention. Items of the future will as you can tell
address upcoming events, objectives etc.
The next rule, the rule of three fourths is a “mail-out rule.” Its purpose is to address the process
of thinking and preparation for thinking. In a lot of small group settings a lot of time is wasted by
participants engaging in a kind of verbal thinking. Here members think out loud because they feel like
they must interact with the participants of the meeting. Because the rule of three fourths deals with the
details of a meeting, being sent out group members will have time to prepare for the meeting before
actually arriving. This in turn will allow the group to stay focused and foster a more productive session.
The agenda organization section of fraction rules allows group members to participate in
meetings that are highly structured and help to increase participation.
The second part of fraction rules is based on creating a successfully designed agenda. A small
group meeting can be graphed as a curve that plots activity over time. This curve can be called an
agenda bell. The agenda bell consists of seven categories that assist in the creation of a proper agenda
and aids in the facilitation of time.
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The agenda bell can be broken into seven stages they are minutes, announcements, modest
decision items, moderate decision items, most difficult items, brainstorming items and trivial items. For
the purpose of paper we can label each of these stages as follows.
-Category 1: Minutes
-Category 2: Announcements
-Category 3: Modest Decision Items
-Category 4: Moderate Decision Items
-Category 5: Most Difficult Items
-Category 6: Brainstorming
-Category 7: Trivial items.
Category one is the approval of the minutes and always happens at the beginning of a meeting.
The second category “announcements” addresses any developments that might have occurred that
group members should know about. Category three represents items that need action or discussion in a
meeting but involve little thought or discussion. The items here can usually be handled very quickly.
Category four represents moderately though decisions. These decisions usually take some debate
between group members but are solved fairly quickly. The fifth category represents the most difficult
items on an agenda. The reason for locating these difficult items here is because they need the highest
level of energy and attention to be discussed. By placing these items in the middle of the meeting you
are insuring great participation because you don’t run the risk of group members walking in late or
leaving the meeting early. Category six is brainstorming. This is where ideas can be shared and where
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group members express their creativity. Last but not least is category seven the trivial items. These are
small items that have been lingering around that need to be discussed briefly.
The rule of the agenda bell is very powerful and works best if it can be linked with the previous
rules mentioned above such as the rule of halves etc.
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There is no one right way to solve a problem, however there is certain criteria that must be met
in order to successfully do so. Our second decision making process is problem solving. We have selected
the Get Big Get Small Theory to represent this process do to its basic approach and traditional method
to group problem solving. The Get Big Get Small Theory involves five steps…
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Analyze the problem
3. Generate several possible solutions
4. Evaluate options and select the best solutions
5. Test and implement the solution
As you can see groups start this process by identifying and defining the problem. Here group
members can use Is/Is Not analysis or the journalistic six questions to get themselves started. The Is/Is
Not analysis is a technique that will help to insure that a group is in fact investigating a problem and not
just a symptom of the problem. The journalistic six question will help member to analyze the problem by
asking who, what, where, when, why and how.
The second step in the Get Big Get Small Theory involves analyzing the problem. Here group
members create a clear statement of its goals which can be stated in term of what the group wants
more or less of, this is also known as force field analysis.
Next group members must come generate several possible solutions to the problem. This is
where brainstorming takes place. Brainstorming is the sharing of ideas and encourages group members
to share their ideas openly. Brainstorming is an effective tool for groups to come up with solutions to a
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problem because it maximizes output in a short amount of time and stimulates group member’s
participation.
After brainstorming is complete it is time to evaluate the brainstormed options and select the
best solutions. This can be properly done by asking questions such as the following…
-How will we know when we have accomplished out task?
-What criteria or standards are most important?
-Which criteria or standards are less important?
The last step for group members in the Get Big Get Small Theory is to test and implement their
solution. Here members should choose the options that are the most in line with group goals and stated
criteria. After this has been decided a metrics system should be created to help quantify the
effectiveness of the group’s decision.
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Our third and final decision making process is focused around outcome management. We at
Matt’s Big Idea felt that outcome management needed to encompass two main goals. Feedback needed
to be created for group members and a culture of continuous improvement needs to be established.
These two goals can be met from knowledge change. Knowledge change refers to what an
individual has learned. It is the process of acquiring knowledge, transferring information and creating
awareness.
In order to analyze the outcome of a group’s success we feel it is necessary to have a type of
rating system in place. To achieve this, a diagnostic self-rating system can be used. The use of this
system will help individuals get a reading on their own contributions to the group and will help to
quantify the overall group success. This can be done by using before and after questions which address
the issues of what did the group find as useful information, what amount of learning took place, did
participants get their questions answered and was there a change of awareness. Some example
questions that can be used are listed below.
-
Before the meeting I knew…?
-
To prepare for the meeting I…?
-
During the meeting I learned..?
-
After the meeting I plan to…?
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After reading this paper students entering the communications program at UW-Green Bay will
have the knowledge to demonstrate the proper personal communication skills and effective group
decision making skills that are needed for small group success. In turn they will be able to practice these
skills while enrolled in the communications program and will be able to utilize them in the real world
upon graduation.
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Small Group Communication:
1. Small group communication is, of course, the communication that is carried out within a small group.
A small group is generally defined as a group that consists of at least three members and at the
maximum around twelve to fifteen members.
2. A group that has just two members or more than fifteen members would not come in the category of
a small group.
3. A small group may be a professional group, an educational group or a social group. The members
belonging to it will have a common bond or interest or goal that brings them together.
Understanding Communication:
4. We've seen what a small group is and what small group communication is, now let's see what we
understand by the term communication.
5. Communication is about expressing and conveying your thoughts, feelings, opinions and ideas to
another person or persons. Good communication skills can help you keep your head and confidently
take charge of unfamiliar situations. People are more likely to listen to you, whatever you have to say, if
you can express yourself well, and this is particularly useful in influencing and negotiating important
personal, social or business matters. It also comes in handy in resolving conflict and dealing with difficult
people.
6. Some people are born with effective communication skills; others need to develop them. Developing
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effective communication skills requires repeated practice, which you can do by putting yourself
frequently in situations where you have to interact with a variety of people.
7. Consider joining social clubs or public speaking and debate clubs to polish up your skills.
The Importance of Team Communication:
8. Let us consider team communication with regard to the workplace. Most companies and
organizations have people working in small teams. This has been found to be more effective and
productive than a single individual toiling away at a project.
9. When you have three or four more people working on an issue, you have the advantage of having
access to more ideas and solutions for the project, of having more checking safeguards against any flaws
in the plan, and of being able to establish more network connections.
10. A group is also more likely to take on and complete large-scale, complex projects.
11. However, for the team to operate smoothly, there must be open and efficient communication
between the members of the team.
12. Team communication is important for the following reasons
13. On the other hand, poor communication between team members can unnecessarily botch up an
entire project.
14. The members may not understand what is needed and may waste time and energy in doing what is
not required.
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15. The members may misunderstand one another and develop personal animosities. This can affect
their desire to work together and thereby the quality of the work.
16. The members may not be clear of the sequence of the things to be done and this can either hold up
the project or play havoc with the deadlines.
17. The members may not know what to change or how to change to make themselves more efficient.
Fostering effective team communication in your small group:
18. You can foster effective team communication in your small group by a mix of old-fashioned good
manners, good attention and open-mindedness. Here are a few tips -
19. Ask if everyone understands what the team goals are.
20. Ask input and feedback from all members.
21. Listen carefully to what the other person is saying.
22. Don't interrupt until someone has finished talking.
23. Give feedback on what they've said.
24. Speak slowly and clearly.
25. Make your points in a clear, logical manner.
26. Include facts and details, and make sure they are all accurate
27. Don't ramble on. Be concise. Stick to the matter at hand.
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28. Make sure every member of the group gets the chance to speak.
29. Be open minded. If you've come to the meeting with your mind already made up, there's little point
in having a discussion.
30. When responding to someone's question or statement, repeat it to make sure you have heard and
understood correctly.
31. If you are taking a certain stand, take full responsibility for it.
32. Do not disparage anyone for their views and don't refute any point by taking personal shots at the
speaker. Address the issue.
33. Watch your body language. It is more effective than what you say. So if you are angry and look
angry, that is going to convey itself to the other members in your small group.
34. Don't make rash decisions or issue any statements when you are angry. Give yourself time to cool
down.
35. If there are any misunderstandings, clear them up in a calm manner.
36. If you don't understand any point, speak up and ask questions. Get it clarified before you all move
on.
37. When considering the pros and cons of any issue, consider the exact pros and cons, not opinion of
the majority.
38. If you have an opinion, express it as such, with the reasons behind it, not as an iron-clad fact.
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39. Be polite at all times.
40. The functional approach to small group communication is concerned with the results or outcomes of
group behaviors and structures. This perspective sees communication as the tool group members use to
solve problems and make decisions. Communication helps group members by promoting rational
judgments and critical thinking, as well as preventing group members from faulty decision-making and
flawed problem solving. Thus, communication is instrumental because it provides the means by which
group members can achieve their goals. From a functional perspective, researchers are concerned with
identifying the specific aspects of group communication and structure that produce the group's desired
outcomes.
41-46. Research conducted from this perspective suggests that several conditions must exist for group
members to make appropriate decisions and effectively solve problems. For example, group members
must:
Commit to making the best decision,
Identify resources needed to carry out the group's charge,
Determine procedures for the group to follow,
Articulate procedural rules and interaction practices, and
Review the decision-making process and make any necessary adjustments to the decision.
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47 - 52.According to the functional perspective, groups follow systematic procedures to accomplish their
tasks. So, much like Standard Agenda (see Critical Thinking and Pragmatics modules), group members
must:
Demonstrate that they understand the charge,
Establish criteria with which to evaluate possible solutions,
Develop alternative solutions,
Evaluate those alternatives by comparing them to each other and the previously-established criteria,
and
Use the evaluation to choose between alternatives.
Symbolic Convergence Theory
53. Symbolic Convergence Theory studies the sensemaking function of communication. "Symbolic"
refers to verbal and nonverbal messages and "convergence" refers to shared understanding and
meaning. In small groups, members develop private code words and signals that only those inside the
group understand. When groups achieve symbolic convergence, they have a sense of community based
on common experiences and understandings.
54. Central to this theory is the idea that group members share fantasies that serve as critical
communication episodes, forming the basis for members' sensemaking. Sharing fantasies helps group
members create a social reality that indicates who is part of the group and who is not. Sharing fantasy
themes increases group cohesiveness as members develop a common interpretation of their
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experiences. Fantasy themes are stories or narratives that help group members interpret group
interactions and their surrounding environment. Fantasy themes develop when group members actively
engage in dramatizing, elaborating on, and modifying a story. In this way, the story becomes publicly
shared within the group as well as privately shared by each group member. Fantasy themes are related
to small group culture in that the stories reveal the group's identity and underlying values (see the
Culture module for more information on small group culture).
55. Researchers have observed group members "chaining out" fantasy themes. In chaining out, group
members tell a story in a collaborative manner. Often, no single narrator can be identified. A group
meeting may start out in a rational, predictable manner, but when someone begins to tell a story, the
others will start to help dramatize the message. As group members come to share fantasy themes, a
simple word, phrase, or gesture can take participants back to that drama. By using a symbolic cue that
triggers a recall of the fantasy, group members are participating in an inside joke known only to the
group. Thus the word "magnolia" may send group members into peels of laughter as they recall a shared
fantasy theme, yet outsiders would wonder why they were laughing.
56. As group members come to share a number of fantasies, and thereby acquire similar understandings
of their experiences, participants will begin to develop a rhetorical vision of themselves and the group.
The rhetorical vision is often symbolized by an image or slogan, as with Apple's "Think Different" and
Ford Motor Company's "Better Ideas." The image or slogan calls up a whole host of associations and
shared narratives for group members. The rhetorical vision summoned by the slogan frames the way the
group members interpret their actions and imagine their future.
57. Symbolic Convergence Theory is very different from the Functional Theory of group communication.
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One strength of symbolic convergence theory is the focus on group identity and the development of
group consciousness. This theory is descriptive rather than predictive. Symbolic Convergence Theory
helps us understand how group members interact and provides a way of examining small group culture.
We can also determine who is a group member and who isn't depending on whether they are familiar
with the group's fantasy themes, inside jokes, and rhetorical vision. Finally, Symbolic Convergence
Theory is useful for examining groups in organizations because is provides a useful way to compare
them; similarities and differences in the rhetorical visions and fantasies of small groups are often
significant.
58. Like Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory has its critics. First, some people believe the
theory is not useful because it is not predictive or evaluative. That is, we can't make predictions about
group outcomes based on fantasy themes, nor have researchers evaluated the quality of fantasy themes
and the contributions they make to the group's task accomplishment. Second, researchers who apply
Symbolic Convergence Theory to small groups tend to assume that fantasies themes and rhetorical
visions have singular meanings for all group members. It may be the case that stories and images have
many different meanings for group members, even though participants might believe they have a
shared understanding of their experiences. Last, Symbolic Convergence Theory assumes that all group
members have equal influence in creating fantasy themes and rhetorical visions. This is hard to believe,
since nearly all groups have power imbalances based on formal and/or informal roles. Thus, some group
members' voices rise above the others in group interactions.
Structuration Theory
59. Structuration Theory distinguishes between systems, such as small groups, and structures, the
practices, rules, norms, and other resources the system uses to function and sustain itself. When applied
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to small groups, Structuration Theory views small groups as systems that both produce structures and
are produced by structures. This means that group members follow particular rules in their interactions
that produce some sort of outcome. That outcome eventually influences the group's future interactions.
60. Structuration refers to the processes group members employ as they work together. Structures both
produce a system (in this case, a group) and are outcomes of a system. For example, suppose a
committee decides to meet every second Wednesday of the month from 2:30-4:00 p.m. This regular
meeting is a rule ("The committee will meet every second Wednesday of the month from 2:30-4:00
p.m.") that the group produced (and is thus an outcome of group interaction) as well as an instrument
for producing the group. Other structures include methods of voting, norms of interaction, leadership
styles, decision-making procedures, and rules for distributing the group's workload.
61. According to Structuration Theory, group members interact according to particular rules, and those
group members also produce those rules through their interactions. This suggests that group members
can negotiate group structures, yet at the same time, their interactions are constrained by those
structures. For example, group members may decide to take turns leading each group meeting. The
group member in charge of a particular meeting constructs and distributes the agenda, reminds others
of the meeting, and makes arrangements for the meeting room. However, if the group found this
structure was not working (e.g., group members forgot when it was their turn to lead the meeting),
members could consider changing their procedures. Still, group member interactions may be
constrained by the original structure, particularly if members A and B fulfilled their leadership duties and
members C, D, and E did not.
62. Structuration theorists are interested in the way group members enact structures in their
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interactions. So structuration researchers observe group interaction directly. Researchers have
examined the way group members' attitudes affect the structuration process, the influence of different
types of structures on group decision-making and problem-solving, institutional constraints on group
structures, and appropriated structures (those taken from other sources, such as majority rule in voting)
and those that are unique to the group.
63. One strength of Structuration Theory is that it examines structures in action by focusing on the
structuring process. Thus, attention is on small group interaction and how group members appropriate,
adapt, create, and maintain rules and resources. Second, Structuration Theory is applicable to a variety
of small groups, not just those that perform decision-making and problem-solving functions. In this way,
Structuration Theory can help us understand an array of small groups, from corporate committee to
self-help groups. Third, Structuration Theory takes into account environmental forces that may impinge
on group processes.
64. It has its strengths, but Structuration Theory suffers from several weaknesses as well. First,
Structuration Theory to date has not provided a way of predicting which circumstances will result in the
development of particular structures. That is, Structuration Theory is largely descriptive in nature.
Second, because structures are both system producers and the outcome of systems, it is difficult to
research structuration in small groups. Researchers must examine group member communication as
they put structures into action, as well as the structure that arises from that interaction. Third, the very
definition of structuration implies that group structures change over time. Yet, it is often difficult to
pinpoint which structural changes occurred and when by examining group interaction on a day-to-day
basis. Last, research in Structuration Theory relies primarily on case studies. Structuration Theory can be
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adapted to individual cases, but because it is flexible, it is difficult to make generalizations based on
Structuration Theory.
Naturalistic Paradigm
65. Like Systems Theory, the Naturalistic Paradigm is a general approach that is applicable to many
communication contexts and academic disciplines. When applied to small groups, the Naturalistic
Paradigm focuses our attention on "real life" groups.
66. The Naturalistic Paradigm addresses a major fault in small group research-its reliance on zero-history
groups in which strangers interact in a laboratory setting to solve an artificial problem. Researchers
using the Naturalistic Paradigm study groups situated in their natural settings.
67 – 70. Unlike Functional Theory and Structuration Theory, which assume there is a measurable,
objective reality, the Naturalistic Paradigm assumes that communicators construct social reality as they
interact. Research within the Naturalistic Paradigm is qualitative (e.g., observation, in-depth interviews)
and assumes that researchers' values and biases are part of the research process. Researchers look at
the relationship between researcher and study participants as an interdependent one. That is,
communicators are not simply objects to be studied, but are partners in the research process. For
example, researchers within the Naturalistic Paradigm often ask study participants for their responses to
the researchers' report. Those responses then become part of the report or are used to modify the
report.
71. The Naturalistic Paradigm focuses the researcher's attention on human communication as it
naturally occurs. In small group communication research, this means that researchers study real groups
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in their natural settings. For example, a researcher might study work team culture in a local
organization. Or a researcher might examine multiple teams or groups in an organization, focusing on
boundary permeability and group identity. The Naturalistic Paradigm encourages researchers to venture
outside corporate settings and examine self-help groups, families, religious groups, and children's
groups.
72 – 75. From this perspective, there is no single, small group reality, but rather multiple realities that
group members share to varying degrees. Researchers record longitudinal case studies of small groups,
so we get a sense of how groups evolve and change over time. Study results are shared with participants
so they can use the information as a group resource. The participants are then invited to respond to the
study. Their responses can indicate whether the researcher'sinterpretations were on target.
76 – 78. The greatest strength of the Naturalistic Paradigm is its focus on naturally occurring small
groups. We learn about the idiosyncrasies and similarities of communication practices and norms as
group members coordinate their interactions in everyday life. Second, the Naturalistic Paradigm has
greatly broadened our conceptualization of small groups and moved the study of small groups outside
the corporate context and traditional task groups. Third, the Naturalistic Paradigm study of small groups
working in their natural contexts has produced advances in communication theory and practice.
79 – 81.Although the Naturalistic Paradigm may sound like the ideal approach to small group
communication, it does have its critics. The first problem is that it can be difficult to determine what
constitutes a group in a natural setting. Are people a group because they say they're a group? Or does
the researcher determine what constitutes a group? Second, the theory requires that researchers and
participants have equal levels of power, but this equilibrium can be difficult to maintain. Ultimately, the
researcher makes the final decision about what is or what is not included in the study report. Moreover,
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other gatekeepers, such as journal editors and reviewers, can influence the report's content. Thus, the
researcher may face conflicting interests in the process of framing information gathered in the study.
Third, like Symbolic Convergence Theory, studies within the Naturalistic Paradigm are case studies, and
it is difficult to generalize from specific cases. Researchers using the Naturalistic Paradigm recognize the
evolving nature of groups; their interpretations of case studies are often tentative and qualified.
What are the Types of Groups
82. The types of small group communication depend on the purpose of the group.
83. Task oriented groups are created for business, clubs, teams, organizations, union, charity, and
religious groups. Task oriented groups have a purpose of generating ideas, solving problems or
promoting a cause.
84. This section focuses on task oriented groups. There are other types of small groups.
85. The most common group is social. It consists of friends who get together and enjoy each others
company. The communication needs are different from the needs of other groups.
86. Seminar groups are usually for education.
87. Therapy groups are organized to help with the management of mental health issues and challenges.
The interaction, positive peer pressure, support and communication make it easier to cope with day to
day mental or emotional provocations.
The Task Oriented Group
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88. The task oriented groups requires unique group communication skills. The purpose of the group, the
particular task or job to be done needs to take precedence over any personal agendas. Cooperation and
accommodation skills are essential. These skills are not necessary in personal communication or family
communication.
Blocks to Effective Small Group Communication
89. The obvious block is a failure to communicate. Because small group communication is focused on a
job to be done, any failure to be focused on that purpose will block effective communication.
90. These blocks to effective small group communication often result from putting individual needs,
desires or wants over the importance of the job to be done by the small group.
91. Personality patterns that cause the failure are often typical.
92. Aggressors
These will often put their needs and wants over the goal of the small group.
93. Defeatists
Defeatists do not have faith in the ability of the group to succeed. They will paint themselves as realists.
They are often pessimists and unable to think outside the frame of defeat.
94. Class Clown
The clown types have a need to entertain. They may want to entertain them selves or others. Either
way, their need to clown around is more important than the job to be done.
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95. Storytellers
Storytellers have their own agenda of sharing. In nursing school, the story tellers had relatives who had
virtually every disease we discussed in class. It was amazing how many relatives they had and that the
student was even alive to share the story. As to the job to be done, they rarely can tell why the story has
any relevance to the purpose of the group.
96. Controller
Those controllers who are not assigned as the leaders will want to dominate and run the show more
than they want to fulfill the job to be done.
97. Body language can account for 55% of how we communicate. So if you have something important or
sensitive to say, meet the other person face to face if possible. You can check their body language, to
see how they are reacting to your message.
98. Your tone of voice accounts for 37% of how you communicate in a typical work environment.
99. Although in a complex communication setting, words may only account for 8% of how you get your
message across, you can still make a better impact with the words you use.
100. So what is empathy? This is a basic communication skill which involves putting yourself in another
person's shoes. You recognise the feelings and the situation that the other person finds themselves in. It
doesn't mean that you agree with them, it means that you understand where they are coming from.
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