Reading 3 Post War
The Role of America: Protector or Oppressor?
After victory over the Spanish, the United States was placed in a somewhat uncomfortable
position. It had criticized Spain for the way it had controlled Cuba, yet many in America did not
want Cuba to be totally free either. The dilemma facing Americans after victory was one that
would be rethought throughout the twentieth century: how to combine imperialistic intentions
with the deep-seated American beliefs in liberty and self-government.
Fearing that America would want to annex Cuba, supporters of Cuban independence in
Congress had inserted the Teller Amendment in the original congressional bill calling for war
against Spain. This amendment stated that America would not do this under any circumstances.
Nevertheless, President McKinley authorized that the Cubans would be ruled by an American
military government (which kept control until 1901). The military government did authorize the
Cubans to draft a constitution in 1900 but also insisted that the Cubans agree to all of the
provisions of the Platt Amendment. This document stated that Cuba could not enter into
agreements with other countries without the approval of the United States, that the United
States had the right to intervene in Cuban affairs "when necessary," and that America be given
two naval bases on the Cuban mainland. The Platt Amendment remained in force in Cuba until
the early 1930s.
The Debate Over the Philippines
The debate in America over what to do with the Philippines was a much more intense one. This
debate took place on the floor of the Senate and in countless editorial pages across the country.
An aggressive policy toward Cuba could be justified, since it was only 90 miles away and
seemed important to the United States' position in the Western Hemisphere. Many had second
thoughts, however, over controlling the Philippines; the Filipinos seemed a world away, and,
after all, were not "like us." In addition, Americans became aware that Filipinos expected that
after the Americans helped throw out the Spanish they would then help them achieve
independence. What, indeed, should America's role in the Philippines be?
All of the most basic arguments on the merits of imperialism were debated in the aftermath of
the Spanish-American War. Didn't the concept of ruling a territory by force violate everything
that America stood for? An Anti-Imperialist League was formed in 1898 (with Mark Twain
and William Jennings Bryan as charter members). The first brochures put out by this
organization wondered if America didn't have too many problems at home to be involved
abroad, and also expressed the fear that the armies need for imperialistic adventures abroad
might also be used to curb dissent at home.
Others pointed to the huge costs of imperialism and the fear that natives from newly acquired
territories might take the jobs (or lower the wages) of American workers. Some pointed out the
basic racism involved in American attitudes toward the Filipinos; some Southerners opposed
imperialism because they feared it would bring people of the "inferior races" to America in
greater numbers.
In the end, those arguing the political, strategic, and economic advantages that control of the
Philippines would bring won the national argument. The American frontier was closing;
wouldn't expansion abroad keep America vital and strong? In addition, religious figures noted
that the acquisition of the Philippines would give the church the opportunity to convert Filipinos
to Christianity.
In the end, President McKinley supported American control of the Philippines, stating that if the
Americans didn't enter, civil war was likely there. He also proclaimed that the Filipinos were
simply "unfit for self-government." The treaty authorizing American control of the Philippines
was ratified in February of 1899. It should be noted that American soldiers fought Filipino
rebels for the next three years, with nearly 4500 American soldiers killed in this fighting. The
American army attacked Filipino rebels with a vengeance; by the end of the insurrection,
200,000 Filipinos had been killed. Many humanitarian groups in America, which had initially
enthusiastically supported the Spanish-American War, were appalled. An American
commission later criticized the U.S. military for its conduct when dealing with the rebel forces.
Connecting the Pacific and the Atlantic: The Panama Canal
After the Spanish-American War, most in America and in Europe regarded America as one of
the major world powers. Theodore Roosevelt became president after the assassination of
President McKinley and, as he had previously demonstrated, favored an aggressive foreign
policy. (McKinley was killed during the first year of his second term as president by an
anarchist; the next day, political boss Mark Hanna lamented "now that damned cowboy is
President of the United States.") One of Roosevelt's most cherished goals was the construction
of the Panama Canal, which would link the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. The strategic and
economic benefits of such a canal for America at the time were obvious.
A French building company had already acquired the rights to build such a canal in the region
of Panama (which was controlled by Colombia). In 1902, the United States bought the rights
from the company to construct the land, but this agreement was opposed by the Colombians. A
"revolt" was organized in Panama by the French. United States warships sailed off the coast of
Panama to help the "rebels." The United States was the first to recognize Panama as an
independent country; newly installed Panamanian officials then gave America territory to build
a canal. By the terms of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1904, the United States received
permanent rights and sovereignty over a 10-mile-wide area on which they planned to build the
canal. In return, Panama was given $10 million. Construction of the canal began shortly
afterward.
In the United States, there was much criticism of American actions in Panama, but as in the
case of the Philippines, the practical benefits of having a canal won out. The canal was finally
completed in 1914. American businesses could now ship their goods faster and cheaper,
although the acquisition of the Panama Canal deepened the suspicion of many in Latin America
toward the United States.
The Roosevelt Corollary
Theodore Roosevelt's most famous quote was to "speak softly and carry a big stick." In 1904,
he also announced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine to Congress, which stated
that the United States had the right to intervene in any country in the Western Hemisphere that
did things "harmful to the United States," or if the threat of intervention by countries outside the
hemisphere was present. The Roosevelt Corollary strengthened American control over Latin
America, justified numerous American interventions in Latin American affairs in the twentieth
century, and increased the "Yankee go home" sentiment throughout the region. In Santo
Domingo (now the Dominican Republic), the government went bankrupt, and European
countries threatened to intervene to collect their money; under the provisions of the Roosevelt
Corollary, Roosevelt organized the American payment of Santo Domingan debt to keep the
Europeans out.
In fairness, it should also be noted that Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his mediation
between the Japanese and the Russians after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. William Howard
Taft, Roosevelt's successor, was not as aggressive in foreign policy as Roosevelt. He favored
"dollars over bullets" and instituted a policy labeled by his critics as "Dollar Diplomacy,"
which stated that American investment abroad would ensure stability and good relations
between America and nations abroad. This policy would also be hotly debated throughout the
twentieth century.