Chapter 13
Theories of Small Group
Communication
Early Research in Group Interaction
Early work descriptive and simplistic
– Phase models (phases of discussions)
– Factor models (input—process—output)
 More complex models of group process such as
Poole’s multiple sequence model
– Unitary sequence path (orientation, problem
analysis, solution, and reinforcement)
– Complex cyclic path (multiple problem-solution
cycles)
– Solution-oriented path (activity centered on
solution

Functional Theory of Decision-Making
 Gouran
and Hirokawa
 Concerned with factors that influence
the effectiveness of group decisions
 Formative Influences
– Groupthink (Janis)
– Interaction Process Analysis (Bales)
http://www.gamecareerguide.com/features/418/masters_thesis_chatting_in_.php?page=3
Functional Theory: Assumptions
Boundary conditions (p. 232, Table 13.1)
 Key functions include:

– Problem analysis
– Establish criteria for evaluation
– Generation of alternative solutions
– Evaluation of Positive consequences of
solutions
– Evaluation of Negative consequences of
solutions
Functional Theory:

Communication important in every
functional step and leads to the predictions
on p. 233, Table 13.2.
– Ex: Groups characterized by higher frequencies
of communication analyzing the problem/task
will arrive at decisions of greater utility than
groups characterized by lower frequencies.

Communication also establishes operating
norms and procedures
Functional Theory:
Tests and Critiques
Generally supported, but some functions
are found to be more important (e.g.,
assessing negative consequences of
alternative solutions)
 Research critiqued for emphasis on zerohistory and ad hoc groups composed of
college students
 Seems to be relevant only for task-related
groups and task functions

Structurational Approaches

Recall Structuration from Chapter 12.
 Duality
of structure – action and
structure are intertwined
– Reflexivity of human agents
– Systems and institutions are enacted across
time and space, through a variety of modalities
 Modalities: Forms of “knowledgeability”
 Operate at different levels (action, structure,
institution)
 Modalities “interpenetrate” by “mediating” or
contradicting one another
Structuration of Group Arguments

Links two traditions:
– cognitive-informational: Argument as
individual thoughts (cognitions) that group
members present to each other
– social-interactional perspective: Argument is a
language game (collaboratively produced in
interaction) with rules and institutions
Adaptive Structuration Theory

Uses technology to study group processes
– GDSS (group decision support system)
 Technology:
– facilitates anonymous communication
– equalizes participation
– removes undue influence of particular group
members
Adaptive Structuration Theory

Appropriation: Group members adapt
the structural features of the technology
to their own group purposes
– Faithful appropriation (consistent with
spirit of tech.) vs. ironic appropriation
(contrary to intended use)
– There are a variety of possible
“appropriation moves” (Table 13.4)
Symbolic Convergence Theory:
Key Concepts
Fantasy theme: A “dramatizing message”
that ignites group interaction. (e.g., joke
or story)
 Fantasy chain: When group members
“pick up” (add to) on a dramatizing
message
 Group fantasy (fantasy theme): Once
“chaining out” has occurred, a sense of
community & shared identities emerge

Symbolic Convergence Theory:
Key Concepts (cont.)
Fantasy type: Fantasies become linked with
each other in group interaction, forming a
prototype
 Rhetorical vision: Fantasy types become
linked at a more abstract or cultural level
collection of fantasies (Master Analogues)

– Righteous (right/wrong; moral/immoral)
– Social (humanity, community, caring)
– Pragmatic (effective, efficient, utility)
Bona Fide Groups

The theories considered in this chapter
have been critiqued on several grounds
– Often task-related groups
– Often zero-history groups (studies often use
university students to constitute the groups)

Theorists have proposed a new approach:
The bona fide group perspective (e.g.,
church & community groups)
Characteristics of Bona Fide Groups
Bona fide groups have shifting members
and permeable boundaries
 As a result, individuals within bona fide
groups must deal with multiple group
memberships
 Bona fide groups are highly
interdependent with their context
 Embedded within larger organizational and
institutional systems

12 angry men:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8trh
By2DLE&feature=related
 Proexample (exercise):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyWxj
NECRBE&feature=related
 Reality show group discussion?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0Z_t
K_kodI&feature=related

Questions for Reflection
What is the typical zero history or ad hoc
group among college students?
 Based on what you learned in this chapter
about small groups, is the classroom a
small group?

– If some are and some are not, what makes
them different?

Can you think of any fantasy themes (e.g.,
joke or story) that have emerged in your
social groups or classrooms?