10TH GRADE REVIEW SHEET
The topics we have covered this year are:
1.
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6.
7.
The Scientific Method
Basic Chemistry
Basic Biochemistry
Ecology
Cell Biology
Human Physiology: Cardiovascular, Drugs and the Brain, reproduction
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Scientific method- You must understand the need for a fair test and how
experiments should be set up in order to test a particular hypothesis
 Independent variable- This is a variable that is changed by the experimenter to
see the effect on the dependent variable. In short it is what is changed by the
experimenter
 Dependent variable- This is the variable that is observed, it changes due to
changes in the independent variable. In short it is the variable that is observed
by the experimenter
 Controlled variables- These are the variables that are kept constant so that only
the independent variable affects the dependent variable. In short it is the
variables that are kept the same
 You need to be able to identify all the different variables in an experiment. Look
at all the experiments that you did, e.g. the effect of acid on the germination of
seeds
BASIC CHEMISTRY (PRENTICE HALL, P. 32 – 49)
1. Basic Atomic Structure and Bonding – be able to define, identify and explain
atoms, isotopes, bonding (covalent, hydrogen, ionic)
2. Be able to explain the properties of water (polarity, hydrogen bonds, surface
tension, cohesion, adhesion, specific heat capacity, heat of vaporisation,
density of water in its different phases, polar solvent, pH, buffers).. remember
the experiments
3. Macromolecule structure and function: be able to identify and differentiate
between carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins
4. Enzymes: you should be able to understand and explain enzyme structure
and function and factors which affect enzyme activity
1. Atomic structure, protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons in shells
around
2. Atomic number- The number of protons
3. Mass number- The number of protons and neutrons
4. Electronic structure- how the electrons are arranged, 2,8,8 (max number in each
shell)
5. Position of element in the periodic table- Group 1 has one electron in its outer shell,
group 2 two etc.
6. Periods- period 1 means that the first shell is being filled, period two the second etc.
7. Position of metals and non-metals
8. Ionic bonding- between metals and non-metals. Oppositely charged ions are
formed, which are attracted together in a giant ionic lattice. Note that the simplest
whole number ratio of ions is written down e.g. CaCl2, this means that there are
two Cl- ions for every one Ca2+ ion. But in the lattice there are millions of them.
9. Covalent bonding- electron pairs are shared, this occurs between non-metals. In
this way molecules are formed. The molecular formula gives us the number of
atoms (different in compounds) in one molecule
10. Polar molecules- these have a slightly positive and negative part, and this enables
them to mix with the polar solvent, water
11. Non-polar molecules- these do not have a slightly positive and negative end. There
are not sufficient differences in electronegativity values between the atoms. These
molecules do not mix with water, they mix better with non-polar solvents, such as
cyclohexane
12. Intermolecular forces of attraction- these are the relatively weak forces of
attraction between molecules. They are not as strong as the covalent bonds within
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a molecule and are not to be confused with this. The size of the intermolecular force
of attraction, determines how easy or difficult it is to separate the molecules and
therefore, what their melting point will be/ Molecules with weak forces of
attraction between the molecules, will be gases at room temperature e.g. methane
(CH4). Molecules with stronger forces of attraction will be solids, such as waxes etc.
Instantaneous forces of attraction are the weakest force of attraction between
molecules, dipole dipole-dipole attractions are the next strongest and hydrogen
boning is the strongest. Remember that the small molecule water is a liquid until
100 OC because of hydrogen bonding between the molecules
You need to understand and be able to draw the structures of: amino acids,
monosaccharides (e.g. glucose), disaccharides (e.g. sucrose), polysaccharides (e.g.
starch), fats (fatty acids and glycerol), unsaturated fats, and saturated fats.
You need to understand the function of the above in organisms.
Understand and be able to show condensation reactions for; amino acids joining,
sugars joining, fatty acids and glycerol (esterification).
Understand and be able to illustrate the terms monomer and polymer
Know and understand the food tests: Test for protein: Add 2 cm3 of Biuret solution
and a positive result is a colour change from blue to purple.
Test for a reducing sugar e.g. glucose. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution and heat the
boiling tube in a hot water bath. A positive test is the blue solution, turning to an
orange –red precipitate
Test for a non-reducing sugar (e.g. sucrose). Before the test above, add 1cm3 of
dilute hydrochloric acid, heat until boiling. Add some sodium hydrogen carbonate
to neutralize the acid. Then he Benedict’s test as above.
Test for starch: Add 2cm3 of a solution of iodine and potassium iodide solution. A
positive result is a colour change from a brown solution to a blue black coloration
Enzymes. What are they and how do they work? What factors will affect them?
Why are they essential to life? How could you investigate factors that might affect
enzyme activity? Refer to your catalase experiments.
Interpretation of data: You should be able to understand data tables and graphs
and be able to use them to make conclusions.
ECOLOGY I (PRENTICE HALL, P. 62– 138)
1.Know the vocabulary of ecology – populations, habitat, species, community,
ecosystem, biosphere , autotroph, detrivore etc et etc.
2. Food Chains and Food webs – make sure that you know how to draw and explain
them!
3. Understand, and be able to differentiate, between energy pyramids, biomass
pyramids and pyramids of numbers
4. Biogeochemical (NUTRIENT) cycles (P. 76 – 80 AND CLASS HANDOUTS) –
carbon and water cycles: know the basics, be able to draw and explain them…
Definitions:
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Ecology is the study of the interaction between living organisms and their
environment
Habitat is where an organism lives
Population- A group of organisms of the same species living together
Community- all of the organisms of all the different species living in the same
habitat
Ecosystem- a community and its environment, interacting together
Food chain- a chart showing the flow of energy from one organism to the next
Food web- a network of interconnecting food webs
Producer- an organism that makes its own food. Usually this is via photosynthesis
Decomposer- an organism that gets its energy from dead waste or organic matter
Consumers- an organism that gets its energy by eating other organisms
Herbivore- an organism that gets its energy by eating plants
Carnivore- an organism that gets its energy by eating animals
Trophic level- position of an organism in a food chain or energy level chart
Pyramid of numbers- numbers of organisms at each trophic level
Pyramid of biomass- the mass of each trophic level
INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
1. What are the five factors which ‘cause’ climate
2. Explain how the greenhouse effect maintains atmospheric temperature. You
should be able to explain the type of electromagnetic radiation that is reradiated from the earth’s surface, and be able to name at least three greenhouse
gases.
3. Explain the reasons that the advanced greenhouse effect is considered to be
anthropogenic
4. Explain what is the Keeling Curve, and how it draws a connection between
anthropogenic carbon emissions and global warming (Clue: You had an
assignment on the Keeling Curve!)
POPULATION DYNAMICS (PRENTICE HALL, P. 118 - 138)
1. What are the four determinants of population size?
2. List four reasons that individuals may immigrate into or emigrate out of an area
3. Draw the classical ‘SIGMOID population growth curve. Be able to name your
axes, annotate your graph and label and explain the following phases of the
sigmoid growth curve:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Lag Phase
Exponential Growth Phase
Transitional/Logistic growth phase
Plateau Phase (stabilisation at carrying capacity)
4. Define density-dependent limiting factor, and give an example of a densitydependent limiting factor
5. Define density-independent limiting factor, and give an example of a densityindependent limiting factor
BIOMES (PRENTICE HALL, P. 98 - 106)
You should know, and be able to distinguish between, the world’s major biomes.
You may be asked to analyse ecological data coming from various biomes, and
explain which biomes you think the data originates from.
CELL BIOLOGY (PRENTICE HALL, Chapter 7, p. 166 – 192) (also IGCSE book, p. 6
– 12)
1. List the three (4) parts of cell theory.
2. Draw a prokaryotic cell and label 4 – 5 key features
3. Compare and contrast prokaryotic, eukaryotic plant and eukaryotic animal
cells.
4. Identify organelles within a eukaryotic animal/plant cell
5. Draw and label a plant cell and well as an animal cell. Include as many labels as
you can. For the plant cell provide a minimum of 10 organelles and in the
animal cell provide a minimum of 8 organelles.
6. Be able to explain the specific functions of the following organelles:
nucleus,
rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, centrioles,
vacuoles, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
lysosomes.
7. Draw and label a diagram of the cell membrane. Identify the phospholipid
bilayer, glycoproteins, cholesterol, protein channels. Label the hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions appropriately.
8. Identify key components of a light microscope.
9. Explain why electron microscopes can achieve higher magnification and
resolution than light microscopes.
10.
Analyse data from an osmosis and a diffusion experiment, identify
hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions.
11.
Distinguish between images of the different cell types: prokaryotic,
eukaryotic plant, eukaryotic animal, eukaryotic protistan and eukaryotic
fungal : nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast, rough endoplasmic reticulum.
12.
Compare and contrast diffusion, osmosis, endocytosis and exocytosis
FURTHER CELL BIOLOGY
1. Name the four key tissue types which make up our bodies.
2. Differentiate between embryonic stem cells, adult (Tissue) stem cells, and
induced pluripotential stem cells (IPS cells) with regard to:
 Differentiation ability
 Role in the body
 Sources for use in research
 Advantages in research and therapy development
 Disadvantages in research and therapy development
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Early microscopes- Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek (1632)
Compound microscope (two lenses) developed by Hooke (1665) First used the
term cell when looking at cork under the microscope
Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation using his swan-necked flasks
Cell theory proposed by Matthias Schielden (botanist) and Theodor Schwann
(biologist)- Basically- All living things are made of cells, new cells formed by the
division of pre-existing ones, the cell contains inherited information for growth
and development and that the chemical reactions take place within cells ( the
functioning unit of life)
There are two main types of cells: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes
are smaller with no membrane bound nucleus and no membrane bound
organelles. Eukaryotes have a distinct nucleus and have membrane bond
organelles
Eukaryotes can be divided into: Protistan cells, animal cells fungal cells and
plant cells. These have distinct characteristics that you should know
You should understand the terms autotroph and heterotroph
Viruses are very small and non-cellular; they contain no cytoplasm or
organelles. Basically they are just a protein coat with RNA or DNA strands
inside. They cannot metabolise or reproduce unless inside a host cell.
Technically outside the host they are not really “living”
You should understand how to use scales and magnification factors
Understand and know the main parts of a light microscope:
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Understand that electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of light
and the higher resolution is due to the shorter wavelength
Know and understand the main differences between plant and animal cells:
Plant cell
Animal cell
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Know and understand the functions of the main organelles: Nucleus,
nucleolus, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes,
perioxomes, Rough ER and smooth ER
Know and understand the structure of a cell membrane:
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Understand the terms: diffusion, passive diffusion and active transport.
Understand how the following get through membranes: small non-polar
molecules, small polar molecules and ions and large molecules and some ions:
Osmosis: Understand this term: Basically it is the passage of water molecules from a
weak (high water potential) to a stronger solution (low water potential) through a
semi-permeable membrane. If the solution outside the cell is more dilute (higher water
potential) than the solution inside the cell cytoplasm, then water will move into the
cell. Plant cells will become turgid, and animal cells could possibly burst. The solution
outside the cells is hypotonic. If the osmotic potential inside and outside the cell are
equal, the solution is said to be isotonic and there is no net movement of water. If the
solution outside the cell is hypertonic (higher concentration, lower water potential)
then water will move out of the cell and the cell will shrivel up and become
plasmolysed.
THE CELL CYCLE, MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS (PRENTICE HALL, P. 240 - 253)
1. List in order the correct sequence of the cell cycle:
 Phases of interphase (G1, S, G2) and what happens during each phase
 Phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, telophase, anaphase) and what
happens during each phase
 Cytokinesis.
 You may be shown a circular cell cycle diagram and be asked to annotate it.
2. Define the terms mitosis, cytokinesis and meiosis
3. Describe how and why the process of cell division in prokaryotic cells (binary
fission) differs from that of eukaryotic cells.
4. Be able to identify phases of mitosis from pictures or slides
5. Know the definitions and/or describe the functions of the following terms:
Use the Talking Glossary of Genetic terms to help you:
http://www.genome.gov/glossary/index.cfm
 Chromatin
 Chromosome
 Chromatid
 Centromere
 Centrosome
 Centriole
 Telomere
REGULATION OF THE CELL CYCLE AND CANCER
 Name the two protein families that regulate the cell cycle and state the points of
the cell cycle where checkpoints occur
 Explain briefly why cancer is considered to be a disease of the cell cycle
MEIOSIS
1. Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis
2. Which cell types undergo meiosis?
3. List in order the correct sequence of meiosis, and the events that occur during
each phase
4. You must be able to identify phases of meiosis from pictures or slides
Some key points about mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
Mitosis is where diploid cells produce more diploid cells. This is how all the cells
are reproduced, except, the gametes ( sex cells)
The diploid cells produced by mitosis are the same
Mitosis is how cells are copied for growth and repair
Meiosis
Meiosis is how gametes are produced
It is a reduction division
The gametes are haploid, they have half the number of chromosomes.
Meiosis occurs in two stages, meiosis 1 and meiosis 2, in meiosis 1, the
homologous chromosomes are separated. This is the reduction division. The second
stage is where the chromatids are separated. The result is that the gametes have 23
chromosomes.
GENETICS (PRENTICE HALL, P. 262 - 279)
ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY: you need to be able to explain…
 Genotype
 Phenotype
 What is the difference between a gene and an allele
 What do the words homozygous and heterozygous mean?
 Monohybrid cross
 Dihybrid cross
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS
1. Explain the process through which Mendel demonstrated that certain genes are
dominant and others recessive (Use the terms homozygous dominant/
homozygous recessive/ F1 hybrid/ F2 generation, Mendel’s Law of Segregation).
2. Explain the process through which Mendel demonstrated that alleles of separate
genes (chromosomes) separate independently (Mendel’s Law of independent
Assortment). Use the terms DIHYBRID (Two-factor) cross
3. Give an example of incomplete dominance, and explain how it occurs
4. How is codominance different from incomplete dominance?
5. Human blood groups are determined by a combination of three different alleles:
A, B and O. The ABO antigens consist of sugars (antigens) attached to the
surface of red cells. The O allele is recessive and doesn’t produce an antigen on
the surface of the red cell. The A and B alleles are codominant and are
expressed equally. Complete a table for the possible genotypes for the various
blood group types.
6. WHY is it important to always give accurately typed blood during a blood
transfusion? (Hint – remember to discuss BOTH the antigens present on the
surface of the red blood cells AND the antibodies present in the recipient’s plasma)
7. Which type of blood is considered to be the ‘universal donor’?
8. Which type of blood is considered to be the ‘universal recipient’?
GENETICS CALCULATIONS
1. You will be asked to draw Punnet Squares , and from the Punnet Squares, to
determine the GENOTYPE and PHENOTYPE ratios of the offspring resulting
from a mating.
2. You will be expected to understand and show (using a Punnet Square) how
inherited diseases, such as Huntingdon’s Chorea or Cystic Fibrosis, may be
inherited
The following are some brief definitions of some of the terms.
DNA- Chromosomes contain long strands of DNA. The DNA contains the codes
that instructs which proteins are made
Gene -length of DNA that codes for a particular protein (characteristic)
Allele- Two or more forms of a gene
Meiosis- Reduction division where the chromosome number is halved. Sex cells
are made this way
Haploid nucleus- a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes
(e.g. sperm and eggs)
Phenotype- Physical or other features of a gene
Genotype- Genetic makeup of an organism
Dominant gene- The allele that is expressed if present
Recessive gene- An allele that is only expressed if there are two recessive genes
present
Co-dominant- Where neither is completely dominant or recessive, so both
influence the phenotype
Homozygous- Having two identical alleles of a particular gene
Heterozygous- Having two different alleles of a particular gene
A specific area of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a particular characteristic is
called a gene. The sex cells will have one set of genes for each characteristic; some will
be from the father and some from the father. However, it is chance that determines
which particular set of genes are in the sperm or egg and each one will be different.
When fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg will have two sets of genes for each
characteristic, one from the mother and one from the father. Again it is chance which
sperm reaches the egg and manages to fertilise it.
The fertilised egg will have two sets of genes for each characteristic. Which
characteristic is actually shown, depends on which gene is dominant over the other.
For example, the gene for tongue rolling is dominant over the gene for not being able to
tongue roll. Therefore, if the fertilised egg has one gene for tongue rolling and one not
tongue rolling, the child will be able to tongue roll. In order for the child to be unable to
tongue roll, it must have both the recessive genes for not tongue rolling. The dominant
gene is represented by a capital letter and the recessive one by a lower case letter.
Mendes law of independent assortment. Basically if two traits are crossed the
alleles separate independently during gamete formation. Alleles separate
independently.
Monohybrid crosses. e.g. Bb x Bb
Test crosses - An organism can be determined if it is homozygous or
heterozygous by crossing with a homozygous recessive. If some of the
offspring show the recessive trait, then the organism is heterozygous.
Co-dominance
Sex linked disorders. Remember the y chromosome in males is much smaller
and is missing the gene so if a male has the recessive diseased gene he will have
the illness. He cant be a carrier, but the females can. i.e. XX with one healthy
gene and one disease gene. e.g. haemophilia.
Blood groups. A, B, O and AB. O is the universal donor and AB the universal
receiver. For blood transfusions it is important to get the blood groups correct,
otherwise there will be a clash between the antigens of the RBC and the
antibodies in the plasma. The RBC will be destroyed!
Genetic screening
DRUGS AND THE BRAIN (use the Blog resources)
You should be able to identify the following key regions of the brain, and explain
their function:
 Frontal cortex and prefrontal cortex
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Limbic system
 Reward system
 Cerebellum
 Brain stem
You should be able to draw and annotate a diagram of two neurons
communicating at a synapse. Identify the following anatomical features and
explain their function:
 Axon
 Nodes of Ranvier
 Cell body
 Dendrites
 Axon terminal
 Synapse
 Transporter channels (re-uptake channels)
 Neurotransmitter receptor
 Vesicles
Using diagrams if necessary, explain the process of neuronal (synaptic)
transmission. Include the following terms:
 Pre-synaptic neuron
 Post-synaptic neuron
 Action potential
 Neurotransmitter vesicle
 Post-synaptic receptors
 Excitatory neurotransmitters (know an example)
 Inhibitory neurotransmitter (know an example)
 Re-uptake channels
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You should be able to explain at least 2 key differences in the structure and
function of the adolescent brain (compared with the adult brain).
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
DIGESTION (IGCSE Book, p. 17 – 34, excluding p. 26 - 28)
 Be able to annotate, and identify, the different organs involved in human
digestion
 Be able to explain how mechanical and chemical digestion are achieved
 Understand the key enzymes involved in human digestion. Know WHERE they
are synthesized and WHERE they act, and the optimal pH for their activity
 Be able to explain how the small intestine is adapted for optimal absorption of
digested food
 Briefly understand the role of the liver in digestion, and also the circulatory
supply to the liver
TRANSPORT (IGCSE Book, p. 54 – 64)
 Understand that mammals have a double circulatory system
 Be able to annotate a diagram of the heart, showing the major chambers (name
all 4), valves (name all 4 valves) and vessels (name all 4 major vessels)
 Be able to define systole, diastole, and explain how the cardiac cycle is
controlled (pacemakers, where are they located and what do they do?)
 Explain the different types of blood vessels, and how their structure and function
are related
 Understand the composition of blood, and explain the function and structure of:
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets)
 Briefly explain the function and organization of the lymphatic system
HUMAN REPRODUCTION (IGCSE Book, p. 54 – 64)
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Know the difference between, and advantages/disadvantages, between sexual
and asexual preproduction
Be able to define gamete
Be able to annotate and explain the functions of a diagram of noth the male and
female human reproductive organs
Briefly explain the location and mechanism of fertilization
Understand the structure and function of the placenta, and be able to explain
the effects of alcohol and nicotine on the placenta and growth of the baby
Be able to briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of breast feeding
Understand the hormones responsible for sperm production
Understand the female menstrual cycle, and its hormonal control
Be able to discuss basic forms of birth control in males and females
Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring from one parent e.g.
bacteria (binary fission), fungi (with sporangium), plants (with tubers) e.g. potatoes
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid zygote.
The offspring are genetically different
Sex cells gametes are produced by meiosis. In humans the sperm is produced by the
testis, and eggs are produced by the ovaries
In humans one egg is released every month, whereas the sperm are constantly
made
You should know and be able to label the male and female reproductive organs
You should know how fertilization occurs
You should know what happens after fertilization. The zygote travelling down the
fallopian tube and being implanted in the uterus wall etc.
You should know how the placenta provides a link between the mother and the
baby, but their blood vessels don't directly mix
You should be able to explain how a foetus gets its nutrients and gets rid of waste
products
Know a little bit about birth
Know and understand the advantages and disadvantages of breast feeding
Understand the hormones involved with controlling the menstrual cycle and how
the pill works
Understand the pros and cons of contraceptive methods
PLANT REPRODUCTION (IGCSE Book, p. 71 - 82)
 Know and identify all the different parts of a flower
 Understand how fertilization occurs (Know how a zygote is formed) and the
difference
between
self
and
cross
pollination
and
the
advantages/disadvantages between them
 Understand the differences in flower and pollen structure between wind and
insect pollinated flowers
 Know how a seed is formed
 Understand the proper use of the word fruit: from which part of the flower does
it develop ?
 Understand the different methods of seed dispersal and why it is necessary
 ·Know the structure of a seed and what is needed for germination to occur