Published by
MCSER - Mediterranean Center
of Social and Educational Research
African Association for
Teaching and Learning
African Society for the
Scientific Research
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Special Issue
Vol. 2, No. 10 November 2012
Guest Editors
Jacinta A. Opara,PhD
Ivan C. Siqueira,PhD
Austin N. Nosike,PhD
Grace A. Fayombo,PhD
Hanna David,PhD
Rome, Italy 2012
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Editor in Chief
Prof. Francesco Randazzo
Executive Director Mcser
Prof. Antonello Biagini
Scientific Coordinator
Prof.ssa Giovanna Motta
Editorial Assistant
Dr. Dorina Orzac
Graphic Design
Dr. Roberto Scierrone
Editorial Managing
Dr. Daniel Pommier Vincelli
Editing
Dr. Lisa Licata
Copyright  2011 Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research
 CEMAS – Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
ISSN: 2239-978X (Print) ISSN: 2240-0524 (Online)
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10
Special Issue
Vol. 2, No. 10, November 2012
Guest Editors
Jacinta A. Opara,PhD
Ivan C. Siqueira,PhD
Austin N. Nosike,PhD
Grace A. Fayombo,PhD
Hanna David,PhD
Publisher
 MCSER – Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research
 CEMAS – Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Special Issue
Vol. 2, No. 10, November 2012
ISSN: 2239-978X (print) ISSN: 2240-0524 (online)
About the Journal
The "Journal of Educational and Social Research", published by MCSER, is a
professional, double-blind, peer-reviewed, open-access journal publishing high-quality
scientific articles. The journal has a distinguished editorial board with extensive
academic qualifications, ensuring that the journal will maintain high scientific
standards and have a broad international coverage. Articles related to all branches of
education are published The editorial board intends to publish papers which cover
applied and theoretical approaches to the study of education and its related
disciplines. The purpose of the journal is to serve as a forum for researchers around
the world to present and discuss common concerns in local, national, global,
international and transnational issues in social studies education. The journal is an
invaluable resource for teachers, counselors, supervisors, administrators, curriculum
planners, and educational researchers as they consider the structure of tomorrow's
curricula. Special issues examine major education issues in depth. Topics of recent
themes include methodology, motivation, and literacy. The Journal of Educational
and Social Research publishes original empirical and theoretical studies and analyses
in education that constitute significant contributions to the understanding and/or
improvement of educational processes and outcomes. The Journal focuses on
significant political, cultural, social, economic, and organizational issues in education,
and explores the processes and outcomes of teaching, learning, and human
development at all educational levels and in both formal and informal setting.
Although the JESR does not publish validation studies, the editors welcome many
varieties of research--experiments, evaluations, ethnographies, narrative research,
replications, and so forth. JESR publish research that representing a wide range of
academic disciplines and using a wide range of research methods.
Editor in Chief,
Prof. Francesco Randazzo
University of Perugia, Italy
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Editor in chief Francesco Randazzo
University of Perugia, Italy
International Editorial Board
Timm Albers,
University of Education Karlsruhe, Germany
Peter M. Miller,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Usa
Nerissa Albon, Monash
University, Australia
Pigga Keskitalo,
Saami University College Kautokeino, Norway
Paul Joseph PACE,
University of Malta, Msida, Malta / Centre
for Environmental Education and Research
Marcel Pikhart,
University Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Sandro Caruana,
University of Malta, Malta
William J. Hunter,
University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
Canada
Peter Mayo,
University of Malta, Malta
Adriana Piga,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Alba Dumi,
University of Vlore, Albania
Waqar Un Nisa Faizi,
Jinnah Univerity for Women, Karachi,
Pakistan
Maria Nogues,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Rusul Alrubail,
Seneca College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Pilar Robles G.,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Merja Paksuniemi,
Saari School, Rovaniemi, Finland
Rajakumar Chelladurai,
V.S.B.Engineering College,
Karur, Tamilnadu,India
Shobana Nelasco,
Fatima College, Madurai-India
Nkasiobi S.Oguzor,
Federal College of
Education(Technical),Omoku- Nigeria
Jacinta A. Opara,
Universidad Azteca, Mexico
Fernando A. Ferreira
Polytechnic Institute of Santarem, Portugal
Alice Kagoda,
Makerere University, Kampala-Uganda
B.V. Toshev,
University of Sofia, Bulgaria
Sodienye A. Abere,
Rivers State University of Science and
Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Eddie Blass,
Swinburne University of Technology,Australia
Hanna David,
Tel Aviv University, Jerusalem-Israel
Oby Cordelia Okonkwor,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria
Asoluka C. Njoku,
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education,
Owerri-Nigeria
Azubuike Cypril Nwokocha, Michael
Okpara University of Agriculture,UmuahiaNigeria
Kinikanwo A. Anele
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Peter Ugochukwu Akanwa,
Imo State University, Owerri-Nigeria
Birol Topuz,
Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan
Addison Mark Wokocha,
Teachers Registration Council, Abuja-Nigeria
Hassan Danial Aslam,
Human Resource Management Research
Society, Pakistan
M.O.N. Obagah,
Rivers State University of Education, Nigeria
Austin N. Nosike,
The Granada Management Institute, Spain
Gerhard Berchtold,
Universidad Azteca, Mexico
Samir Mohamed Alredaisy,
University of Khartoum, Sudan
Lawrence Ogbo Ugwuanyi,
University of Abuja, Abuja-Nigeria
Pamba Stephen,
Youth Alive Developmet Foundation, Uganda
Anthonia U. Ejifugha,
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of
Education,Owerri-Nigeria
Alessandro Pistecchia,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Sokol Pacukaj,
Aleksander Moisiu University, Albania
Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi
School of Agriculture and Home Economics,
Federal College of Education (Technical)
Umunze, Anambra State, Nigeria
Felice Corona,
University of Salerno, Italy
Abbas Khakpour,
Malayeru University, Iran
Fouzia Naeem Khan,
Shaheed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Institute of
Science and Technology, Pakistan
Lazarus Ndiku Makewa,
University of Eastern Africa, Kenya
Suleyman Davut Goker,
Girne American University, North Cyprus
Ramona Simut,
Emanuel University of Oradea, Romania
Nongnapas Kuvarunyu Thiengkamol,
Mahasarakham University, Thailand
Iqbal Ahmad,
University of Malakand, Pakistan
Asif Jamil,
Institute of Education and Research, Gomal
University, DIKHan KPK, Pakistan
Eja Iwara Eja,
University of Calabar, Nigeria
Francisco Javier Ramos,
University of Castilla, La Mancha, Spain
Kalaly Chu,
University Kristen Satya Wacana, Indonesia
Anne Cross,
Metropolitan State University,USA
Tutku Akter,
Girne American University, Northern Cyprus
Hosé Sánchez-Santamaría,
University of Castilla, La Mancha, Spain
Ogundele Michael Olarewaju,
National Teachers’ Institute, Nigeria
Wan Edura Wan Rashid,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Zohreh Ramin,
University of Tehran, Iran
Introduction
It has been a great opportunity cooperating with Mediterranean Center of Social
and Educational Research. This partnership metamorphosed into this Special
Issue of the JESR.The editors and reviewers that provided detailed evaluation of
the essays improved the work.The respect for their knowledge and experience is
immeasurable.
Professor M.P Pagar, Professor M.O.N. Obagah, Professor Addison Wokocha,
Professor Shobana Nelasco, Professor Oby Okonkwor, Professor Kinikanwo Anele
and Professor Hanna David gave keen advice on editorial organisation.The entire
editorial team of MCSER were highly resourceful reflected in their commitment.
Sokol Pacukaj of the editorial office provided talent and professionalism which
made JESR a joy to work with.
In all,this publication is a reference that every development specialist, educator
and social scientist.Unusually accessible and engaging, these essays make this
special edition of JESR a meaningful contribution to scholarship
Jacinta A. Opara,PhD
Visiting Associate Professor,Universidad Azteca,Chalco-Mexico
and President, African Association for Teaching and Learning
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Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Stress Management Among Married Adult Learners in the Work and
Study Programme of Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria …………………………… 11
Stella Ngozi Nduka-Ozo
Building Information Technology (IT) Knowledge Centres as
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) for Nigerian Communities’
Sustainable Economic Development………………………………………………………………..… 18
Anele Nwokoma
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in the Implementation
of Participatory Agricultural Reforms and Rural Development Initiatives in
the South-Eastern Nigeria ……………………………………………………………..……………..... 23
Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi
Business Ethics: A Catalyst for Rapid Economic Growth …………………………………..…… 30
Dombin N. Amos
Societal and Gender Issues in the Study of Home Economics Education in
Nigerian Tetiary Institutions ……………………………………………………………………….…… 38
Ozioma C. Azubuike
Determinants of Failure to Attain Full Tourism and Educational Potentials in
a Developing Society ……………………………………………………………………..……………… 49
Unamma Anthony Odera
Vocational and Technical Education:
Seeing Through The Eye-View of Globalization ………………………………………………….. 55
Daso, Peter Ojimba
Crime: Concept, Causes and Militating Factors ......……………………………………………... 64
Florence N. Anumba
Challenges of Climate Change: The Role of Christian Religious Leaders …………………. 73
Nche George Christian
Relative Effectiveness of Classroom Interaction Techniques on Students’
Participation in Rivers State, Nigeria ………………………………………………………………... 81
Oranu Philomena Chika And Onwioduokit F. A
Aggression in Iran 5 To 11 Grade Children in Relation to Parental Involvement
and Attachment- Security ………………………………………………………………………………. 89
Nayereh Shahmohammadi
The Effect of Local Processing Method (Kilishi) on the Nutrient Profiles of
Heterobranchus Birdosalis in Owerri Municipal Local Government Area…………….......104
Ekeledo, B. C., and Chukwueke, B. O.,
Agricultural Entrepreneurship Development for Youth Empowerment in Nigeria:
Constraints and Initiatives for Improvement ……………………………………………….. 108
Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi
~9~
14. Time Resource Management for Effective School Administration ………………………… 116
Kalu, Joyce Nnuola
15. How to Improve Prediction of Risk from Ground VOCs Using
In-Borehole Gas Monitoring ……………………………………………………………………..…… 125
Nwachukwu, A. N And Ugwuanyi, J. U
16. A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility,
Mass Tort and Environment Protection ………………………………………………………..…. 133
Sukhvinder Singh Dari
17. Issues in Physics, Environment and Sustainable Development …………………………..… 141
Nuradeen Aliyu Kankia
18. Charting a Course of Development Through Proper Technical, Technological
and Engineering Education …………………………………………………………………………… 145
Olawale Olaniyi Emmanuel Ajibola
19. Secondary School Students’ Attitude Towards Environmental Issues
in Karachi Pakistan ……………………………………………………………………………….……… 155
Anisa Yousuf And Sadia.Bhutta
20. Role of Physics Education for Technological Development for Employment
and Self Productivity in Nigeria ………………………………………………………..…………… 167
Sani Abubakar
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ISSN 2239-978X
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Stress Management Among Married Adult Learners in the Work
and Study Programme of Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki Nigeria
Stella Ngozi Nduka-Ozo
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki-Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p11
Abstract
The study investigated the causes of stress for adult learners in the Work and Study programme in Ebonyi
State University, Abakaliki. Specifically the study assessed the extent to which family expectations societal
expectations, crowded classrooms, short period of study and lack of committed teachers cause stress for
adult learners in the work and study programme. The population for this study consisted of all the adult
learners in the Work and Study programme in the Faculty of Education numbering 630, while the sample
size was 140. Five research questions guided the study. The instrument for data collection was a researcher
made instrument named Adult Learners’ Stressors Assessment Scale (ALSAS) which is a four – point
modified likert scale with four clusters (A - D) and 25 items. Data collected were analyzed using mean and
standard deviation. The findings of the study revealed that the adult learners in Ebonyi State University in
the Work and Study programme are stressed by family expectations, societal expectations, and the
shortness of the period under which they have to cover the whole work meant for their programme. To
them, the teachers or the crowded classrooms do not constitute stress. Recommendations were also made
for example that they should accept counselling for stress management strategies.
Keywords: Adult learners, work and study, stress, stressors
Introduction
Adult learners have been conceptualized from different perspectives. Operationally, Thomas (1981)
observed that an adult learner is “anyone who participates in any form of adult education activity”.
He is different from the young learner in more ways than just size and age; and the adult class is
different from a class in formal schooling because, in his own view, Thomas maintained that:
1. some believe they are too old to learn, they are worried about whether they can keep up,
whether others will laugh at them if they make mistakes;
2. some have never been to school before; they do not know what to expect;
3. some have been to school but have bad memories of the experience, possibly they could
not cope, or failed an examination or were severely punished;
4. most of them probably work, on a farm, or in a home or in a shop, or in a factory. Going
to an adult class is not their main occupation;
5. many of them are married, many are fathers or mothers, they have responsibilities at
home and may be worried about problems such as sick child, shortage of food, family
arguments or lack of money to pay school fees;
6. some have community responsibilities such as being a committee of a co-operative or a
local counsellor or a member of a women’s club or church worker or an officer of a trade
union (P.87).
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
The above listed beliefs, assumptions or situations cause a lot of stress to the adult learners. In
Ebonyi State of Nigeria there are many adult learners. The State is a young State and had been
listed as one of the educationally backward states that needs a lot of catching up. This catching up
brought about adult enrolment into the University and hence more stress for the adult learners.
Neaves in Oboegbulem (2002) saw stress as the way human beings respond to conditions that
scare, threaten, anger, bewilder or excite them. When stress persists there is a tendency for an
occurrence of fatigue, breakdown in human perceptual machines, or even damages to the body
systems, which may result in mental physical failure.
Stress as conceptualized by Uzoka (2005) is pressure from an adverse force or influence that
imposes unusual demand on an organism. He went on to explain that stress occurs when there are
demands on the person which tax or exceed the person’s adjustive resources. The stimuli that cause
stress are called stressor stimuli or stressors. Stress that are peculiar to adult learner are often
classifies under societal, organizational and role-related stress (Oboegbulem 2002). Ezeilo (2005)
observed that severe stress in the Nigerian undergraduate (learners) seems to be the rule rather
that exception. Like any other person changes and vicissitudes of life are stressful.
Societal stress as far as adult learners are concerned results from pressure put on them by
members of their families, community and others in the societal to be like others, or at least change
their economic and social status. Organizational stress comes from the work places for some of
these adult learners who are under pressure to update their certificates. Role-related stress comes
as a result of the psychological well being of the individual and his ego defense, which compels him
to improve himself for his self image.
The adult learners in the work and study programme of
Ebonyi State University are workers or business people who have families, have community
responsibilities and may have been out of schools for many years. In the school they have lectures
from twelve noon until six o’clock on Fridays; and eight o’clock until six o’clock on Saturdays. They
come to school with stress written all over then, often hungry as they have to hurry from their
places of work to meet up the with the lecture time table. They are often so fatigued that many
sleep off during lectures. Many are not able to cope, so they continue to carry over courses for
many years. The result is that they fail to graduate or graduate many years after their probable year
of graduation.
The adaptation theory of stress as put forward by Mmaduakonam (1997) states that physical
environment like light, noise, temperature, status, group level, happenings at work and outside work
situations are stressors.. However, the way a person perceives a situation will determine whether it
will be stressful or not and even the outcome of stress. Accordingly, any physical environment like a
noisy class or the continuous need for change of status is stressful. Stress is a biological
phenomenon experienced by people when faced with adverse conditions. The study is therefore an
attempt to find out the stressors that affect the adult learners in the Work and study programme in
Ebonyi State University and make recommendations to alleviate their stress.
Purpose of the Study
This study was aimed at finding out the cause of stress among adult learners in the work and study
programme of Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki.
Research Questions
The five research questions which guided the study and include:
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ISSN 2239-978X
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Is family expectations cause of stress for adult learners in the work and study programme?
Is societal expectations cause of stress for adult learners in the work and study
programme?
Is crowded classrooms cause of stress for adult learners in the work and study
programme?
Is the short period of study cause of stress for adult learners in the work and study
programme?
Is lack of committed teacher’s cause of stress for adult learners in the work and study
programme?
Methods and Procedures
A descriptive survey research design was adopted to collect data from the entire adult learner in
the work and study programme in the seven departments of the faculty of education of Ebonyi
State. Since the population is large - 630 (Source: Work and Study Directorate, Ebonyi State
University. 2012) only 20 students who are married were selected from the seven departments,
giving a sample of 140 respondents. The instrument for data collection was a researcher made
instrument named Adult Learners’ Stressors Assessment Scale (ALSAS) which is a four – point
modified likert scale with four clusters (A - D) and 25 items. The instrument was subjected to
content, face and construct validation by experts in the field. The reliability of the instrument was
established for internal consistency using the Crombach Alpha which yielded reliability co-efficient
of 0.66 after a test-retest carried out in a purposively selected Adult Education Government owned
centre in the state. The supervisor related factor variable was controlled by the pre-survey workshop
for all research assistants.
Results and Findings
The results of the study were presented in tables 1 – 5 based on the research questions raised.
Research Question one: Is family expectations cause of stress for adult learners in the work and
study programme?
Table 1: Mean rating of the extent to which family expectations cause stress for adult learner
in the work and study programme.
Items
Family related expectations
Mean (x)
SD
1
My wife/husband wants me to further my
3.58
1.13
education.
2
My wife/husband feels that I am not measuring up
to his present status
3.24
1.12
3
My children demand so much that my present
income cannot carry me.
3.26
0.44
4
My parents are aging and make a lot of medical
financial expenses.
3.19
0.34
5
My inlaws are so demanding that I just have to
upgrade my earnings
3.35
0.34
Grand mean
3.26
0.62
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Result of data analysis presented on table 1 shows that family related expectation cause stress
for adult learners in the work and study programme in Ebonyi State. The grand mean for the
responses is 3.26 and SD of 0.62 on a 4-point scale. The grand mean is above 2.5 decision rule;
therefore it shows that families are stressors.
Research Question two: Is societal expectations cause of stress for adult learners in the work and
study programme?
Table 2: Mean rating of the extent to which societal expectation cause stress for adult learners
in the work and study programme in Ebonyi State.
Items Societal related expectations
Mean (x)
SD
6
7
8
9
10
My community wants me to be the chairman of the
general assembly
My community expects me to build a better house
I am often expected to donate in launchings made in
my community
People in my village make derogatory remarks about
my car
My age group are always buying new uniform for every
occasion
Grand mean
2.75
0.68
3.42
3.22
0.62
0,57
2.87
0.64
2.77
0.62
2.67
0.62
Result of data analysis presented on table 2 shows that societal related expectations cause
stress for adult learners in Ebonyi State. On the 4-point scale grand mean responses is 2.67 which is
above the 2.5 decision rule and hence it can be concluded that the society is stressor for adult
learners.
Research Question three: Is crowded classrooms cause of stress for adult learners in the work and
study programme?
Items
Table 3: Mean rating of the extent to which crowded classrooms cause stress or
adult learners in Ebonyi State.
Crowded classrooms related stress
Mean (x)
SD
11
Our classrooms are so crowded that we have to sit six
on benches meant for four
2.16
0.46
12
At times some students have to stand for lectures
2.23
0.57
13
The classrooms are always stuffy due to over population
1.86
0.62
14
We often have to sit eight on bench during exams
2.26
0.64
15
Crowded classrooms upset me so much
2.32
0.58
Grand mean
2.16
0.57
Again the summary of the result presented in table 3 indicated that for crowded classrooms
the grand mean 2.16 is below the 2.5 decision rule showing that crowded classrooms are not seen
as stressors for adult learners in Ebonyi State.
Research Question four: Is the short period of study cause of stress for adult learners in the work
and study programme?
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ISSN 2239-978X
Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Table 4: Mean rating of the extent to which short periods of study cause stress for
adult learners in Ebonyi State.
Items
Short periods related stress
Mean (x)
SD
16
I have this feeling that we are always racing for time in
this programme
3.65
0.64
17
I have to cover so much in so short a time
2.67
0.62
18
I hardly learn the concept before new ones are
introduced
2.86
0.64
19
I with I had more time to be able to cope
2.76
0.58
20
I hardly rest from exams before the new semester
commences
3.24
0.58
Grand mean
2.87
0.62
The result of the data analysis for table 4 also shows that shortness of the periods for study is
cause of stress for adult learners in Ebonyi State; since the grand mean for the items amounted to
2.87 which is also greater than the decision rule of 2.25.
Research Question five: Is lack of committed teachers’ cause of stress for adult learners in the work
and study programme?
Items
Table 5: Mean rating of the extent to which lack of committed teachers’
cause stress or adult learners in Ebonyi State.
Lack of committed teachers’ related stress
Mean (x)
SD
21
Our teachers are not always punctual to lectures
2.22
0.56
22
Our teacher are often irregular to lectures
2.13
0.59
23
The teacher often do block teaching
1.65
0.58
24
Many of the teachers do not finish the course
outline
Many of the teachers care less what grades we
make
Grand mean
2.18
0.62
2.41
0.61
2.12
0.63
25
Again the summary of the result presented in table 5 indicated that for lack of committed
teachers’ related stress the grand mean of 2.12 is below the 2.5 decision rule.
Discussion of Results
Research question 1 sought to find out if family expectations cause stress for adult learners in the
work and study programme of Ebonyi State University. In table one the responses to items 1 – 5
shows that the grand mean of 3.26 is greater than the 2.5 decision rule. This agrees with Thomas
(1981) in his assertion that many adult learners have family responsibilities at home and may be
worried about problems such as sick child or lack of money. The family dependants like the
children, aged parents and extended relatives expect so much from the workers in their family.
Research question 2 asked if societal expectations cause stress for adult learners in the work
and study programme. Table two with items 6 – 10 provided the answer from the respondents,
which yielded a grand mean of 2.65 which is greater than the cut off mark of 2.5. This agrees with
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Journal of Educational and Social Research
Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Ezeilo (2005) who observed that severe stress in the Nigerian society seems to be the rule rather
than exception. Thomas (1981) also opined in his 6th problem of adult learners that some of them
have community responsibilities that affect their lives. It was earlier observed that Ebonyi State had
been listed as an educationally backward state that needs a lot of catching up. The societal
expectation for Ebonyians is that they should be able to take up appointed left by others who have
to go back to their own state at the creation of Ebonyi State.
Research question 3 found out that crowded classrooms were not seen by the adult learners
as constituting stressors for them. One may wonder why students are comfortable with crowded
classrooms, unless there is another rewarding part to a crowded classroom like ‘giraffing’. Giraffing
as Azelama (2005) explained is a situation where a person tries to stretch his/her neck in a giraffelike manner in order to catch a glimpse of something that is not very close.
Research question 4 which has to do with the short periods of study also cause stress to the
adult learners. The grand mean is 2.87 of the responses is again greater than 2.5 decision rule.
Uzoka (2005) had conceptualized stress as pressure from an adverse force or influence that imposes
unusual demand on an organism. The adult learners have both organizational and role-related
stress to battle with which agrees with Oboegbulem’s (2002) contribution classes of stress peculiar
to adult learners.
Research question 5 asked ‘Is lack of committed teachers’ cause of stress for adult learners in
the work and study programme?’ Again the summary of the result presented in table 5 indicated
that for lack of committed teachers’ related stress the grand mean of 2.12 is below the 2.5 decision
rule, indicating that either the teachers are committed or their lack of commitment does not pose a
stressor for adult learners in the work and study programme.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The findings of the study have revealed that the adult learner in Ebonyi State University in the Work
and Study programme are stressed by family expectations, societal expectations, and the shortness
of the period under which they have to cover the whole work meant for their programme. To them,
the teachers do not constitute stress, nor the crowded classrooms which may well suit their purpose
for exam ‘giraffing’ or other forms of examination malpractices. Since persistent stress has the
tendency for an occurrence of fatigue, breakdown in human perceptual machines, or even damages
to the body systems, which may result in mental physical failure it is recommended:
1.
2.
3.
4.
That sensitization workshop on stress management should be organized by government
and institutions to help individuals to improve their stress management strategies.
That government should continue to give in-service training to deserving workers to
update their certificates and improve their lot in life, in place of work and study
programme.
At the institutional level lecture halls should be made more comfortable and suitable for
lecturers and examinations and lecturers should be more committed to their duties.
At the personal level individuals should set their priorities right and not allow others to
ruin their lives, they should accept counselling for stress management strategies like:
relaxation techniques – whether progressive muscular relaxation or meditation, aerobic
exercises, coping strategies (which may be problem or emotion focused), social support or
use of biofeedback.
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References
Azelama, J. (2005), Administration of Nigerian Tertiary Institutions. Benin City: Ever Blessed Publishers.
Ezeilo, N.B. & Chukwu, C. (2005), Stress in the Undergraduate. In Bernice Ezeilo Ed. Enugu: SNAAP Press Ltd.
Mmaduakonam, A.E. (1997), Occupational Stress Counselling for workers survival. Enugu: Academic Publishing
Company.
Oboegbulam, A.I. (2002), Teacher Stress Management. Lagos: Vista Books Limited
Thomas, D., (1981). Psychology and adult education. In L. Brown & J.T. Okedara (Eds). An Introducation to the
Study of Adult Education. Ibadan: University Press.
Uzoka, F. A. (2005), The Family, Family Induced Stress and Family Therapy In Family Stress Management. Bernice
Ezeilo Ed. Enugu: SNAAP Press Ltd.
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Building Information Technology (IT) Knowledge Centres as
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) for Nigerian Communities’
Sustainable Economic Development
Anele Nwokoma
School of ITC, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Adamawa State
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p18
Abstract
This paper calls for corporations to establish Information Technology (IT) Knowledge Centres for
communities as corporate social responsibility for sustainable economic development. Several authors
(Colle, 2005; Colle and Roman, 2001; Kanungo, 2003, 2004) call for corporate participation in creating
community based IT knowledge centre projects to make knowledge centres as a mechanism for economic
sustainable development. The emphasis on corporate and community participation is traced back to
stakeholder involvement (Whyte, 1999, 2000) as a measure for successful project in information systems
and international development fields. This paper finds that the concept of participation in IT knowledge
centres literature can be useful for communities’ economic sustainability and calls for more research.
Keywords: Information Technology, Knowledge Centres, Corporate Social Responsibility, Sustainable
Development.
Introduction
According to Howard Schultz (2011), “the role of business is to achieve the fragile balance between
profitability and social conscience. Without the later, the former is unsustainable.” IT knowledge
centres can provide sustainable information and communication facilities in Nigeria as advocated
by Schultz. Knowledge centre will have greater impact if there is participation from the local
community in their design, implementation, management and evaluation (Caspary and O’Connor,
2003; Colle, 2005; Gómez et al, 1999; Roman and Colle, 2002; Proenza, 2001; and Whyte, 2000).
However, there is limited research on whether there is any correlation between the two factors,
corporations and communities relative to knowledge centre. Thus the question, “are knowledge
centres more successful if the community participates”, needs to be researched more.
Section A of this paper provides review of literature on the impact of IT knowledge centres on
communities. Section B discusses analysis. And section C provides conclusion.
A. The Impacts of IT Knowledge Centres on Communities
IT knowledge centres are defined as “a diverse range of facilities providing education and access to
information and communication technologies offering training, internet and community services”
(Shakeel, 2001). They are “the places that offer educational training and public connectivity with
computers and networks” (Roman and Colle, 2002).
IT knowledge centres are based on the assumption that technical education and social
economics rather than technical connectivity to information will lead to empowerment (Roman and
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Colle, 2002). Knowledge centres differ from cybercafés in that they have a developmental focus
(Harris, 2003). However, a knowledge centre may include cybercafé. Whyte (1999) posits that
Knowledge centre projects can be donor-managed and thus fosters communities’ economic
sustainable development.
There are three viewpoints on the impact of IT knowledge centres; namely, impractical,
imaginary, and intermediary. The impractical perspective reflects the view of development (Rostow,
1960) with an emphasis on technology. With this view, IT knowledge centres represent “a new
symbol of hope for community development” including the ability to bring “a new economic social
order that would be more prosperous” (Hunt, 2001).
Hunt posits that “several knowledge centre operators and managers express satisfaction over
the potential power of information and communication technology leading to significant positive
change in communities. Therefore, knowledge centres represent hope for communities that quest
for progressive conditions in their daily lives” (Hunt, 2001).
The impractical views of knowledge centres are becoming practical such that and according to
(Roman and Colle, 2002), “a woman has her cataract removed in India and a farmer in China
improved his sales both through information they found online from a knowledge centre.” Kanungo
(2004), “recounts several cases, for example, 48 women who insured themselves against accidental
loss of life or limb and a woman labourer who found a better price for her grain than the price fixed
by her land proprietor, and farmers in a village who found why their sugarcane farms were affected
by disease – all through information they accessed via knowledge centres.
The imaginary view point supports the reliance standpoint of development (Escobar, 1995;
Ferguson, 1994) which states that “the notion of connectivity and access leading to “development”
is manipulated by corporate giants and development agencies to maintain the dependency of
developing countries on the West (Schech, 2002; Wade, 2002). This perception can, however, be
supported by questions of financial and social knowledge centre sustainability (Hudson, 2001,
Tschang et al, 2002; Whyte, 1999). Financial sustainability occurs when a project “achieves revenue
equal to or greater than the expenditure and economic return of a project,” (Tschang et al, 2002).
Social sustainability provides positive impact of knowledge centre on the social and economic
development of the local community (Tschang et al, 2002; Whyte, 1999; Whyte, 2000). Nigeria
needs IT and social economic knowledge centres for sustainable economic development.
Avgerou (1998) supports the intermediary view and posits that “access to education and ICT
may not frankly guide development, but a necessity for nations, states, and community to be part of
global economic activity.” Knowledge centres can be used “as a tool for strategic national
infrastructure,” (Madon, 2000).” Ulrich (2004) finds that “knowledge centres in rural China fill a
fundamental information void and enhance the livelihood of the educated and relatively wealthy.”
Therefore, knowledge centres might provide benefits to all parts of a community and lead to
improved standard of living.
Community participation is the prerequisite for sustainable economic development. For
example:

Roman and Colle (2002) call for a “conscientious participation because it “conveys a sense
of community ownership, provides indigenous wisdom, helps reflect community values
and needs, and provides important resources, such as volunteers or technical expertise at
a favourable cost.”

Kanungo (2004) states that “collective ownership of a IT knowledge centre initiative is
necessary because it implies educational access to everyone regardless of social status to
regenerate the idea and continually seek affirmation amongst the participants.”

Gómez et al (1999) call for research on “community involvement, participation and use.”
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Whyte (2000) emphasizes the need for community input in out come evaluation of
knowledge centres.
The establishment of IT knowledge centres as corporate social responsibility with community
participation will lead to sustainable economic development.

B. Analysis
The World Bank (1992) defines participation as “a process in which people, communities, and
external stakeholders influence decisions that affect them.” Thus community participation in
knowledge centre projects can be seen as stakeholders involvement to provide and support their
needs. Information systems literatures posit that users’ participation often lead to developed
system(s) acceptance and utilization because of “psychological buy-in” (Barki and Hartwick, 1989).
In addition, ISO 13407 model, requires that users be regarded as designers (Usability Net,
2006). According to (Kawalek and Wood-Harper, 2002), users’ participation creates better
relationships between designers and users. And thereby provides opportunities to integrate users
concern and input into the system. This will subsequently reduce systems failure due to top-down
approach.
There are two theories of community participation; namely, weak and strong participations.
Esman and Uphoff (1984) believe that the weak approach provides stakeholders a negligible,
superficial, ritualistic, and barren participation. Brett (2003) supports this view and believes that
“strong participation could be impractical, costly, and politically difficult for development agencies
to accomplish.” Brett further argues that “strong participation is unattainable in large projects.
Contrarily, World Bank (1994) study finds that “national, state, or community participation in
projects are valuable regardless of the initial high costs, it pays off and brings increased efficiency,
sustainability, and saves time in subsequent projects.”
Moreover, Chambers (1997) supports strong participation and calls for corporate partnership
with communities. Furthermore, Burkie (1993) states that “strong participation is an educational and
empowering process in which communities and businesses in partnership identify problems and
needs, mobilize resources, and take the responsibility to plan, organize, implement, control, and
assess the collective actions that where decided upon.” The citizens’ level of education in a
community can be used as adoptive measure for strong versus weak participation in building IT
knowledge centre for a community.
C. Conclusions
This paper aims at contributing to IT knowledge centre literature. The paper calls for major
corporations doing business in Nigeria to build IT knowledge centres with community participation.
Knowledge centres can provide sustainable education, information, and communication facilities in
Nigeria and thereby serving as a mechanism for sustainable economic development.
Whether the impacts of IT knowledge centres development is based on impractical, imaginary,
and/or intermediary, it can serve as a bridge for sustainable economic development. Knowledge
centres can be used to develop technical and social economic education which will subsequently
create public awareness and therefore provide policy, program, and project information for
Nigerian Government at all levels including businesses. The comparative arguments about weak
versus strong stake holders participation are immaterial. We need ICT
tools for sustainable
economic development of which IT knowledge centres are one of such tools.
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References
Avgerou, C. (1998) "How Can IT Enable Economic Growth in Developing Countries?" Information Technology for
Development, 8 (1), pp.15-28.
Barki, H. and J. Hartwick (1989) "Rethinking the Concept of User Involvement", MIS Quarterly, 13 (1), pp.53-63.
Brett, E. (2003) "Participation and Accountability in Development Management", Journal of Development Studies,
40 (2), pp.1-29.
Burkie, S. (1993) People First: A Guide to Self-Reliant, Participatory Rural Development, Zed, London.
Caspary, G. and D. O'Connor (2003) "Providing Low-Cost Information Technology Access to Rural Communities
in Developing Countries: What Works? What Pays?", OECD Development Centre, Working Paper No. 229,
OECD, Paris.
Chambers, R. (1997) Whose Reality Counts ? Putting the First Last, Intermediate Technology, London.
Colle, R. and R. Roman (2001) "The Knowledge Environment in 2002", Journal of Development Communication:
Special Issue on Telecenters, 12 (2). http://ip.cals.cornell.edu/commdev/documents/jdc-colle.doc
Colle, R. (2005) "Memo to IT Planners", Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 21 (1),
pp.1-13.
Escobar, A. (1995) Encountering Development : The Making and Unmaking of the Third World, Princeton
University Press, Princeton, N.J.
Esman, M. J. and N. T. Uphoff (1984) Local Organizations : Intermediaries in Rural Development, Cornell
University Press, Ithaca.
Ferguson, J. (1994) The Anti-Politics Machine : "Development," Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in
Lesotho, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
Gomez, R., P. Hunt and E. Lamoureux (1999) Knowledge Centre Evaluation and Research: A Global Perspective,
IDRC, Ottawa.
Hudson, H. (2001) "Telecentre Evaluation: Issues and Strategies" in Knowledge Centres: Case Studies and Key
Issues, (Latchem, C. and D. Walker eds) Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver, pp.169-182.
Hunt, P. (2001) "True Stories: Telecentres in Latin America and the Caribbean", Electronic Journal of Information
Systems in Developing Countries, 4 (5), pp.1-17.
Kanungo, S. (2004) "On the Emancipatory Role of Rural Information Systems", Information Technology and
People, 17 (4), pp.407-422.
Kawalek, P. and T. Wood-Harper (2002) "The Finding of Thorns: User Participation in Enterprise Systems
Implementation", The Database for Advances in Information Systems, 33 (1), pp.13-22.
Madon, S. (2000) "The Internet and Socio-Economic Development", Information Technology and People, 13 (2),
pp.85-101.
Proenza, F. (2001) "Knowledge Centre Sustainability: Myths and Opportunities", Journal of Development
Communication: Special Issue on Telecenters, 12 (2).
Roman, R. and R. Colle (2002) “Themes and Issues in Knowledge centre Sustainability”, University of Manchester
Development Informatics Working Paper Series. http://www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/publications
/wp/di/di_wp10.htm
Rostow, W. W. (1960) The Stages of Economic Growth : A Non-Communist Manifesto, University Press,
Cambridge.
Schech, S. (2002) "Wired for Change: The Links between ICTs and Development Discourse", Journal of
International Development, 14 (1), pp.13-23.
Schultz, H. (2011), “USA Today,” March 7, 2011, in the website of International Conference on CSR in SubSaharan Africa, http://www.csrinsubsahara.org/
Shakeel, M. (2001) "Comparing Urban and Rural Knowledge Costs", Electronic Journal of Information Systems in
Developing Countries, 4 (2), pp.1-13.
Tschang, T., M. Chuladul and T. Thu Le (2002) "Scaling-up Information Services for Development: A Framework
for Increasing Returns for Knowledge Centres", Journal of International Development, 14 (1), pp.129-141.
Ulrich, P. (2004) "Poverty Reduction through Access to Information and Communication Technologies in Rural
Areas: An Analysis of the Survey Results from the Social Impact Assessment Conducted by the Chinese
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Ministry of Science and Technology and the United Nations Development Program", Electronic Journal of
Information Systems in Developing Countries, 16 (7), pp.1-37.
Usability Net (2006) ISO 13407: Human Centred Design Processes for Interactive Systems,
http://www.usabilitynet.org/tools/13407stds.htm
Wade, R. (2002) "Bridging the Digital Divide: Route to Development or New Form of Dependency?" Global
Governance, 8 (4), pp.443-466.
Whyte, A. (1999) "Understanding the Role of Community Knowledge Centres in Development - a Proposed
Approach to Evaluation" in Telecentre Evaluation: A Global Perspective. Report of an International Meeting
on Knowledge Centre Evaluation, (Gomez, R. and P. Hunt eds) IDRC, Ottawa.
Whyte, A. (2000) Assessing Community Knowledge Centres: Guidelines for Researchers, IDRC, Ottawa.
World Bank (1992) Participatory Development and the World Bank, World Bank Discussion Papers (Bhatnagar, B.
and A. Williams eds) World Bank, Washington DC.
World Bank (1994) The World Bank and Participation, World Bank, Washington D.C.
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Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in the
Implementation of Participatory Agricultural Reforms and Rural
Development Initiatives in the South-Eastern Nigeria
Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi
School of Agriculture and Home Economics,
Federal College of Education (Technical), Umunze, Anambra State,Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p23
Abstract
This study was intended to examine the policy imperatives of participatory agricultural reforms and rural
development initiatives through effective application of the technologies of information and
communication. Four research questions and two null hypotheses were raised for the study. A structured
questionnaire was used for data collection. T-test and ANOVA were used to test the hypotheses, while
Mean and Standard deviation were applied on the research questions. Findings show among others that
non-involvement of rural people in needs identification and policy formulation, and poor communication
network were responsible for the failure of previous programmes. It was recommended that the
government and other stakeholders should initiate a model that would encourage the joint use of modern
and traditional technologies in disseminating agricultural reforms and rural development information to
the rural people
Introduction
Rural development strategies can realize their full potentials only through the motivation, active
involvement and organization at the grass-root level of rural people in conceptualizing and
designing policies and programmes meant for their. And if development strategies are to be
successful, they must aim at engendering understanding and awareness of the problems and
opportunities of rural people at all levels and at improving the interaction between development
personnel and the masses through an efficient communication system. The above declaration by
the World Conference of Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD, 1979) form the point
of departure for this discourse.
Results of agricultural and rural development projects in Nigeria have too often been
disappointing, falling well short of the intended objectives. Such projects failed on the human level:
the attitudes and behavior of the people they were set out to help did not change sufficiently for
them to integrate the innovation into their daily life and work. Or, equally important, perhaps the
innovations were inappropriate to their needs, at least as they saw them (Food & Agricultural
Organization (FAO), 1992).
Amadi (2000) and Onweagba (1997), variously see community development initiatives as an
attempt at improving the lives of the peasants through the introduction of innovative farming and
socialization techniques to capitalize on endogenous development of the people. Participatory
development implies the active involvement of the target beneficiaries, right from the initiation
stage. Tangermann (1995) has blamed the less than desirable results of earlier attempts in many
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developing nations on this missing link. He therefore warns: “No amount of investment or provision
of technology and inputs will bring any lasting improvements in the living standards of rural people
unless they change their attitude and behavioural patterns.” It is people that bring about
development, and there can be no change for the better without their informed participation,
without mobilizing their capacities and energies, and without increasing their knowledge and skills.
Communication is an imperative in agricultural reforms and rural development because it
encourages knowledge sharing, rather than the traditional one-way process of information transfer.
The ultimate purpose of communication and knowledge sharing is to assist rural people to take
informed decisions over their environment, and over agriculture, health, habitat and the other
factors, which impinge so critically upon the quality of their life. Failed rural development oriented
projects in Nigeria include the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP), Family Support
Programme (FSP), Directorate for Food and Rural Development Infrastructure (DFFRI), Better-Life
Project (BLP) to mention a few. The failure of these projects amounted to colossal economic and
social wastes, to the nation.
State of the Problem
The bold initiatives taken by the government to enhance agricultural reforms and rural
development has yielded less than expected results. This is because purposeful communication
between development agents and rural people seldom takes place spontaneously. It is this failure
that this paper is poised to address. The following specific objectives were therefore addressed:
1.
Identify the causes of communication failures in agricultural and rural development
projects.
2. Identify Information Technology (IT) strategies to improve rural development
communication.
3. Identify ways by which communication can enhance agricultural and rural development
processes.
4. Make policy recommendations that can redress the perceived anomalies
Research Questions
In line with the study objectives, the following questions were raised:
1.
What are the causes of failure of agricultural reforms and rural development initiatives in
Nigeria?
2. How has poor communication contributed to the failure of agricultural (rural) development
initiatives in Nigeria?
3. In what ways can communication be used to enhance agricultural and rural development
in Nigeria?
4. What Information Technology strategies can enhance communication in rural
development settling?
Two hypotheses stated in the null form and tested at 0.05 confidence limited were used for
the study.
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 confidence limit guided the study:
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Ho: 1 Responses on Agricultural Reforms and Rural Development Initiatives in Nigeria will not
differ significantly based on location of Respondents.
Ho: 2 Responses on Reform and Rural Development Initiatives in Nigeria will not differ
significantly among civil servants, teachers of agriculture and Farmers/Entrepreneurs
Area of the Study
The study was conducted in the five eastern states of the Federation namely, Abia, Anambra,
Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. One urban and one rural community was chosen from each of the states.
Population/Sample for the Study
Teachers, civil servants, and farmer-entrepreneurs whose exact number could not be
ascertained formed the population for the study. A total of fifty (50) respondents purposively
selected from the above different classes of people constituted the study sample.
Instrumentation
A structured questionnaire rat4ed on a 4-point scale was used for data collection. And with
reliability coefficient of .86, .72, .65 and .89 for the four sections respectively rated on the Crombach
alpha scale the entire instrument was deemed reliable enough for the study. Mean and Standard
Deviation were used to analyze the data so as to answer the research questions. Hypothesis 1 was
subjected to t-test analysis while hypothesis 2 was subjected to the test of Analysis of variance
(ANOVA). Decisions were made on the basis of the apriori established mean cut-off point of 2.50.
Hence only items that received mean ratings of 2.50 and above were accepted.
Results
Following analysis of the data generated by the study, results are presented in the tables below:
Research Question 1: What are causes of the failure of Agricultural Reforms and Rural
Development Initiatives in Nigeria?
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Table 1: Probable Causes and Failure of Agricultural/rural Development Initiatives
Item
SA
A
D SD
X
SDV
Decision
Poor communication network
27
23
3.54
50
Accepted
Non-participation of target
30
30
3.6
49
Accepted
beneficiaries
Failure to identify local needs, interest
20
25
5
3.3
64
Accepted
and peculiarities
Failure to brace up to environmental
29
21
2
3.58
49
Accepted
socio-cultural realities
Misappropriation of funds
Improper feasibility studies
16
32
3.38
53
Accepted
Failure of local people to perceive the
50
4.00
0
Accepted
potential benefits of projects
42
8
3.84
37
Accepted
The table above indicates that all the seven items were accepted as possible causes of the
failure of the various past agricultural and rural development programmes in Nigeria.
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Research Question 2: How has poor communication contributed to the failure of Agricultural and
Rural Development Initiatives in Nigeria?
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 2: Contributions of Poor Communication to the Failure of Agricultural Reform
and Rural Development initiatives
Item
Response N = 50
One-way information process has
been in use in most extension work.
No room for feedback.
Target audience could not relate local
experience to development agents.
Extension/development workers
neglect rural communication media
Poor communication hinders grass
root mobilization of beneficiaries
Poor communication hinders proper
context analysis.
AS
31
A
17
D
1
SD
1
X
3.56
SDV
.64
Decision
Accepted
45
30
5
15
35
-
3.9
3.5
.30
.67
“
“
37
9
3
1
3.64
.69
“
16
27
7
-
3.18
.66
“
42
8
-
-
3.84
.37
‘’
With mean ratings all above the 2.50 cut-off point, the six items were accepted as ways by
which poor communication impact on agricultural and rural development initiatives
Research Question 3: In what ways can Communication be used to Agricultural and Rural
Development in Nigeria?
Table 3:Mean Responses on Ways by which Good Communication can enhance Agriculture/Rural Development
S/N
Item
Response N = 50
AS
A
D
SD
X
SDV Decision
1
Creating opportunity for dialogue with
41
9
3.82
.38
Accept
stakeholders
2
Relaying information from specialists to
35
15
3.7
.46
Accept
local people using multimedia devices
3
Making local broadcasts in local
41
9
3.82
.37
Accept
languages
4
Training locals in effective
38
8
4
3.68
.62
Accept
communication strategies
5
Using local leaders and information
38
8
4
3.80
.46
Accept
bearers
6
Regular Use of extensionists
40
10
3.94
.23
Accept
7
Aids to design and implement of
46
4
3.92
.27
Accept
projects useful to target beneficiaries
Source: Field Survey 2012
With all the items rated above the mean decision point, they were all accepted as possible
ways by which effective communication can be employed for the enhancement of agricultural and
rural development in Nigeria.
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Research Question 4: What Information Technologies could be used to enhance effective
Communication in an agricultural / rural Development Setting?
Table 4: Information Technology Strategies that can Enhance Communication for Agricultural/Rural Development
S/N
Item
Response N = 50
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Development communication must be
based on audience research
Use of a variety of media channels
Ensuring ongoing testing and
evaluation of programmes
Applying social marketing and
networking principles and approaches
Overcoming barriers of illiteracy by
using audio-visual materials
Use of motivational speakers,
instructional posters, comic sheets,
leaflets
Maintenance of old technologies such
as radio sets
Publication of newsletters and
agricultural magazines
AS
15
A
35
D
-
SD
-
X
3.30
SDV
.46
Decision
Accept
48
38
2
6
4
2
3.96
3.6
.19
.80
Accept
Accept
4
32
2
2
2.95
.58
Accept
45
5
-
-
3.90
.30
Accept
30
20
-
-
3.6
.48
Accept
16
12
20
2
2.84
.93
Accept
10
40
-
-
3.20
.40
Accept
With mean responses ranging from 3.70 to 3.94 all the items were accepted as information
strategies that can conduce agricultural and rural development in Nigeria
Ho: 1 Responses on Agricultural Reforms and Rural Development Initiatives in Nigeria will not differ
significantly based on location of Respondents.
Table 5: Summary of t-test analysis on null hypothesis 1
X
SD
Df
P
t-crit
t-cal
Decision
Urban
3.69
.45
Rural
3.60
.51
48
5
1.96
1.80
Accept
Result of the t-test above indicates that the mean responses of urban and rural respondents
did not vary significantly.
Ho: 2 Responses on Reform and Rural Development Initiatives in Nigeria will not differ significantly
among civil servants, teachers of agriculture and Farmers/Entrepreneurs
Table 6: Summary of ANOVA test on Hypothesis 2
SS
Df
MS
F-crit
f-ratio
Decision
8.32
2
Accept
172263.05
47
Total
172271.06
*Not significant at P = 0.05
49
Source of
Variation
Between Groups
Within Group
4.26
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Statement of Major Findings
The study made the following major findings: On the probable causes of failure of previous
agricultural and rural development initiatives in Nigeria the following were indicated:
1. Very poor rural communication network infrastructure.
2. Non involvement of local beneficiaries at the critical stages of projects.
3. Failure of local people to perceive the potential benefits of rural bound projects.
4. Failure to appreciate environmental socio-cultural realities.
5. One-way information process does not give room for feedback from target beneficiaries.
6. Most local audience fails to relate local experiences to development agents due to
communication gap.
7. Proper local context analysis was not undertaken.
8. Use of a combination of dialogue and group discussion.
9. Use of participatory and knowledge sharing approaches.
10. Training local leaders in the use of modern Info-Tech. and Communication systems.
11. Basing development communication on proper audience research.
12. Use of variety of media channels including the “oldies” like radio, comic sheets.
13. Establishment of Internet/E-mail, video serves center in rural neighbourhood.
14. Intensive use of ‘social marketing’ principle and approaches such as in media advertising.
Discussion
Discovery of poor communication network as one of major hindrance to Agricultural and Rural
Development initiative is not surprising. Tanogermann (1995), sporting this observed that
communication is not pivoted rural development plans. Poor communication negates relative
advantage of exploitation of local indigenous knowledge systems (Amadi 2000). Since the local
people are not involved, they tend to see the projects and of course project officers as mere
intruders into their serene habitat and whose presence must be opposed hence the failure of such
projects.
Collectivization and participatory initiatives would make the rural people enthusiastic to
participate in games, contests of eloquence and other similar experiences bordering on agriculture
and rural development.
This objective can only be achieved through effective network
communication infrastructure (Onweagba, 1997). Good communication has the potency to
overcome barriers of literacy, compress time and distance; if audio-visual materials are involved as
for instance a single short of film can present age-old or lengthy processes with impacts and
consequences well perceived. Media products could tell stories that provide a vehicle for
motivational content on development themes such as resources management and improved
cultural practices, etc (Farrington, 2002).
Effective communication calls for the use of such technological novelties like video-based
farmer training methodology, use of a combination of inter-personal and multimedia channels in a
mutually reinforcing manner. Similarly, effective rural communication will have to see the rural
target audiences in the true socio-cultural perspective which could provide opportunities or
baseline surveys for the exploitation of the potentials of group dynamics (FAO, 1993).
Implications
The findings of this study have the following implications:
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To the government and other informed stakeholders in agricultural and rural
development, the need to fully mobilize the grassroots, appraise their socio-cultural
environment has become imperative.
To extension workers, effort should be made not to alienate the people in an attempt to
import and impose technologies on them. Indigenous knowledge systems would form the
base upon which such technological transfers can be formed. Meaningful development
must be endogenous
Since rural developments have equally meant agricultural development, and since
agriculture is yet to be completely disproved as the base-rock of Nigeria’s economy, an
enhanced agricultural economy would not doubt present positive multiplier effects on the
national economic advancement.
Policy Recommendations
Based on the findings and implications of the study the following recommendations are made:
1. There should be a review of already existing agricultural/rural development policies and a
comprehensive evaluation of past initiatives so as to come up with development models
that can stand the test of time.
2. Full recognition of the worth of our indigenous knowledge system, and the integration of
same with modern technologies of information and communication.
3. Regular monitoring and evaluation of project implementation.
References
Amadi, U.P.N.(1997). Rural Development Models: A Critical Appraisal. Post-Graduate seminar presented in the
Department Agricultural Economics/Extension of the Imo State University, Owerri.
Amadi, U.P.N. (2009). Effect of Economic Decline on Agriculture and Social Security System in Nigeria. M.Sc.
Thesis (unpublished), Imo State University, Owerri.
Amadi, U.P.N. & Amadi, F.N.C. (2000). Community Leadership and Rural Development in Contemporary Nigeria
Society: Problems and Prospects. Journal of Vocational Agricultural Education (1), Umunze: Federal
College of Education (Technical).
FAO (1992) People’s Participation in Rural Development. The FAO Plan of Action. Rome, Food and Agricultural
Organization of Low external. Input and Sustainable Agriculture. The Netherlands:
FAO (1993). Development Support Communication Report. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).
Ferrigton, J. (2002). Recent and Future Challenges in Agricultural Extension. LEISA. Magazine on Low external
Input and Sustainable Agriculture. The Nether Lends, LEISA.
Morrow, K. (2002). The ICT Agenda: Global Action Plans and Local Solutions, LEISHA Magazine on Low External
Input and sustainable Agriculture.. Nether Lends, LEISA
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Business Ethics: A Catalyst for Rapid Economic Growth
Dombin N. Amos
Plateau State University, Bokkos Plateau State-Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p30
Abstract
Over the past 4-5 years the global economic meltdown has affected downwardly most economic of the
world largely due to global unit cell of the business world. Businesses in most countries especially in
developing nations in their bid to survive and grow adopted some unethical practices to remain in the
market.This paper examined the concept of business ethics, development and its role in rapid economic
growth in organizations and economy in the face of modern challenges. Focused is on current practices
and prospective benefits of ethical business practices in a dynamic economy like Nigeria The paper
recommends complete commitment, upholding, adhering and practice of business within the code of ethics
by all stakeholders or parties for accelerated economic growth.
Keywords: Ethics, Business, Consumer, Economy, Corporate
Introduction
The business world is besieged with a lot of socio-economy challenges. The recent global economy
melt down has forced many shrewd businesses small or large, into unethical practices to remain in
the market or business. Developing economies seems to be at the receiving end of these economic
challenges and hence the dare need for survival by individuals and businesses. Ethics which are
code of values and principles that governs the action of a person, or a group of people, regarding
what is right verses what is wrong (Levine 2011). Business ethics is the behaviour that a business
adheres to in its daily dealings with the world. They apply not only to how the business interacts
with the world at large, but also to their one – on – one dealing with a single customer.
Businesses face ethical issues and decisions almost every day, while in some industries the
issues are insignificant, for others it could be quite very significant. Thus in our competitive system
there is immediate tension between ethics and business. The ideal of being a good citizen is often
limited or replaced by the ideal of the acquisitive individual winner.
Some individuals and businesses are tempted to act unethically, particularly in the short run,
where there is a one-short opportunity, to “make a killing.” In such case, the unethical individuals,
organization profits while others individuals, companies, societies or future generations lose. In such
situations short-term private interests are favoured over long term public interests or over
competitors. The lack of ethics in business can help to underline the free enterprise system, leading
to manias, crises and crashes in one country or internationally. Unlimited competition, dishonesty
and violence can poison the environment in which healthy businesses can operate. Efforts to
increase production of a coy are replaced by efforts to protest assets.
The former president of Enron Jeffry skilling, when he was a top student at the Harvard
business school, was questioned by his professor “what he would do if his company were providing
a product that might cause harm or even death, to customers that used it. Jeffrey skilling replied I‘d
keep making and selling the product. My job as a business man is to be a profit centre and to
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maximize return to shareholders. It is the government’s job to step in if a product is
dangerous”(Fursaro etal 2002)
Many businesses have been fined millions for breaking ethical business laws or antitrust
(opposing business monopoly), ethical and environmental laws and have received fines worth
millions. The problem is that the amounts of money these companies are making outweigh the
fines applied, as such many companies that pride themselves in their correct business ethics in this
competitive world, are becoming very few and far between.
Brief Historical Background
Construed broadly as moral reflection on commerce, business ethics is probably as old as trade
itself. If law is a rough guide to widely held intuitions (Gooden 1985), the code of hammurabi (1700s
BC), prescribing prices and tariffs and laying down both rules of commerce and harsh penalties for
non- compliance, evidences of some civilization’s earlier attempts to establish the moral contours of
commercial activities.
Aristotle’s politics (300s B.C) addresses explicitly commercial relations in its discussion of
household management. Equally the ten (10) commandments (Ex 20:2 -17, Deu 5:6–21) include
moral rules applicable to commercial conduct.
As a discrete, self conscious academic discipline, business ethics is roughly four decades old.
Raymond Baumhart’s (1961,1963, 1968) ground breaking studies in the 1960s are generally
understood to be early contributions to business ethics.
Today, academic business ethicist address questions that range across the functional areas of
business, giving rise to various recognized specialties in ethics (e.g marketing ethics, finance ethics,
accounting ethics etc).
International business ethics came on board in the 90’s
International Business Ethics
Doing business Trans nationally, raises a number of issues that have no analogue in business
dealings done within a single country or legal jurisdiction. International business ethics seeks to
address those issues. Where ethical norms are in conflict owing to different cultural practices, which
ethical norms ought to guide one business conduct in other nations & culture?
International business ethics generally conceive the home country/ host country question is
central. On one hand, adopting host country norms is a way to respect the culture and its member.
Thus, business persons are advised that when in Rome they ought to do as the Romans do.
On the other hand business persons are advised to resist host country norms that are normally
repugnant (offensive & completely unacceptable), e.g. when bribery of officials is central to doing
business where you are, ought you to embrace the practice as a mark of cultural respect or forswear
the practice on the grounds that is morally repugnant?. A common approach in International
business ethics is to refer to or to construct lists of norms that ought to guide transnational
business conduct. Example the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Right or more
recently, the United Nations Global Compact, is advanced as a guide to conduct.
The UN global compact enjoins business firms to support and respect international recognized
human rights
avoid complicity in human right abuses
Uphold freedom of association and collective bargain
Eliminate forced and compulsory labour
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Eliminate child labour
Eliminate all forms of discrimination in employment
Support a precautionary approach ti environmental challenges
Promote greater environmental responsibility
Encourage the development of environmentally friendly technologies
Work against corruption in all its forms including extortion and bribery.
Alternatively, whether inspired by something like the UN global compact, a preferred moral
theory, a preferred theory of justice, or some combination of these or other factors, other lists of
norms are proposed as guide to the ethical practice of transnational business. DeGeorge (1993), for
example, advances ten (10) guidelines for the conduct of multinational firms doing business in less
developed countries. These guidelines call for the avoiding harm, doing good, respecting human
rights, respecting the local culture, cooperating with just governments and institutions, accepting
ethical responsibility for one’s actions and making hazardous plants and technologies safe.
-
Benefits of business ethics in organisations/economy
Businesses that are managed by leaders who conduct themselves in an ethical manner and who
reward employees for doing what is right are much more likely to be characterized by a positive
ethical culture.
If an organization's corporate culture is characterized by ethical behaviors, then the decisions
that are made by the company's leaders and workers are likely to be ones that are socially
responsible rather than motivated solely by a profit-seeking motive. Socially responsible business
decisions are ones that are made from a stakeholder perspective, focusing on coming up with
problems that take into account the needs of everyone who has the potential to be impacted by the
company's actions. By focusing on the impact an action will have on all stakeholders rather than
solely on the bottom line, companies can avoid making decisions that are on the wrong side of the
line between right and wrong.
Good business ethics brings intangible and tangible benefits
Intangible benefits: Intangible Benefits or Goodwill in the Market: An organization, which is
well-known for its ethical practices, creates a goodwill for itself being perceived in the market,
business associates and other third parties as transparent, reliable, straightforward and trustworthy .
Investors or venture capitalists are more willing to put their money in the businesses which they can
trust. Shareholders too, remain satisfied with the practices of an ethical business. Thus, the
importance of business ethics in creating goodwill and building long-term relationships, cannot be
denied. Also, an ethical business puts greater value on its employees and thus, employees remain
loyal to such an organization too.
Tangible benefits: Some of the tangible benefits that accrue a business for operating on ethically
sound business values are:
Profit Maximization
The importance of ethics in business can be understood by the fact that ethical businesses tend to
make much more profits than the others, operating on corrupt practices. The reason for this is that
customers of businesses which follow ethics are loyal and satisfied with the services and product
offerings of such businesses. Let us take an example. Suppose, there is an organization named XYZ
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which manufactures cosmetics. XYZ greatly believes in the importance of business ethics. When XYZ
advertises its cosmetics in the market, being an ethical organization, it will be very truthful and
honest in its communication with the probable customers. It will tell correctly about the kind of
ingredients it has used while manufacturing the cosmetics. It will not lie or exaggerate about the
benefits or uses of its products either. So the customers who buy its cosmetics, know precisely what
they are buying and how useful that product is going to be for them. This way, the product will
meet their expectations and thus, satisfy the customers. When customers are satisfied, they will
become loyal to the company and come back again for re-purchasing. This will surely increase the
profits of the organization. Thus, the importance of business ethics is that it creates loyalty in
customers and maximizes the profits.
Efficient utilization of Business Resources: In an organization, people working at the junior levels
often emulate the ones working at the top. The same applies with ethics too. If the management or
seniors of an organization follow ethical business practices, i.e, they do not bribe to get their way or
they do not cheat the customers, investors, suppliers, etc., the employees will follow suit. The
employees too will refrain from using the office property or resources for personal benefits. This will
result in better and efficient utilization of the business resources.
Improve customers' confidence: Business ethics are needed to improve the customers' confidence
about the quality, quantity, price, etc. of the products. The customers have more trust and
confidence in the businessmen who follow ethical rules. They feel that such businessmen will not
cheat them.
Survival of business: Business ethics are mandatory for the survival of business. The businessmen
who do not follow it will have short-term success but they will fail in the long run. This is because
they can cheat a consumer only once. After that, the consumer will not buy goods from that
businessman. He will also tell others not to buy from that businessman. So this will defame his
image and provoke a negative publicity. This will result in failure of the business. Therefore, if the
businessmen do not follow ethical rules, he will fail in the market. So, it is always better to follow
appropriate code of conduct to survive in the market.
Safeguarding consumers' rights: The consumer has many rights such as right to help and safety,
right to be informed, right to choose, right to heard, right to redress, etc. But many businessmen
do not respect and protect these rights. Business ethics are must to safeguard these rights of the
consumers.
Protecting employees and shareholders: Business ethics are required to protect the interest of
employees, shareholders, competitors, dealers, suppliers, etc. It protects them from exploitation
through unfair trade practices.
Develops good relations: Business ethics are important to develop good and friendly relations
between business and society. This will result in a regular supply of good quality goods and services
at low prices to the society. It will also results in profit for the businesses there by resulting in
growth of economy.
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Going concern is assured: Being profitable will ensure that the company is around for at least the
next twelve (12) months. It is the desire of every business entity to be around for a longer time.
Ethical business practice is the way to go if a business truly value going concern.
Sustainability: Without sustainability investments in business will simply not yield fruit. And
without running business on sound ethical values, sustainability will not be achieved in businesses
and investments.
Competitive edge: Quality save money is a popular belief in accounting, business & investment.
Cost of reworking defects borne out of using poor equipment & employment of sharp practices are
saved. Also it gives investment (business) easy access to the heart of the general public if a business
is build in ethical values and principles. Zig ziglar golden rule philosophy states “You will get all you
want in life if you can simply help enough others get what they want”. This philosophy is truer in the
business world than general life interactions. Customers and other stakeholders in the business
community tend to naturally love and appreciate company’s products that are offered by business
that uphold ethics and their operations.
Large customer base: Business ethics is especially important in dealing with customers.
Maintaining integrity in the customer facing side of a business is crucial to building client
relationship assisting the overall branding efforts and customer base.
Corporate growth: Adopting an ethical approach that takes into account the various
responsibilities of a consumer – shareholders, employees, customer and the complimentary at large
is vital to business growth & development across all aspect of the business in both short and over
the long run.
Creates good image: Business ethics create a good image for the business and businessmen. If the
businessmen follow all ethical rules, then they will be fully accepted not criticized by the society. The
society will always support those businessmen who follow this necessary code of conduct.
Smooth functioning: if the business follows all the business ethics, then the employees,
shareholders, consumers, dealers and suppliers will all be happy. So they will give full cooperation
to the business. This will result in smooth functioning of the business. So, the business will grow,
expand and diversify easily and quickly. It will have more sales and more profits.
Consumer movement: Business ethics are gaining importance because of the growth of the
consumer movement. Today, the consumers are aware of their rights. Now they are more organized
and hence cannot be cheated easily. The take actions against those businessmen who indulge in
bad business practices. They boycott poor quality, harmful, high-priced and counterfeit (duplicate)
goods. Therefore the only way to survive in business is to be honest and fair.
Consumer satisfaction: Today, the consumer is the king of the market. Any business simply cannot
survive without the consumers. Therefore, the main aim or objective of the business is consumer
satisfaction. If the consumer is not satisfied, then there will be no sales and thus no profits too.
Consumer will be satisfied only if the business follows all the business ethics, and hence are highly
needed.
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Importance of labour: Labour. i.e. employees or workers play a very crucial role in the success of
the business. Therefore, business must use business ethics while dealing with the employees. The
business must give them proper wages and salaries and provide them with better working
conditions. There must be good relations between employer and employees. The employees must
also be given proper welfare facilities.
Healthy competition: The business must use business ethics while dealing with the competitors.
They must have healthy competition with the competitors. The must not do cut-throat competition.
Similarly, the must give equal opportunities to small-scale business. They must avoid monopoly.
This is because a monopoly is harmful to the consumers.
Overall, synergistic effects of business ethics on the economy from the above highlighted
points among others include:
 Inflows of foreign business/ investments
 Growth in GDP
 Employment opportunities
 Increased revenue arising from profits maximization, business survival and proliferation
 Strengthening of government fiscal and monetary policies in the systems eg. cashless
monetary policies recently introduced in Nigeria.
Code of Ethics
Many organizations now implement the code of ethics in their company polices, which they
implement during induction and regular training. It is primarily for the following areas:
 Company's assets, funds and records
 Conflict of interest
 Management and employee practices
 Information on competition
 Corporate social Responsibility
 Dealings with Customers & Supply Chain
 Environmental Policy and Actions
 Rules for personal & Corporate Integrity
Ethical Business Practices
Following are a few ethical business practices that should be followed to build an honest reputation
and ensure smooth running of the organization.
 Investors: Ensuring safety of their money and timely payment of interest.
 Employees: Provision of fair opportunities in promotions and training, good working
conditions, and timely payment of salaries.
 Customer: Complete information of the service and product should be made available.
Personal information of the customers should not be used for personal gain.
 Competition: Unscrupulous tactics and methods should be avoided while handling
competitors.
 Government: Rules and regulations regarding taxes, duties, restrictive and monopolistic
trade practices, and unlawful activities like corruption and bribing should be adhered to.*
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Environment: Polluting industries should ensure compliance with the government norms
regarding air, water and noise pollution.
Unethical Business Practices
The financial sector is abuzz with acts of violation of norms to amass wealth in an unethical manner.
Following are some of the activities that come under the ambit of unethical practice.
 Resorting to dishonesty, trickery or deception.
 Distortion of facts to mislead or confuse.
 Manipulating people emotionally by exploiting their vulnerabilities.
 Greed to amass excessive profit.
 Creation of false documents to show increased profits.
 Avoiding penalty or compensation for unlawful act.
 Lack of transparency and resistance to investigation.
 Harming the environment by exceeding the government prescribed norms for pollution.
 Invasion of privacy used as leverage, for obtaining personal or professional gains.
 Sexual discrimination
Preventing unethical practices in organizations
Addressing unethical behavior and practices is essential to maintain an ethical climate in an
organization. Incorporation of ethical norms and conduct into all levels of the organization can be
done in the following ways.
 Codes of corporate ethics must be formulated so that employees are aware of the
organization's expectations regarding ethical norms and conduct.
 An appeal process must be in place so that any unethical practice can be brought into
light.
 Seminars on business ethics should be conducted for employees. This will help them in
understanding the importance of ethical work culture.
 Compliance officers must be appointed to keep a check on fraud, corruption, and abuse
within the organization.
 To promote ethical behavior, performance management system of the organization must
be modified to incorporate ethical behavior as a parameter for appraisal and rewards.
 It is up to the public to make sure those companies adheres to correct business ethics.
Business houses that comply with ethics to determine their conduct are shrinking in number.
The lack of business ethics in the market is a big reason to worry. Organizations now recognize the
positive effects and outcomes of being ethical, humane and considerate. They have a competitive
edge in the market, because of the honesty they show in their services. Their morally upright
reputation attracts better staff and helps in retention. Though ethics are legally binding in most
cases, self-monitoring, transparency and accountability will go a long way in establishing trust of
the people. Besides this, it makes sense to change, before you are penalized.
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References
Aristotle(384-322 BC)http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/aristotle/section10.rhtml
Daniel
Koeller
(2003):
The
Code
of
Hammurabi
1750
BC
http://www:thenagain.info/webchro/middleeast/hammurabicode.html
DeGeorge T. Richard(1993): Competing with Integrity in International Business. www.diviportal.org/dive/getdocument?.urn-nbn-se-hj-dive-759-1-fulltext.pdf
Fursaro,Peter and Miller,Rose M (2002):Everyone’s Guide to the Largest bankruptcy in US History. John Wiley &
SONS, Inc Hoboken, New Jersey.
Holy Bible
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/businessethic
http://www.grtuleclick.com/Aticule/the importance of business Ethics/999950
Levine (2011) www.googlead.g.doubledule.net.
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Societal and Gender Issues in the Study of Home Economics
Education in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions
Ozioma C. Azubuike
Department of Home Economics
Federal College of Education(Technical)Umunze – Anambra State,Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p38
Abstract
The paper reviews the gender and societal aspects of Home economics programme, Reasons why there is
gender gap in the study of Home economic and the strategies on how to close the gender gap in the study
of Home Economics. Also the usefulness of Home Economic to all sexes was discussed. Finally some
recommendations were made as the what to be done close the gender gap in the study of Home Economics
as trying to make a change on the name given to the course Home economics since it will motivate
students more to study the course Home Economics. Also effort should be made to educate parents on
trying to identify the potentials in their children before closing a course of study for them. If these are
implemented it will surely increase the students enrolment in the study of the Home Economics especially
males
Introduction
There are contemporary issues in major areas of Home economics education but for this paper, the
social and gender aspects of it will be deal with as it affects Home economics Education.Home
economics should be equally accessible to male and female students. But is amazing that as these
males and female enter post and teteriary education, large number of them tend lose interest in
Home economics. Males are narrowing the gender gap in Home economics Education. In
attempting to close the gender gap, (Gender gaps fact sheet 1997) emphasized that the over
enrollment of students into other science courses like medicine, computer etc, has risen in these
areas with the exception of Home economics in attempting to address this issue, the cause of the
discrepancies between males and females in Home economics Education needs to be established in
trying to answer some of these questions.
 What is gender bias?
 What evidence is there that a Home economics gender gap bias exists?
 Why do males lose interest in Home Economics
 What are the differences and similarities between how males and females perceive and
study Home economics
 What Home economics exist? For whom are they intended
 What role do parents, educators, society have in encouraging Home economics among
males?
By addressing these questions, a better understanding of gender gap in Home economics can
be attained and solutions to closing the gender gap can be studied. While progress had been made
to encourage girls, boys in Home economics, parents, teachers and have just begun to look at
males study of Home economics.
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Meanwhile, before addressing to the above questions it is very paramount to know the
meaning and definitions of Home economics. Home economics is a skill oriented field of study that
is capable of equipping learners with skills that create room for self reliance or paid employment
which aims at reducing unemployment and improving manpower development.
Leinch (2001) stressed that Home economics is built upon many discipline from which an
individual who engaged on it gains that opportunity, experience and skills required for effective
output, (llinden 1999) pointed out that Home economics is a dynamic and evolving profession. This
is because it focuses on the welfare of individuals, families and the society. The various Home
economics related occupation makes provision of knowledge and skill to be diversified in the field
of the study.
Ekpenyong (2008) asserted that among the areas of education employs to enhance
development, Home economics has persistently indentified itself as the right step in the right
direction. It has passed the period when it was regarded as only the acquisition of skill in household
arts or just cooking which prevents male’s enrollment in the course related areas of the study in
higher institutions of learning. Today, Home economics has given the bounding of focusing
attention on the home/family to the large society it has broaden its cope in the line with the
dynamics of the present to forestall credibility in career establishment as well as skills concrete
enough to sustain individuals, family and the nation at large. It encompasses all areas of food and
nutrition, Home management, clothing and textiles, child and family living, consumer education etc,
hence integrating them into all aspects of life.
Gender in the other hand means masculine, feminine or neuter. It is the condition of being
construct which distinguishes the role behavior, mental and emotional characteristics between male
and female (Keller 1991). It is expressed in many spares of human endevour its level of
demonstration varies with time, place and culture. It relates to the circumstances of discrimination
against a person, politics, religion, economics and social services and determines the level of
political and economics empowerment that keep certain group of people at advantage position. In
relation to offering Home economics in Teteriary institutions male gender has been a problem and
the females mostly undertake the course.
Gender Bias
When examining gender bias, it is vital to define and understand the terms. Since gender is defined
as “Sex” and bias is defined as “Preference or inclination that inhabits impartiality; prejudice”
(American Heritage, 1986). Thus, gender bias is separation of gender in a way which prefers sex over
the other. Gender bias in Home economics refers to preference for or favoring of one sex, one the
other in study of Home economics. As can be seen, gender bias in Home economics is a
multifaceted and complex issue. Nevertheless, the problem of gender in quality in Home economics
is not only a national concern but that of the whole world at large. Thus the misconception of Home
economics as a woman’s subject/course.
Evidence of Home Economics Gender Gap and Gender Bias
A gender gap exist between males and females in the study of Home economics. An evidence of
this gender gap is that the gender starts at home. The home provides the child with first experience,
these include the models with which the child can identify, the parents provides a range of materials
for home play, there are also value system which are basic to special roles. The children quickly
learn that the roles of men in the family are different from the role of women. This differential role
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of boys and girls constitute a serious problem to Home economics studies as it affects the male
students from undertaking the course.
Often times, subtle message are sent to girls and boys about expectations for their behaviours,
attitude, perception and other aspects in their lives. It is important to note that this not always the
case nor is necessarily intentional. Many parents, educations and the society out there are indeed
very sensitive to the issue of gender. They are making great strides to create equity in all areas for
males and females. On the other hand there are those parents, educators who are shocked and
surprised to realize that they are unintentionally separate signals about expectations for girls and
boys. Differential treatment by educators and parents divert boys from the study of Home
economics.
Why males lose interest in the study of home economics.
It is apparent that there is a gender gap in Home Economics, there are variety of theories as to
why males lose interest in Home economics. One speculation is that boys simply approach Home
economics differently. Some point to parental influence, some blame teachers and the overall
educational institution. Still other ideals lay the origins of this gap at role models or lack of role
models. Another cause of the gender gap in Home economics is believed to be the society.
Although the most common point to a combination of all the factors, each of the major influences
will be discussed individually.
Teachers and educational system are believed to influence the gender gap in the study of
Home economics Teachers may treat girls differently than boys causing differing expectations for
instance; boys and girls are often approached differently when dealing with inappropriate physical
and verbal attacks on others. As such boys may want courses that are more tasks oriented that girls
(Miller, Chaika, Gropper, 1996).
The lack of strong male role model is believed by some experts to be yet another reason for
the gender gap in the study of Home economics between males and females (Swanson, 1999)
suggested that providing children the opportunity to see quest speakers from both genders in
nontraditional communication careers. Sense tells us that we find possibility or lack of possibility in
what we experience. Females who see and develop communication with other females who have
careers in science and technology field will be more likely to have these high expectations for
themselves. These males will perceive Home economics plausible career for themselves.
(Canter, 1991) said it best that parents are the most important influential people in a child’s
life. Parental views on gender roles, belief system regarding genders, and actions towards both
sexes will inevitably influence children. Children are sent strong signals about the world around
them more specifically about men and women, from parents. Parent’s actions and words send
messages about the parents’ beliefs. Parent should closely examine what they say with their action
or words.
Okorie and Ezeji (1988) state that some parents are not guiding their male children well to
develop interest in the study of Home economics courses. They would want their children to
develop interest in Law and Medicine rather than Home economics.
Ossai (2006) emphasized that the influence of parents on the male’s interest in the study of
Home economics is unquestionably one of the strongest and most persistent factor determining
what the child interest in school would be. The socio-economic status of parents can influence
students in their choice of course of study to a great extent. Parents from poor socio-economic
background would always have greater expectation from the male child and as such would not
went them to study Home economics.
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The short sightedness of the students is compounded by the decision of their parents about
their careers. Parents are often more interested in occupations or profession which will bring money
and prestige to the family, then in suitability of their children for a particular career (Okoh, 2006).
It is therefore imperative that parents always set aspirations of their children hence they would
not went their male children to study what they regard as woman’s subject.
Consequently the name given to the course tend to discourage females and males mostly
males in studying the course. They would rather prefer if the name given to the course be changed
since it will motivate them to study the course. Since the name Home economic makes the course
as if it is exclusively for women alone. Thus, women are known to be mostly involved in home
domestic works or activities.
The makes interest in the study of Home economic started from home (Ferry 1988) stated that
the “root causes of gender gap in Home economics is from home”. The home provides the
materials for playing role difference which create gender differentials among the children of the
home. To curb this problem, we stated that parents should not give room for anything that should
create gender difference among the children since this tends to make the children loose interest in
some areas of life particularly males that would not want to fall the line of Home economic as a
course of study. APU (1998) emphasized that parent should guide and educated male children on
the importance of Home economics in societal building since it is going to help the males to
Home economics as a course.
In the same vein another issue why males are not interested in the study of Home economics
is poor orientation. If males still in secondary schools are given good orientation about the study of
Home economics as a course in teteiary institutions the males will study it particularly when the
males must have taught about it merits and demerit and career areas that are available to a Home
economics it will arouse the males interest for them to know that Home economics is not just all
about cooking or domestic works. Dike (2006) suggested that if career days are organized by
schools from time to time, it will help motivate and stimulate the interest of students as the
students listen to some experts in the various areas Home economics this is because some male
students would want to study Home economics but because such students where to shy away from
the course whereas it is a course which the students would have done better in than the other
courses.
Perception of students on the study of home economics
The student some awakened perception towards the study of Home economics this is as a result of
the misconceptions about Home economics.
Students prefer medicine, law, engineering etc, courses as being suitable for males rather
than Home economics
Students perceive Home economics as a preparatory course for becoming good house
wives
Students perceive Home economic as a domestic after, hence it a course for females
From the colonial era till data, Home economics was mainly done by women and as such
students see it as a female’s course.
Dike (2006) expressed that wrong perception of Home Economics dated back from the
colonial era this makes it difficult for the perception to change. Bound and Hapson (1989) stated
that boys are more concerned with careers that will make quick money while girls tend to pay more
attention to future family improvement.
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The student perceive Home Economics as to do with the home, since it deals with different
food preparation and serving of meals, decoration of home and its surroundings, making of cloths,
child care etc, as such the students do not see as a course for males since it deals with domestic
affairs. Males perceive Home economics as a course which makes a person savant and not a master.
Males look at medicine, law engineering as being suitable for them, because the males feel is a
lucrative and notable professions for reliable and successful men. These make men to be proud,
have prestige and become wealthy; men from these fields are maters and directors not servants if
the males should study Home economics.
According to Agusiono (1988) variety of factors both within individual and within the
environment are assessed as factors for males for enrolment on the study of Home economics,
therefore the perception of Home economics as woman’s subject or course hinged on the educated
look down on any men who studied or is studying Home Economics. Thus, this does not encourage
me to study Home economics.
Boys and girls should have practical interest in home planning, budgeting, production of and
preparation of food for home use. Males students would not went to join Home economics; the
males feel that those areas are not for them. They see it as that Education without home and family
living education can still be complete. But it is so paramount that both males and females, in that
for takes a man and women to make a family and the family is the neutering centre for human
behavior personality. Actually, observation have been made on gender imbalance in Home
economics, males would not went to study Home economics subjects because they see it is being
tedious for them to practice it they would rather go for a more profiting subject like medicine, law,
etc.
It is not surprising that students are not interested in Home economics subjects/courses.
Osuala (1994) emphasized that, at the heart of our society and economics problem is a national
attitude that implies that vocation subjects (Home economics) are designed for somebody else’s
children and is meant primarily for the children of the poor, for the dropout, and the less intelligent.
This attitude is shared by students. Hence, it makes them to lack interest in the study of the course.
Nigeria has promoted the ideal that the only good education is the Education capped for period of
time.
The Home Economics that exist and to whom it intended
Home Economics courses are existing in secondary and Tertiary Institution for boys and girls to
study unfortunately males do not really part take in the study of this course especially at Tertiary
level, therefore it could be of almost important to let the female and male of to help encourage
them to study the course. Some time males do not know what this Home economics is made of,
they see it as course for cooking and eating alone, thus attributing it to course for females alone
not knowing that the course Home economics is much more than that and this are what the unite is
going to explore.
Home economics with so many areas, it is so versatile that is embraces all other areas. But
basically, it is made up of three areas namely:Foods and nutrition
Clothing and textiles
Home management /family living
Child development
Home economics is among the major courses offered in Teteiary Institution, which one of the
objectives of teaching Home economics in Teteiary institution is to ensure that each student is able
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to explain the principles of Home economics and demonstrates skills and other abilities directly
related to job that is done (Anozie, 2006) Home economics Education is yearned towards equipping
individuals with saleable skills that make them self – reliant. It exposes individuals to may
occupational areas of skills in craft work, clothing manufacturing, tailoring, fashion designing,
baking, laundry, hotel management. All these and many others which males and females do not
know and that is why they run away from offering the course.
Iloeje (1999) state that the different areas of Home economics have career options that can
keep the graduates gainfully employed where they cannot get paid employment jobs. These are
what the males do not know rather they would prefer to study courses that after graduating could
not find job while most of these males have the potentials and the skills and all that it takes to be a
Home economics instead they would rather not study than to do a course in Home economics.
Alternately, the students would know and might require some body to guide them aright and
encourage studying Home Economics.
Career options in home economics are as follows:
Nursery school management

Interior decoration

Hotel management

Cloth manufacturing

Craft work

Tailoring

Fashion designing

Baking

Opening a snack shop

Opening of fast food shops

Lauding services

Industrial cafeteria management

Street food vending

Rug cleaning services

Hair dressing salon

Soap and pomade making

Pattern making

Day care centers

Dyeing

Teaching

Marriage counselors etc.

Wedding & Birthday Decorations.
These careers are the jobs areas that male and females that study Home economics can get
involved in this they should be encouraged to study the course hence this will make the students to
be self-reliant on graduation rather than waiting for Government employment. The situation of
Nigeria now is such that the government is not ready to provide job for youths therefore, the study
of Home economics by males could make a difference in trying to reduce poverty and
unemployment in the country.
Home Economics for males
Males need Home economics just as females. A male is a member of the family as a husband or
father, and traditionally the head of the family. As such these males need appropriate knowledge,
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attitudes, and skills for their roles ass husband, father, consumer and self-reliant citizens. They need
to know how to budget, prioritize needs, and manage available resources to line happily these can
be achieved through the study of Home economics. If men should study Home Economics there are
lots of benefits accuracy from the study of Home economics for the men.
Benefit of Home Economics for Men
One benefits of Home Economics to males is proper managements. Males need to study Home
economics to enable them know to manage the available resource like money affectively. Some
times males may not like to marry early as very body experiences a period of single independent
living during such periods in life males may be faced with choice and preparation of food, living
within a budget, taking care of a house and their clothing at this stage it is certain that some
knowledge in aspect of Home economics will be helpful to them. Through the study of Home
economics males will be equipped better for the situations in terms of knowledge, attitudes and
skills useful to them in present and in future.
Everybody is a consumer and a money manager therefore, males need to know how to
manage money wisely, prepare meals, make simple clothing choices and repairs, look after and play
with children and it is only Home economics that can assist them in assuming these responsibilities.
Since Home economics is known to be a family oriented discipline and families are made up of
males and females, both sexes should be exposed to Home economics for its accuracy benefits.
Presently many family members are now more independent and affluent than decades ago. They
prefer to buy things themselves new and possibly more expensive wise money spending and how
to prioritize needs. Thus, the need for value clarification, these could be taught through Home
Economics.
Therefore, if Home economics have such utility values for males, then the issue is why many
men’s not studying Home economics are: The following are some of the prevailing factors to be
looked into as: (Nwankwo 2004)
a. Community attitude
b. Peer attitude
c. General attitudes for individuals
d. Parents attitudes
e. Teachers attitude
f. Resources materials
Community Attitude – Communities’ attitude towards sex roles and behavior come to play in this.
If everything about food, clothing and house care come under the domain of the women, it may be
difficult to accept such related courses. Dowell and Greenwood (1975) opined that a cookery class
regarded as “not for boy”, then, if the same course is termed “bachelor survival” or a clothing course
labeled “bachelor’s endeavours, boy will be interested.
Peer Attitudes – Most often teenagers abhor doing anything that will tarnish their ego before
friends such males would rather not go into anything that would not gain peers approval. Therefore,
if Home economics has this “females only” the image will then affect male enrolment.
General Attitude for individuals – Most individuals are still observed with the 18th century concept
of Home economics – that it is of cooking and eating. Thus you find men in influential positions and
even parents allowing ignorance to guide their views about Home economics. This group of
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individuals discourages even girls from studying the course not to mention males. The issue is that
these people are not fully aware of want Home economics can offer. Even at Teteiary levels,
Admission personnel’s advise some youths (Boys and Girls) against the study of Home economics.
When such advice is given, males “swallow” it easily.
Parents Attitude – Most parents like deciding for their children and this affects their choice for
study of Home economics. These parents often have a stereotyped idea of what a male child and
female child should do. These parents would want their children to be engineers, doctors, thereby
biasing the child’s mind and at times confusing the child. As such for not giving child the
opportunity to make choices affects the student enrolment to Home economics.
Teacher Attitude – Home economics teachers have the capacity to determine the success or failure
of the course. Most Home economics teachers do not even encourage males to study the course.
They would rather prefer girls to boys studying Home economics because most teachers see males
as difficult people to teach.
Resource materials – Resources materials especially text books are not geared towards males. All
illustrations are females gender –oriented and content is gender biased t in fewer of the females.
In relation to the above Lawson (1977)noted that subject (Home economics) which deals so
vitally with life, the home and home problems should be made available for men and if left
predominately as an arena for women action and opinion, that it has no right to speak or take
action for the family. So, for Home Economics to adequately serve the family as a body, the
profession must have to be for both men and women along.
Roles of parents, educators, society in encouraging home economics among males
Those around young boys have great potential to influence their perception of themselves and
other in relation to Home economics parents has the greatest potential to influence their children.
Teachers and Educational system also have the ability to shape the self-image and future of boys as
they approach Home economics and Home economics fields. Though it can be agued that they
have less influence, peers and community take part in encouraging or discouraging males in the
study of Home economics. The educational systems and teachers have the ability to help boys
overcome gender gap in Home economics (Canter 1991).
If the boys are to be more involved in Home economics, we must begin with parents. There
are many practical and easy way parents can encourage boys in the study of Home economics.
Parents can begin at home to encourage boys to study Home economics. Children should be
exposed to Home economics at early age, children should learn the cooking, homemaking and
Home economics generally is fun and useful to everyone. They should be made to see it as one of
the many tools an individual should have to make life easier. When children are especially male
children are ready to be active participants of household chores, parents should be ready with the
opportunities to use it. Parents should also buy those household equipment that will help to make
them develop interest in doing some chores at home such as labour sawing devices. Parents should
help the boys develop these skills in Home economics and encourage the males to cook with them
and do certain things together. The one-one interaction between mother and sons can be greatly
beneficial to both the mother and the child. Discussing Homemaking is another way parents could
encourage the study of Home economics. Parents should ask their children about their likes and
dislikes of Home economics. Parents should be role models to their children this is because often
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children imitate parents priorities, attitude, and actions. When parents talk about Home economics
comfortably in their daily lives both for entertainment and in their professions, their children will be
more like to do the same.
Gender gap sheet, (1997) suggested that parents position can influence gender equity in
Home economics at school as well as at home. Mothers can be involved in school by being a
teacher’s aids in Home economics laboratories. They can offer to be gust speakers or mentors for
their own sons or other sons. Parents can also be involved at the administrative level parents can
narrow gender gap by being volunteers for clubs or other Home economics associations. Parents
can be powerful advocate of their children at school.
In the same vein while parents have the greatest ability to influence their children, those
involved in the educational system have the capacity to play great roles in narrowing the gender
gap as well. Those at in administrative position within school should use both money and influence
to express their priorities, since the school administration have the potentials to be a powerful
starting point for gender equity. Consequently, the school administration is powerless to make boys
accept Home Economics without the help of teachers, next to parents. Teachers are extremely
influence on the attitude or perceptions of the children.
Girls and boys have tendency to view Home economics differently, “Girls see Home Economics
as a mean of achieving concrete goal. Boys cooking, or homemaking but still a medium with which
to accomplish a task”. (Chaika, 1999). It is essential to make a note about the role of parents,
teachers and societal influences in addressing gender bias in Home Economics. As any successful
teacher knows, all children are different. Every boy is a unique individual with different needs,
interests, educators, aspirations and goals in life. Therefore parent, educators of Home Economics
must keep this in mind as they work on behalf of boys and with boys to eliminate the gender gap in
the study of Home Economics.
Additionally, male students should enlighten to give up their negative views of Home
Economics study, which they viewed as a affinitive course and others. This idea was backed Bell and
Vogel (1995) When they started the sole responsibility of home economics education in particular.
This is because it makes the young people in our society to live meaningfully creatively and with
enjoyment and fulfilled life.
Recommendation
Strategies for minimizing gender gap in the aspect of Home economics the following
recommendation were made:a. The wrong conception and perception of Home Economics as woman subject should be
changed through public enlightenment programme.
b. Parents should be educated through media on the importance of career opportunities in
Home Economics.
c. Exhibitions, field trip should be used to encourage the males in studying Home Economics
d. Career days/orientation should be organized from time to time for primary and secondary
school students.
e. The use of film projectors, video tapes etc. on importance and career opportunities in
Home economics in primary school and village squares on regular bases will help to
encourage the males.
f. School should ensure effective guidance and counseling many schools. This is to ensure
that the pupils from day one to understand the concept of Home Economics its
importance.
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The teachers of Home economics, the government, and the curriculum planners should
join hands to ensure that the name “Home Economics could be changed to something
better to ensure if changed of name could attract more males and females to study the
course.
Conclusion
Home economics is the one of the courses that has the individual and the family as its central focus.
It is a subject of great value to the family and its members through improving the well-being of the
members, since the family in all cultures is the cover stone of any society. Therefore, as a result of
the importance of Home economics that are numerous, it is paramount that Home Economics be
made available for both males and females because its focus allows no room for gender
discrimination.
References
Agusiobo, O. N. (1998), Teaching of Home Economics for effective Result. London; John Wiley and Sons.
American Heritage Dictionary (1986). Dell Publishing co.inc.
APU, (1998) Effective Teaching management Home Economics for schools andColleges. Onitsha, African Feb
Publishers Ltd.
Anozie, G. O. (2006) Entrepreneurship skill and occupational Area of Home Economics, Home Economics Research
Association of Nigeria (HERAN) Vol. 7 (special Edition)
Bound & Hopson (1989). Sources of occupational information and Education:New York McGraw Hill-Book Co.
Chiaika, M. (1999): Ethical considerations in Gender – Oriented Entertainment Technology. Cross road,
Association for computing Machinery.
Canter L. & Canter M. (1991): Parents or side. A comprehensive parent involvement programme for teachers.
USA. Lee Canter and Associates.
Dowell, J. H. & Green wood, B. B.(1975). The Masculine focus in Home Economics. USA. HEEA Publication.
Dike, I. E. B (2006). Women Education in Nigeria, career Days as a means of motivation for self reliance in Journal
of Academics Ekpoma: association of Nigeria Academics Ekpeyong, F. N. (2008). Eastern Journal of Teacher
Education COEASU Vol. (1)
FERRY, N. (1987) How women figures in science. New scientific, page 10
Gender gap fact sheet (1997) Gender bias issue American Association of University Women.
Greppe, L. (1996). Girls preference in software design: insight from a focus group.
Centre for teaching and learning and centre for research on parallel computations, interpersonal computing and
Technology. An Ethnic Journal for 21st Century.
Iloeje, C. I. (1999). Incorporating Entrepreneurship skills into Home Economics Curriculum for Nigeria Teteiary
Institutions.
Journal of curriculum studies (Njocs) 6 (1) 121 -127
Lawson, R. J. (1977) Tigers amongst the roses: An historical reviews of Home Economics for secondary Boys U.S.
Illinos Teacher, xx5: 215 -225
Nwankwo, J. N. (2004) An introduction to Home Economics Education. Delta: Eddy – Joe publishers, Nigeria.
Okorie F. & Ezeji, C. A. (1985) Elements of Guidance in vocational and career Education: Onitsha, summer
Education publishers Ltd.
Okoh, B. O. (2006). Re-packaging vocational and Tactical Education for a great and dynamic economy in journal
of Qualitative Education. Benini Association for Encouraging qualitative Education in Nigeria Vol. 2 No 4
Osuala, E. C. (1992) The importance of vocational Training in the socio-economic of Nigeria: vocational Technical
Education and manpower development. Pacific Publishers Ltd.
Swanson, J. (1999): what we can do to get Girls Involved in Technology American Association of University
Women.
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Determinants of Failure to Attain Full Tourism and Educational
Potentials in a Developing Society
Unamma Anthony Odera
Faculty of Education, Imo State University, Owerri-Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p48
Abstract
This study examines if the factors such as political instability, crime rate, consumer price index, exchange
rate appreciation, poor funding and educational corruption of various dimensions are crucial to
determining the full attainment of Tourism and educational potentials in Igbo Society which is comprised
of 5 states. The study employed a descriptive survey research design. The population of the study
consisted of all the male and female adults in Hotels Management and five state universities in Igbo
society. The sample for the study was 1600 male and female respondents. The data collected was
analyzed by using mean, standard deviation and ANOVA. The findings show that political instability,
insecurity rate, consumer price index, exchange rate depreciation/appreciation, educational corruption and
lack of adequate funding are vital determinants of the attainment of tourism and educational potentials in
Igbo society. Therefore, for any society like the Igbo society to benefit fully from the potentials lying in the
tourism and education sectors, frantic efforts should be made to reduce political instability, insecurity rate,
educational corruption rate, increase funding rate and tapping rate of the Igbo cultural, educational and
tourism potentials. Seeking of International and local cooperation, provision of climate friendly tourism
and educational infrastructures, maintenance of reliable prices or tourism supply chains were further
suggested.
Keywords: Determinants, Attain, Tourism, Education Potentials.
Introduction
Tourism if handled responsibly in any society as the Igbo society in Nigeria can become a very
significant driver of economic growth and development. Apart from the negative impacts of some
forms of tourism on the people, agro tourism in particular and according to Howse (2010) has the
potential to uplift rural communities including those of the Nigerian society. She further asserted
that it offers rural communities a sustainable source of income which will make them not to resort
to using their land only for subsistence farming or hunting and mining or abandoning their land to
relocate to cities to be seeking for employment.
A responsible tourism attracts the increasing numbers of travelers seeking holidays with
authenticity, sense of correctness and close relationship with the communities in the developing
parts of the world which has been 40% and above destination target. Responsible and safety
motivated tourism forms a real bond which even lasts for years between the travelers and their host
communities after they had returned to their homes of origin. Many other ways by which a society
like the Igbo society can benefit from some forms of tourism include facilitating business
enterprises be it by erecting lodgings/accommodation, executing of poultry or related plantation
projects, and other initiatives as craft market and sewing or farm clubs. In terms of infrastructural
facilities tourism potentials often results into the building of schools, medical clinics water relief
programmes and training of teachers or school leavers on environmental conservation in order to
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protect their traditional heritage. To Kester (2003) tourism apart from being a means of enhancing
economic growth and development will as well help to improve on the image of any society to the
outside world. Kareem (2008) on his own part says that it is a means of promoting corporation and
understanding among people the world over. Christie and Compton (2001) also opined that
tourism contributes to raising the gross domestic products (GDPs) and exports of many societies in
the world. The question which bothers us in this study is that why is that in Igbo society in Nigeria,
tourism contributes to less than 20% of the GDP and it amounts for less than 5% of our
employment. In 2004, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported that Africa as a whole
attracted less than 5% of international tourist travels and received less than 3% of international
tourism receipts. It implies that Africa has been having 3.7 tourists arrivals for every 100 people
whereas in Europe they used to have an average of 11 to 44 tourist arrivals per 100 people.
Comparatively, our performance in the tourism sector in the whole of Africa is very poor
talklers of directing it specifically to the Igbo society in Nigeria. As many societies in Africa are
setting up their targets in recent times to gain from the tourism sector additional income, foreign
investments, employment and tax revenues what is it that in stopping the Igbo society from tapping
into the full potential benefits of tourism. Naude and Sanyman (2004) were strongly of the opinion
that most of the Igbos are educationally conscious people and they have cultural and natural
resource endowments which are so numerous that they ought to be benefiting largely from
tourism.
Nevertheless, this study will look at whether or not educational corruption which Heynemann
(2007) defined as the abuse of authority for personal as well as material gain in additional to other
factors such as insecurity rate, political instability, lack of sufficient funding, high consumer price
index and exchange rate are the actual determinants to Igbo society’s slow benefits and
performances in the tourism and education sectors. It is obvious that there are some practices in
the educational institutions of the Igbo society which are hindering the advancement of educational
objectives that is regarded as the key to its sustainable economic, science, and technological
development.
It could explain why as an example Onuoha and Irogbulam (2009) in one of their research
works observed that when educational corruption is increased by 1% on the average, the regard the
employers of labour will have on such institutions/sector will decrease by 55%.
Literature Review
Reviews of some existing literatures shows that the most often employed variables in assessing
factors which contributes immensely to tourism demands and improvement on the gains of
education have always made reference to income, prices, expenditure patterns, corruption and
funding. To support the above ideas Witt and Witt (1995) stated that tourist arrivals or departures
and tourism receipts or expenditure are dependent variables which are important to tourism
demand measures and explanation to international tourism flows. Li et al (2005) further stated that
the demand for tourism includes two price elements namely; the cost of travel to the destination
and the cost of living in the tourist destination relative to the hosting origin country or possibly
alternative destination Artus (1972) argued that exchange rate in tourism demand model are much
more honoured by tourists than changes in relative inflation rate in taking their decisions on travel
destinations. Transportation cost variations by land, water or air has also been regarded as a favour
which influences tourist’s decision. It was why Mervar and Payne according to Kareem (2008) stated
that data problem arises due to the varied costs of tourist travel by car which the proxies are usually
oil or gasoline prices while in the case of far-off destination airline fares is the preferable alternative.
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The deleterious efforts of low quality services and supply in form of shortages in lodging
accommodation were also pointed out as influential factors.
Some other seasonal
variations/dummy variables captured by literature which influences the decisions of tourist are the
existence and impact of war, natural disasters, insecurity and political crises. It explains why Eilat
and Einav (2003) stated that competition among destinations and enhancement of global peace
rather than war or disaster prone area attracts more tourists. Availability of natural resources,
cultural programmes, festivals, musical concerts and sports competitions attracts tourists. With
regard to the education sector we have literatures showing that the social cultural norms or taboos
of the societies, corruption and beliefs had constituted a problem and to many people in benefiting
from the education sector. It explains why Odubogun (1996) according to Obaja (2009) stated that
lower positions and benefits of women as an example may be attributable to their lower positions
and benefits of women as an example may be attributable to their lower level of encouragement,
sponsorship and relevance of education which in itself, may be largely due to stress of having to
perform both their productive and reproductive roles simultaneously. And Heyneman (2004) on his
own part argued that educational corruption destroys the selection method that is created by any
educational establishment in any society.
Methodology
Since this study was designed to answer the questions on what factors that are contributing to the
Igbo society failure to tap fully into the existing tourism and educational potentials and what should
be done to benefit fully in the tourism and educational development projects; two research
questions were raised. The questions are
1. What are the factors determining Igbo society’s inability/failure to attain full tourism and
educational potentials?
2. What are measures to reduce the influence of factors militating against full attainment of
tourism and educational potentials in Igbo society? Two structured questionnaire titled
Questionnaire for determinants to failure to attain full tourism and Educational Potentials
(QDFATEP) and Questionnaire for Measures to Reduce Factors against Attainment of full
Tourism and Educational Potentials (QMRFATEP) were used to gather information. Both
instruments were organized on a 4-point likert scale of strongly agree (SA), agree (A),
disagree (D) and strongly disagree (SD). It employed a descriptive survey research design
and the population of3 the study comprised of all male and female adults of their hotels
and 5 state universities in the Igbo society. The sample of the population comprises of
1600 respondents selected randomly from over approximately 16,000 staff of the
establishments. Two experts respectively from the departments of Tourism and Hospitality
Management and Measurement and Evaluation, Imo State University face validated/the
contents of the instruments. Crombach alpha statistical technique was used to determine
the reliability coefficient of the two instruments and was obtained as 0.82 and 0.67 for the
first and second questionnaire. The distribution and retrieval of the questionnaire has
taken the research over years representing 100% return rate. Mean, standard deviation
and ANOVA statistical techniques were used in analyzing the data collected and at 0.05
level of significance.
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Data Analysis and Presentation of Results
Research Question 1
What are the factors determining Igbo society failure to attain full tourism and educational
potentials?
Table 1: Responses of subjects on factors determining Igbo society’s failure to attain
full tourism and educational potentials.
S/N
Variable item
Agreed
Nos
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Disagreed
No.
Mean
Standard
Deviation
1.
Unstable political
situation
Poor infrastructural
development
Absence of viable
cultural and tourism
programmes
High rate of insecurity
1359
3.74
0.4401
241
1.7884
0.4412
1526
4.10
0.1130
74
1.66
0.122
1501
4.17
0.2000
99
1.73
0.145
1580
4.38
0.212
20
1.46
0.116
5.
Changing exchange
rate/currency values
1555
4.12
0.143
45
1.51
0.323
6.
1478
3.89
0.766
122
1.95
0.400
7.
Inflationary consumer
price index
Educational corruption
1430
3.92
170
1.98
0.179
8.
Insufficient funding
1590
4.08
0.333
10
1.12
2.
3.
4.
0.101
The table above showed that between 1359 and 1590 respondents agreed to all the items that
unstable political situation, poor infrastructural development, absence of viable cultural and tourism
programmes/projects, high rate of insecurity, fluctuating currency values, inflationary consumers
price index, educational corruption and inadequate investment of fund into the tourism and
educational sector are responsible for their inability to attain expected potentials/targets and
objectives. The further statistical analysis of variance done on the respondents opinion showed that
there is significant difference between the respondents opinion on items variables used (f cal =
879.331)f tab = 11.38 at 0.05 level of significance. Thus, many respondents agreed on the item
variables recommended more than those who disagreed. It shows that all the listed variables are
determinants in one way or the other in causing failure of the Igbo society from attaining the full
tourism and educational potentials
Research Question 2
What are the measures to reduce the influence of factors militating against full attainment of
tourism and educational potentials in Igbo society?
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Table 2: Responses of subjects on measures to reduce the influence of factors against full attainment of tourism
and educational potentials.
S/N Variable item
Agreed Mean Standard
Disagreed
Mean
Standard
Nos
Deviation
No.
Deviation
1.
Seeking international/ local
co-operations on tourism
and educational
development
1249
3.727
0.450
351
1.342
0.4722
2.
Provision of climate friendly
tourism and educational
infrastructures or good
projects environment
1410
3.983
0.3162
190
1.416
0.2148
3.
Reducing over
commodification of cultural
practices which affects
women and children
1478
3.995
0.3004
122
1.291
0.2001
4.
Maintenance of quality
tourism supply chains and
1512
4.130
0.2972
88
1.117
0.1998
reliable prices
5.
Embracing different forms of
tourism-agro tourism, propoor tourism sustainable
tourism and responsible
1334
3.740
0.5551
66
1.099
0.1123
tourism
6.
Ensuring stable political
1526
4.426
0.2834
74
1.102
0.1414
situation
7.
Reduction in crime rate and
1590
4.458
0.2468
10
1.000
0.000
corruption
8.
Increased funding and
prudent management of
1594
4.717
0.2119
06
1.000
0.000
available fund.
The table 2 above shows that between the mean responses of 3.632 and 4.717, majority of the
respondents accepted or agreed that the eight items listed are viable measures for reducing the
influence of the factors which hinders the full attainment of tourism and educational potentials in
Igbo society. A further statistical analysis of variance done on the respondents opinion showed that
there is a significant difference in their opinions in all the item variables (Fcal = 2466.333>Ftab
11.38) and at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, majority of the respondents accepted that
reduction of crime rates and corruption; ensuring stable political situation; increased and prudent
management of available fund; embracing different forms of tourism; maintenance of quality
tourism supply chains and reliable prices; provision of climate friendly programmes; seeking of
international/local cooperation on tourism and educational development; and reduction of over
commodification of cultural practices affecting women and children are measures which will help
Igbo society attain full tourism and educational potentials.
Discussion of Findings
The result of the analysis done on the data collected for research question 1 showed that unstable
political situation is one of the determinants of the failure of Igbo society to attain full tourism and
educational potentials or objectives. This is in lien with Eilat and Einav (2003) findings that
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competition among destinations and enhancement of global peace rather than war or disaster and
other crises will give support to the full attainment of tourism and educational potentials. On high
insecurity rate and poor infrastructural development which are determinants to Igbo failure to attain
full tourism and educational potentials, Rifai (2011) supported the finding. It explain is why in his
work he pointed out that the word trade tourism organization draws their attention to the
protection of tourists and most especially children and women who are regarded as vulnerable
groups to all forms of crime and exploitation. He further wrote of his finding in ensuring the
accessibility of tourism infrastructure and services to person with disabilities, for the elderly and for
the socio-economically disadvantaged.
With reference to changing exchange rate or currency values and inflationary consumer priceindex as other determinants of Igbo failure in attaining full tourism and educational potentials,
Artus (1972) and Li et al (2005) findings corroborated with such research findings. While Artus
argued that variable exchange rate in tourism and educational demand model is much more
honoured by tourists and experts in their decisions on travel destinations than changes in relative
inflation rate. Keem (2008) further stated that exchange rate appreciation and consumer price index
among other factors serve as signals to prospective tourist arrivals to Africa. In the case of
education corruption and insufficient funding, the determinants are in consonance with the findings
of Onuoha and Oboegbulam (2009) and Cabelkova and Hanousek (2004) which had it that the
degree of corruption and funding are determinants of quality education, sustainable development
and policy implementation. Then the absence of viable cultural, and tourism programmes is
consistent with the findings of Sparrow (2011). According to Sparrow the conservation of key
biodiversity features, landscapes and cultural resources or practices, in addition to the development
of new tourism attraction business opportunities in the natural and cultural environment are key to
attaining tourism and educational objectives. He further reported that the provision of functional
code of ethics and shared socio-economic benefits at certain percentage with the communities
surrounding the tourism programs such as parks, agricultural farms, festivals, music concerts and
forests, etcetera are key factors to attaining any tourism and educational potentials.
Conclusion
The findings of this study have indicated that unstable political situation, high rate of insecurity,
educational/tourism corruption, insufficient funding, absence of some viable projects, and so on are
determinants to Igbo society’s family to attain their tourism and educational potentials. It implies
that measures should be put in place to reduce the influence of such factors in the two sectors. For
that reason, the following recommendations are hereby made. The leaders in Igbo society should
ensure that there is reduced political crises, crime rate and corruption. They should seek
international/local cooperation on tourism and for instance educational development. NICO
(National Institute for Cultural Orientation) is an outfit of the federal ministry of culture and tourism
whose function must be recognized in tourism ventures in Nigeria’. There should be increased
funding and prudent management of available funds in the sectors. The Igbo society should
provide a climate friendly tourism and educational infrastructural environment, observe the desired
ethics and operate acceptable quality maintenance tourism. Supply chains and reliable prices.
What is more, the Igbo society should embrace different forms of tourism and corruption free
education system to realize fully their vision.
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References
Artus, J.R. (1972). An Econometric Analysis of International Travel in International Monetary Fund Staff Papers 19
pgs 579-614.
Cabelkova, I., and J. Hanousek (2004). The Power of Negative Thinking: Corruption Perception and Willingness to
Bribe in Ukraine in Applied Economics, 36 (4) pgs 383-397.
Christie, I.T., and D.E. Crompton (2001). Tourism in Africa: Africa Region Working Paper, Series No. 12. The
World Bank Washington DC.
Eilat, Y., and L. Einav (2003). The Determinants of International Tourism. A Three Dimensional Panel Data
Analysis: Unpublished Working Paper.
Heyneman, S.P. (2007). Buying your way into Heaven: The Corruption of Education Systems in Global Perceptive
in Perspective on Global Issues 2 (1) Autumn.
Howse, C. (2010). Tourism and Mutual Benefits in Spore 149, pg. 17 October – November.
Kareem, O.I. (2008). A Panel Data Analysis of Demand for Tourism in Africa in Ibadan Journal of the Social
Sciences 6(1) pgs 35 – 42.
Kester, I.G.C. 2003). International Tourism in Africa in Tourism Economics 9: pgs 203-221.
Li, C.H., E.J. Song and S.F. Witt (2005). Recent Development in Econometric Modeling and Forecasting in Journal
of Travel Research 44:82-99.
Naude, W.A. and A. Sanyman (2004). The Determinants of Tourism Arrivals in Africa: A Panel Data Regression
Analysis. A paper presented for the International Conference Centre for the Study of African Economics, St.
Catherine’s College, University of Oxford 21 – 22 March.
Obaja, B.S. (2009). Determinants of Women’s Access to Education and Wage Employment in South Western,
Nigeria in International Journal of Continuing and Non-formal Education 6, (1) pgs. 192-215.
Onuoha, J.C. and A.I. Oboegbulam (2009). Determinants of Educational Corruption in Nigerian Universities:
Implication for Quality and Sustainable Development in Journal of the Nigeria Academy of Education 5 (1)
pgd. 155-171.
Rifai, T. (2011). Tourism and Rural Development: The Sustainability Challenge in the International Journal for
Rural Development 45 (4) pgs 8 – 10.
Sparrow, A. (2001). Creating Income while Wild Life is protected in the International Journal for Rural
Development 45 (4) pgs. 28 – 30.
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Vocational and Technical Education:
Seeing Through the Eye-View of Globalization
Daso, Peter Ojimba
Department of Technical Education,
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p55
Abstract
This paper seeks to define the concepts of vocational and technical education through the eye-view of
globalization. Globalization as a concept has different shades of meaning as varied as the authors or
writers posit. On one continuum globalization is portrayed as the process of increasing inter connectivity
between societies such that events in one part of the world more and more have effects on peoples and
societies far away. On the other continuum, globalization is equated with internationalization whereby
cross-border relations between countries are described. Other shades of meaning used to describe
globalization include: liberalization, universalization, westernization or modernization and
deterritorialization. Having ex-rayed the concept of globalization, the paper seeks to examine vocational
and technical education globally as it relates to other countries of the world. The concepts of vocational
and technical education modus operadi in various countries of the world and their comparative standards
were delved into. Concluding remarks stated that vocational and technical education whether in Hong
Kong, Sweden or United States of America principally deals with the acquisition of skills. The paper
recommends that the concept of globalization should be used to view each country’s understanding of
vocational and technical education, hence, eliminating conceptual barriers.
Keywords: Vocational, technical, globalization
Introduction
This paper seeks to define the concepts of vocational and technical education through the ambit of
globalization. One of the phenomena identified as the major dynamics of change in the 21 st century
is globalization. Baylis and Smith (1997) identified globalization as the process of increasing inter
connectivity between societies such that events in one part of the world more and more have
effects on peoples and societies far away. Thus a globalized world is one in which political,
economic, social, educational and cultural events become more and more interconnected and also
one in which the impacts of these events in one society affect extensively the lives of people in
other societies. Hence, the objective of this paper is to precisely state the concepts of vocational
and technical education as they relate to various countries of the world.
Furthermore, Scholte (2000) as cited by Popoola and Oni (2005) established five distinct
definitions of globalization that are in common usage. Though the definitions overlap and are
related, the elements they highlight are significantly different. In the first instance, globalization is
equated with internationalization. In this context, globalization is viewed simply as an adjective to
describe cross-border relations between countries. It describes the growth in international exchange
and interdependence. Therefore, with growing flows of trade and capital investment, there is the
possibility of moving beyond an international economy (where the principle entities are national
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economies) to a stronger version – the globalized economy in which district national economies are
subsumed and re-articulated into the system by international process and transactions.
In the second set of definitions identified by Scholte (2000) and cited by Popoola and Oni
(2005), globalization is observed as liberalization. In this direction, globalization refers to “a process
of moving government – imposed restrictions on movements between countries in order to create
an “open”, “border less” world economy. Those who have argued with some success for the
abolition of regulatory trade barriers and capital controls have sometimes clothed this in the mantle
of “globalization”.
The third set of definitions considers globalization as universaliztion. In this link, the word
“global” is used in the sense of being “worldwide” and globalization is seen as the process of
spreading various objects and experiences to people at all corners of the earth. A classic example of
this would be the spread of computing, television and so on.
The fourth concept of globalization depicts the term with westernization or modernization. In
this regard, globalization is understood as a dynamic, whereby the social structures of modernity
(Capitalism, rationalism, industrialism, bureaucratism etc) are spread the world over, normally
destroying pre-existent cultures and local self determination in the process.
Scholte’s fifth concept of globalization as discussed in Popoola et al equates the term as
deterritorialization. In this direction, globalization entails a reconfiguration of geography so that
social space is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and
territorial borders. Of the five definitions of globalization, Scholte argued that it is only the
conception of globalization as deterritorialization that offers the possibility of a clear and specific
concept of the term. The notion of supra territoriality (or trans-world or trans-border relations), the
author proclaimed, provides a way of appreciating what is global about globalization.
From the foregoing, a general concept of globalization can be stated as the intensification of
worldwide relations linking one part of the globe with other parts in ways that what happens in one
place is relayed by events occurring in other distant places (Okrah, 2004). In this sense, globalization
is seen as the complex interconnectedness of peoples’ present and future – a phenomenon which is
becoming the dominant character of the world’s political, cultural, economic and natural
environments (Khan, 2003). Having explained the concept of globalization, we can now proceed to
define vocational and technical education.
The Concept of Vocational Education
Vocational education deals with the training or retraining designed to prepare individuals to enter
into a paid employment in any reorganized occupation (Okoro, 1993). The Nigerian National Policy
on education defines vocational education as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of
the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and
related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge
relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life.Vocational education or
vocational education and training (VET) is an education that prepares trainees for jobs at various
levels from a craft or trade to a professional position in engineering, accounting, nursing, medicine
and other health practitioners, architecture, pharmacy, law etc. Craft vocations are usually based on
manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic and totally related to a specific trade,
occupation or vocation.
Vocational education may be classified as teaching procedural knowledge. This can be
contrasted with declarative knowledge as used in education in a usually broader scientific field,
which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge, characteristic of tertiary
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education. Vocational education can be at the secondary, post secondary level, further education
level and can interact with the apprenticeship system. Increasingly, vocational education can be
recognized in terms of recognition of prior learning and partial academic credit towards tertiary
education (e.g. at a university) as credit; however, it is rarely considered in its own form to fall under
the traditional definition of higher education (http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd).
Vocational education is related to the age-old apprenticeship system of learning.
Apprenticeships are designed for many levels of work from manual trades to high knowledge work.
Interestingly, as the labour market becomes more specialized and economies demand higher levels
of skills, governments and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of vocational
education through publicly funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or
traineeship initiatives for businesses. At the post-secondary level vocational education is typically
provided by an institute of technology or by a local community college. However, vocational
education has diversified over the 20th century and now exists in industries such as retail tourism,
information technology, funeral services and cosmetics as well as in the traditional crafts and
cottage industries (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vocateduc)
The Concept of Technical Education
Technical education is that aspect of education that gives its recipients an opportunity to
acquire practical skills as well as some basic scientific knowledge (Nigerian National Policy on
education, 1981). Puding (1994) defined technical education as that type of education which fits the
individual for gainful employment in recognized occupations as semi-skilled workers or technicians
or sub-professionals.
In his own views, Uwaifo (2009) posited that technical education is the training of technical –
oriented personnel who are to be the initiators, facilitators and implementers of technological
development of a nation. He opined that this training of its citizenry on the need to be
technologically literate, would lead to self-reliance and sustainability. He stressed that technical
education more than any other profession has direct impact on national welfare.
Furthermore, technical education contributions are widespread and visible ranging from metal
work technology, mechanical/automobile technology, electrical and electronic technology, building
and woodwork technology etc. Consequently, technical education can serve as change agents not
only for technical systems but also for many other societal changes. The practical nature of technical
education makes it unique in content and approach thereby requiring special care and attention.
The inputs of technical education are so visible to the extent that even an illiterate could see when
failures occur.
Having critically examined the concepts of vocational and technical education, we proceed to
see them through the eye-view of globalization. In this ambit, vocational and technical education
are discussed under the umbrella of vocational education and training (VET). They are discussed
under the following categories:

Vocational education and training in Australia

Vocational education and training in Common Wealth of Independent States

Vocational education and training in Finland

Vocational education and training in German Language Areas

Vocational education and training in Hong Kong, Hungary and India

Vocational education and training in Japan and Korea

Vocational education and training in Mexico and New Zealand

Vocational education and training in Norway, Paraguay and Sweden
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
Vocational education and training in Switzerland

Vocational education and training in the United Kingdom

Vocational Education and Training in the United States of America
They are vividly described below:
Vocational Education and Training (VET) in Australia
In Australia vocational education and training is mostly post-secondary and provided through the
vocational education and training (VET) system by registered training organizations. This system
encompasses both public, TAFE and private providers in a national training framework consisting of
the Australian Quality Training framework (http://www.training.com.cus 2007). Australian
Qualifications Framework and Industry Training Packages (http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/
trainingskills/policy), which define the assessment standards for the different vocational
qualifications.
Australia’s apprenticeship system includes both traditional apprenticeships in traditional trades
and “traineeship” in other more service – oriented occupations. Both involve a legal contract
between the employer and the apprentice and provide a combination of school – based and
workplace training. Apprenticeships typically last three to four years, traineeships only one or two
years. Apprentices and trainees receive a wage which increases as they progress
(http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/ 27/11/4/63/38). In Australia, the National Centre for Vocational
Education Research NCVER (http://www.never.edu.au) is a not-for-profit company owned by the
federal, state and territory ministers responsible for training. It is responsible for collecting,
managing, analyzing, evaluating and communicating research and statistics about vocational
education and training (VET). In Australia, the boundaries between vocational education and tertiary
education are becoming more blurred. A number of vocational training providers such as NMIT,
BHT and WAI are now offering specialized Bachelor degrees in specific areas not being adequately
provided by universities. Such applied courses include Winemaking and viticulture, aquaculture,
information technology, music etc.
Vocational Education and Training in Commonwealth of Independent States
The largest and the most unified system of vocational education was created in the soviet union
with the professional no-technich-eskoye Uchilische and Technikum. But it became less effective
with the transition of the economies of post-soviet countries to a market economy.
Vocational Education and Training in Finland
In Finland vocational education belongs to secondary education. After the nine-year comprehensive
school almost all students choose to go to either a Lukio (high school) which is an institution
preparing students for tertiary education or to a vocational school. Both forms of secondary
education last three years and give a formal qualification to enter university. In certain fields (e.g.
the police school, air traffic control personnel training), the entrance requirements of vocational
schools include completion of the Lukio thus causing the students to complete their secondary
education twice.
Furthermore, in Finland, the education in vocational school is free and the students from lowincome families are eligible for a state student grant. The curriculum is primarily vocational and the
academic part of the curriculum adapted to the needs of a given course. The vocational schools are
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mostly maintained by municipalities. After completing secondary education, one can enter higher
vocational schools or universities. It is also possible for a student to choose both lukio and
vocational schooling. The education in such cases last usually from 3 to 4 years.
Vocational Education and Training in German Language Areas
Vocational education is an important part of the education systems in Austria, Germany,
Liechtenstein and Switzerland (including the French and the Italian speaking parts of the country)
and one element of the German model.
For example, in Germany a law was passed in 1969 which regulated and unified the vocational
training system and codified the shared responsibility of the state, the unions, associations and
chambers of trade and industry. The system is very popular in modern Germany in 2001, two thirds
of young people aged under 22 began an apprenticeship and 78% of them completed it, meaning
that approximately 51% of all young people under 22 have completed an apprenticeship. One in
three companies offered apprenticeships in 2003; in 2004 the government signed a pledge with
industrial unions that all companies except very small ones must take on apprentices. The
vocational education systems in the other German speaking countries are very similar to the
German system and a vocational qualification from one country is generally also recognized in the
other states within this area.
Vocational Education and Training in Hong Kong, Hungary and India
In Hong Kong, vocational education is usually for post-secondary 3,5 and 7 students. The Hong
Kong Institute of Vocational Education (IVE) provides training in nine different vocational fields,
namely; Applied Science, Business Administration; Child Education and Community Services;
Construction; Design: Printing, Textiles and clothing; Hotel, Service and Tourism studies; Information
Technology; electrical and electronic engineering, and mechanical, manufacturing and industrial
engineering.
In Hungary, at the end of elementary school (at age 14) students are directed to one of three
types of upper secondary education: one academic track (gymnasium) and two vocational tracks.
Vocational secondary schools provide four years of general education and also prepare students for
the maturate. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects referred to as
pre-vocational education and career orientation. At that point many students enroll in a postsecondary VET programme often at the same institution, to obtain a vocational qualification
although they may also seek entry to tertiary education. Demand for vocational training schools
both from the labour market and among students has declined while it has increase for upper
secondary schools delivering the maturata (http://www.oecd. org/dataoecd/24/27/41738329).
However, vocational training in India is provided on a full time as well as part time basis. Full
time programs are generally offered through I.T.Is industrial training institutes. The nodal agency for
granting the recognition to the I.T.Is is NCVT which is under the ministry of labour, Government of
India. Part time programs are offered through state technical education boards or universities who
also offer full time courses. Vocational training has been successful in India only in industrial
training institutes and that too in engineering trades. There are many private institutes in India with
courses in vocational training and finishing, but most of then have not been recognized by the
Government. India is a pioneer in vocational training in Film and television and information
technology.
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Vocational education and training in Japan and Korea
Japanese vocational schools are known as Senmon gakko. They are part of Japan higher education
system. They are two year schools that many students study at after finishing high school (although
it is not always required that students graduate from high school). Some have a wide range of
majors, others only a few majors. Some examples are computer technology, fashion and English.
However, in Korea, vocational high schools offer programmes in five fields; agriculture,
technology/ engineering, commerce/ business maritime/ fishery and home economics. In principle,
all students in the first year of high school (with grade) follow a common national curriculum. In the
second and third years (11th and 12th grades) students are offered courses relevant to their
specialization. In some programmes, students may participate in workplace training through
cooperation between schools and local employers. The government is now piloting vocational
master schools in which workplace training is an important part of the programme. Around half of
all vocational high schools are private. Private and public schools operate according to similar rules,
for example, they charge the same fees for high school education, with an exemption for poorer
families (http://www.oecd.org.edu/learning for jobs).
Vocational education and training in Mexico and New Zealand
In Mexico, both federal and state governments are responsible for the administration of vocational
education. Federal schools are funded by the federal budget in addition to their own funding
sources. State centres for scientific and technological studies (CECYTE) and institutes of training for
work (ICAT). These institutions are funded 50% from the federal budget and 50% from the state
budget. The state governments also manage and fund “decentralized institutions of the federation),
such as CONALEP schools. Compulsory education (including primary and lower secondary
education) finishes at the age of 15 and about half of those aged 15 to 19 are enrolled full time or
part time in education. All programmes at upper secondary level require the payment of a tuition
fee.
The upper secondary vocational education system in Mexico includes over a dozen
subsystems (administrative units within the upper secondary education). Vocational education and
training provided under the upper secondary education include: training for work; technical
professional – baccalaureate and the programme awarding the technological baccalaureate
(htt://www.oecd.org/edu/learning for jobs).
However, New Zealand is served by 39 industry training organizations (ITO). The unique
element is that ITOs purchase training as well as set standards and aggregate industry opinion
about skills in the labour market. Industry training as organized by ITOs has expanded from
apprenticeships to a more true life long learning situation with, for example, over 10% of trainees
aged 50 or over. Moreover, much of the training is generic. This challenges the prevailing idea of
vocational education and the standard layperson view that it focuses on apprenticeships. One
source for information in New Zealand is the industry training federation (http://www.itf.org.nz).
Another is the ministry of education (http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz). Polytechnics, private
training establishments, Wanaga and others also deliver vocational training among other areas.
Vocational education and training in Norway, Paraguay and Sweden
Nearly all those leaving lower secondary schools enter upper secondary education and around half
follow one of 9 vocational programmes. These programmes typically involve two years in school
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followed by two years of apprenticeship in a company. The first year provides general education
alongside introductory knowledge of the vocational area. During the second year courses become
more trade specific.
In Norway, apprentices receive a wage negotiated in collective agreements ranging between
30% and 80% of the wage of a qualified worker, the percentage increasing over the apprenticeship
to vocational technical colleges, while those who wish to enter university need to take a
supplementary year of education. The National Council for vocational education and training
advices the minister on the development of the national vocational education and training system.
The advisory councils for vocational education and training are linked to the nine vocational
education programmes provided in upper secondary education and advise on the content of VET
programmes and on trends and future skill needs. (http://ww.oecd.or/dataoecd/45/34/41506628).
In Paraguay, vocational education is known as bachillerato Tecnico and is part of the
secondary education system. These schools combine general education with some specific subjects,
referred to as pre-vocational education and career orientation. After nine years of primary school,
the student can choose to go to either a vocational school or a high school. Both forms of
secondary education last three years and are usually located in the same campus. After completing
secondary education, one can enter into the universities. It is also possible for a student to choose
both Tecnico and Cientifico schooling.
In Sweden, nearly all of those leaving compulsory schooling immediately enter upper
secondary schools and most complete their upper secondary education in three years. Upper
secondary education is divided into 13 vocationally – oriented and 4 academic national
programmes. Slightly more than half all students follow vocational programmes. All programmes
offer broad general education and basic eligibility to continue studies at the post-secondary level.
In addition there are local programmes specially designed to meet local needs and individual
programmes.
In Sweden, a 1992 school reform extended vocational upper secondary programmes by one
year aligning them with three years of general upper secondary education increasing their general
education content, and making core subjects compulsory in all programmes. The core subjects
(which occupy around one-third of total teaching time in both vocational and academic
programmes) include English, artistic activities, physical education and health, mathematics, natural
science, social studies. In addition to the core subjects, students’ pursue optional courses, subjects
which are specific to each programme and a special project. Vocational programmes include 15
weeks of workplace training over the three-year period. Schools are responsible for arranging
workplace training and verifying its quality (http://www.oecd.org/edu/ learning for jobs).
Vocational education and training in Switzerland
Nearly two thirds of those entering upper secondary education enter the vocational education and
training system. At this level, vocational education and training is mainly provided through the “dual
system”. Students spend some of their time in a vocational school; some of their time doing an
apprenticeship at a host company and for most programmes, students attend industry courses at an
industry training centre to develop complementary practical skills relating to the occupation at
hand. Switzerland draws a distinction between vocational education and training (VET) programmes
at upper secondary level and professional education and training (PET) programmes, which take
place at tertiary B level. In 2007, more than half of the population aged 25-64 had a VET or PET
qualification as their highest level of education. In addition, universities of applied sciences offer
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vocational education at tertiary A level. Pathways enable people to shift from one part of the
education system to another (http://www.org/dataoecd/12/5/4278682).
Vocational and education raining in the United Kingdom
The first trades’ school in the UK was Stanley Technical Trades school (now Harris Academy South
Norwood) which was designed built and set up by William Stanley. The initial idea was thought of in
1901, and the school opened in 1907 (Owen, 1912).
The system of vocational education in the UK initially developed independently of the state,
with bodies such as the RSA and City and Guilds setting examinations for technical subjects.
However, the Education Act 1944 made provision for a Tripartite system of grammar schools,
secondary technical schools and secondary modern schools, but by 1975 only 0.5% of British senior
pupils were in technical schools, compared to two-thirds of the equivalent German age group (Wolf,
2002).
Successive recent British Government have made attempts to promote and expand vocational
education. In the 1970s, the Business and Technology Educaiton Council was founded to confer
further and higher education awards, particularly to further education colleges in the United
Kingdom. In the 1980s and 1990s, the conservative government promoted the Youth Training
scheme, National vocational Qualifications and General National Vocational Qualifications. However,
youth training was marginalized as the proportion of young people staying on in full-time
education increased (Wolf, 2002).
In 1994, publicly funded modern Apprenticeships were introduced to provide “quality training
on a work based (educational) route (http://www. keele.ac.uk/depts./so/youths chron/educat/9197
educ.htm). Numbers of apprentices have grown in recent years and the department for children,
schools and families has stated its intention to male apprenticeships a ‘mainstream’ part of
England’s education system (DIUS/DCSF, 2008).
Vocational Education and Training in the United States of America
Vocational education and job training program has been an integral part of national development
strategies in many societies because of the impact on human resources development, productivity
and economic growth. The provision of vocational technical schools in America has a long history.
Before the industrial revolution (between 1750 and 1830). The home and the “apprenticeship
system” were the principal sources of vocational education. Societies were forced by the decline of
handwork and specialization of occupational functions to develop institutions of vocational
education.
However, vocational education became popular in the elementary schools in the United States
of America after 1880 and developed into courses in industrial training, book keeping, stenography
and allied commercial work in both public and private institutions. Some of the early private trade
schools in the US include Cooper Union (1859) and Pratf Institute (1888), the Hampton Institute
(1868) and Tuskegee Institute (1881). The agricultural high school (1888) of the university of
Minnesota was the first regularly established public vocational secondary school that introduced
extensive public instruction in agriculture.
The number of public and private vocational schools has greatly increased since 1900. There
was an impetus on vocational education during world war II (1939-1945) when the armed services
had great need for technicians that the civilian world could not supply. Further upsurge on
vocational training was from the service men’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (the G.I. Bill of Rights)
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which allowed world war II veterans to receive tuition and subsistence during extended vocational
training. In addition, there was the Manpower Development Training Act (1962), the Vocational
Education Act (1963), the Vocational Education Amendment (1968). All these helped to improve the
US workforce and ensure that vocational training is available for economically (and physically)
challenged youths. Generally, the US appreciate skills acquired through vocational training.
Conclusion
Various concepts of globalization have been adduced in this paper by various authors and writers.
The birds’ eye-view of globalization has been utilized to ex-ray the concepts and state of the art
concerning vocational education and technical education in various countries of the world. In this
paper, vocational education and training has dimensional views as it relates to various countries of
the world. It is however pertinent to adduce the fact that vocational education whether in Hong
Kong, Sweden or America principally deals with the acquisition of skills. Hence, seeing vocational
and technical education with the eye-view of globalization, the paper concludes that each country
of the world has her own hierarchy of development and modus operandi.
References
Baylis, J.S. and Smith, S. (1997). The globalization of world politics. New York: Oxford University Press
http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz – 11/3/2012
http://www.itf.org.nz – 9/3/2012
http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/80/youthschron/edu.9197.htm
http://www.oecd.org.edu/learning for jobs - 10/3/2012
http://www.oecd.org.edu/learning for jobs - 10/3/2012
http://www.oecd.org/data.oecd/43/34/41506628
http://www.oecd.org/data.oecd-6/3/2012
http://www.oecd.org/edu/learning for jobs
http://www.oecd.org/edu/lerning for jobs - 13/3/2012
http://www.org/data.oecd/12/5/42578681
Khan, M. (2003). Teaching globalization. The globalist . available online at http://ww.theglobalist.com
Okoro, O.M. (1993). Principles and methods of vocational and technical education. Nsukka: University rust
publisher
Okrah, K.A. (2004). African education reform in the era of globalization: Conflicts and Harmony: African
Symposium. 4(4). Available online at http://www2.nese.edu/nesu/okrahdec04.htm
Oni, C.S. (2005). Programmes for educating vocational teachers. Ife Journal of Educational Studies, 4(1).
Popoola, B.I. and Oni, C.S. (2005). Concepts and issues of globalization in Nigerian education: Implications for
teaching and learning. Paper presented at the 5th ICET World Assembly, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
Pudding, L.C. (1994). Youth and vocational technical education in Nigeria. studies in technical teacher education
(STTED). Journal of Federal College of Education, Omoku. 1, 56-60
Scholte, J.A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London: Pal grave
Uwaifo, I.K. (2009). Vocational and technical education in Nigeria. issues, problems and prospects. Journal of
Vocational Education. 3(4), 60-67
Wolf, A. (2002). Does education matter? Myths about education and economic growth. London: Penguin.
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Crime: Concept, Causes and Militating Factors
Florence N. Anumba
Federal College of Education(Technical) Omoku-Rivers State, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p64
Abstract
Nature sets out its orderliness for mankind to abide by. This orderliness follows the course of, and can
therefore be termed, natural law. Acts in conformity with the orderliness are deemed good deeds, while
those that run counter are bad. Unlike in the state of nature, where the order of the day was the survival of
the fittest; the evolution of civilization resulted in every society becoming conscious of nature’s orderliness,
though the mode of expressing them differed from place to place. Man has the tendency to congregate,
survive and also prosper in the society. The degree of structure and order based on the society’s cultural
heritage is expressed in its values and aspirations, and prohibitions charged on acts likely to endanger the
health and safety of its citizens, as well as those that infringe on their enjoyment and possession of
property – be they personal or communal. Murder, Armed Robbery, Rape, Stealing and manslaughter are
examples of prohibited acts that endanger people’s lives and well-being. They had thrived due to
industrialization, globalization and complex changes taking place in countries the world over. This paper
dwells on the nature of crime, why crime is prohibited, why they thrive and factors that militate against it.
Introduction
“No man is an island”, is a common saying. This means that societies comprise the aggregations of
individuals. The instinct to congregate, survive and prosper in societies is, therefore, human. Prior
to the evolution of civil societies, state of nature existed, but was anarchical, hence it was not a
crime that man was wolf to man. It was not until the Greek period that serious attention began to
be paid to Law, Justice, Politics and economics – the spontaneous development of the law – which
ushered in respect for the dignity of man as human.
For an individual living alone, what is required is habit. But, when humans congregate, for
societies to function fairly and effectively, they create and maintain norms (which with time
metamorphose into customs) and values according to their beliefs and aspirations. As societies
become more complex and industrialized, the necessity of creating prohibitions on acts likely to
mar the well-being, health, safety and interests of individual members of the society, and the need
to protect the values and aspirations of the society itself becomes very paramount.
What normally shape the law against prohibited acts are traditions, or the religious belief
system and the political ideology of a people. On what is an ideology, Azikiwe (1979) answered: “…
Firstly, it is a systematic body of concepts about human life or culture. Secondly, it is a manner or
content of thinking characteristic of an individual or a group”. However, the word ‘Crime’ refers to
prohibited acts, and the law against crime is Criminal Law which according to Morlan (2001) is a
litany of prohibitions and duties, behaviours that the State considers to be unacceptable or actions
that the State demands. Prohibited acts also harm societal collective interests, hence states make
laws to check them. Examples of crimes are: Murder, Stealing, Manslaughter, Rape, Conspiracy,
Assault, Procurement, Burglary, Armed Robbery and Conversion. When any of these or other crimes
is committed, the offender is normally apprehended, charged and prosecuted. The aim of trial is to
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dispense justice through the instrumentality of the law, by balancing the interest of the offender,
the offended and that of the State as the major stake holder. Babatunde (2003) opines, the interest
of the accused must be balanced with the interest of the victim as well as the interest of the State,
as the keeper of public good.
Definition of Terms
Crime: The Merrian Webster Dictionary defines ‘crime’ as a serious offense against the public
law. The Black Law Dictionary sees ‘crime’ as an act that law makes punishable; the breach of a legal
duty treated as the subject matter of a criminal proceeding. A crime is an act prohibited by the
State; it is a wrongdoing for which the offender must pay, hence the State stipulates, executes and
punishes the doer with canning (in case of minors), fine or a term of imprisonment or both – in the
event of conviction.
Concept: This means the idea of something; an understanding of what something means.
Cause: A cause is that which bring about something – an event or a result; something that
compels something to happen.
Militate: This means prevent, check or hinder the existence of something.
Factor: A factor is the circumstance or situation that produces a result or is responsible for the
existence of something.
The Nature of Crime
The principle of ‘actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea’ is a cardinal principle of natural law. It
means that an act does not make a man guilty unless his mind or intention is guilty. It therefore
means that when a crime is said to have been committed, it cannot be swallowed line, hook and
sinker to be a crime. To call an act a crime, two elements must come into play. They are the ‘actus
reus’ and the ‘mens rea’. Without these factors manifestly seen to be coincidentally present in the
commission of an act, it is no crime, and non can be said to have occurred. In general terms the
conduct of the accused and his state of mind at the time of the conduct both determine whether he
has committed a crime or not. To test what is unlawful and dangerous, Babatunde (2003) has this
to say, the test as to what is unlawful and dangerous does not depend on the knowledge or
thinking of the accused. It is based on the objective test, that is, what a reasonable person would
describe as unlawful and dangerous.
It is also necessary to point out here that a crime can be committed by a person without his
actually doing the wrongful act.
Thus, a person who procures another to commit an offence is
said, in law, to have done the act himself, and, it is immaterial whether the offence committed is
that counseled or procured or an entirely different one. In the event of conviction, the procurer
suffers the same punishment as the procured.
Actus Reus:
The Black Law Dictionary defines the Latin phrase ‘actus reus’ as “guilty act”; the wrongful deed that
comprises the physical component of a crime and that generally must be coupled with mens rea to
establish criminal liability. However, by actus reus is meant the wrongful or offensive act; the bad
deed. It is bad because it runs counter to natural orderliness; it is an erosion of societal value,
therefore, the society frowns at it. It is prohibited by the State. Actus reus is the harmful act
forming the basis of liability. This presupposes that no matter the degree of evil intention in a
person’s head, (even when it is confessed) if it is not put into action, a crime has not been
committed, and none can be said to exist.
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Thus, in the crime of ‘Murder’, for example, the accused must have shot, stabbed or hit the
victim and caused his death. In ‘Stealing’, the accused must have taken away the money or other
material(s) belonging to another. In ‘Conspiracy’, he must have taken part in the plot to carry out
the harmful act. In ‘Robbery’, according to Sect. 9 of the Robbery and Firearms (Special Provisions)
Act No. 47 of 1970, he must be proved to have been armed with “firearms” or “offensive weapons” at
the time of committing the robbery. The actus reus of an act may also consist of elements entirely
external to the physical actions of the accused. This, eventually, takes us to the types of actus reus.
Actus reus may be by any of the following:
By conduct: This exists when the offence do not require proof of any result or consequence, what
is required is only proof of the action. An example is the offence of dangerous driving, proof that
the accused drove dangerously is enough to ground the action, without the prosecution going,
extra miles, to prove injury caused or life lost by the act.
By result: This occurs when the crime requires the proof of a result arising in the act. A case in
point is the crime of assault where injury suffered by the victim is part of the actus reus.
By circumstance: Actus reus is circumstantial when it consists of factors that are entirely external
to the physical action of the accused. An example is an action done when drunk. What needs to
be proved is the state of affairs that had to be found to exist with a little or no participation of the
offender. It is however, submitted that the voluntary act occasioning liability can be found at earlier
stage of the accused – voluntarily becoming intoxicated, for example. In the circumstance, what the
information must disclose is certainly not the guilt of the accused, but a prima facie case for him to
answer.
Omission: An omission to act may also form the basis of criminal liability. An actus reus is,
ordinarily, a positive act of the accused; one may then ask: “How then can failure to act (omission)
become illegal or result in a liability?” The answer is that while there is no liability for failing to act,
if at the time of failing to act, the accused was under a legal duty to take positive action, the failure
attracts a liability. For an omission (to act) to be criminal, i.e result in a criminal liability, recourse
has to be taken of moral and legal duties. If the accused person has only the moral duty to act, but
failed, such omission has no basis in law; but where he is under a legal duty, i.e he owes the victim a
duty of care, the omission forms the basis of criminal liability. An omission or failure to act may also
result in criminal liability, if it constitutes an invitation to treat.
Involuntariness of action: This factor inquires whether the conduct or act of the accused, resulting
in the prohibited consequence, is of his free-will or not. If the accused’s prohibited act result from
no fault of his own, it will occasion no criminal liability. This is because he was not in control of his
action when causing or indulging in the action that produced the prohibited result.
For
involuntariness of action to avail an accused, either insanity or automatism must be found to be
present. Thus, for the defence of involuntary act not to be negatived, impaired consciousness must
result.
Generally, for the defence of automatism to avail an accused, his act must be a reflex, spasm,
or convulsion, or must have occurred while he is in a condition depriving him of effective control of
his action; and the act or condition is not the result of anything done or omitted with the fault
required for the offence or voluntary intoxication. And a person is not guilty of an offence (by
virtue) of omission to act if he is physically incapable of acting in the way required, and his being so
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incapable is not the result of anything done omitted with the fault required for the offence nor of
voluntary intoxication. Therefore, for an act to be termed a crime, it must constitute actus reus and
mens rea.
Mens Rea
The Black’s Law Dictionary defines ‘Mens rea’ as “guilty mind”; a state of mind that the prosecution,
to secure a conviction, must prove that an accused had when committing a crime, criminal intention
or recklessness. Howbeit, mens rea is the evil intention or bad state of mind of the accused when
committing a prohibited act. The mens rea in stealing or theft is the intention to deprive the owner
of the property. According to Morgan (2001) with the notable exception of strict liability, the
criminal law does not punish a man for his actions alone. The prohibited actions must be
accompanied by a culpable state of mind.
However, mens rea are varied; and the apportioning of a type to an offence is a matter of
judicial and or legislative framework. In simple terms, deliberately committing a prohibited act
attracts more severe punishment than recklessly or carelessly committing same. Most criminal
offences require proof of intention or recklessness. Such recklessness is sufficient to ground an
action. An act is labeled recklessness because it involves unjustifiable risk, being very unnecessary,
could have been avoided as a reasonable man would have realized the obvious risk involved in such
act.
An accused person may raise the defence of Mistake, i.e as not having the requisite mens rea.
Such mistake may be mistake of fact or mistake of law. An accused person raising the defence of
mistake must make sure that the offence is one requiring some degree of fact on his part. It is for
the state to establish beyond reasonable doubt that the accused was not mistaken, so did have the
requisite mens rea for the offence he is charged with. In the case of IBEH v. STATE (1997) 1 NWLR
(PT. 484) 632 at 65 S.C, the Supreme Court held that the proper role of the court in a criminal trial is
to evaluate all the evidence before it and be sure that the case of the prosecution has been proved
beyond reasonable doubt, but if there is doubt, whether based on material contradiction, or lack of
sufficient evidence, the benefit of that doubt must be given to the accused person. He cannot
plead a mistake of law, for ignorance of law is no excuse.
Offences impliedly or expressly requiring proof of fault will apply to the defence of mistake,
denying mens rea. In DPP v. MORGAN (1976) A C 182, the accused persons were convicted of rape,
but they appealed against the judgement contending that they had believed that the complainant
consented to sexual intercourse. The judgement held that the accused defence of mistake would
have availed them only if it was honest and reasonable. The appeal was therefore dismissed. But
the House of Lords upheld the appeal, holding that a defendant is to be judged by the facts as he
honestly believed them to be. In the circumstance, recourse need to be had on the particular state
of mind of the accused – all the evidence, and the presence or absence of reasonable grounds for
possessing that state of mind.
Compulsion: An accused person raising the defence of compulsion is seeking to establish
that he performed the act for which he is charged involuntarily as a result of another person’s
action. The offender must have been persuaded to commit the act under a necessity, that is to say,
by compulsion or inconvenience. Compulsion may be through duress, mental coercion, necessity or
obedience to orders.
Irrebutable Presumption against mens rea: Children are considered not fully responsible
for their actions. This is because they cannot exercise self-control like adults. They are doli incapax
(incapable of wrong or incapable of committing a crime). They know not the meaning and
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consequences of their actions. The presence of actus reus, but absence of mens rea raises the
presumption of innocence in favour of the minor, exculpating him from the criminal responsibility
of his actions. Thus, the presumption is irrebutable. However, if the accused commits a prohibited
act against Z in the mistake of A, he will not be able to escape liability for the wrong because the
actus reus and mens rea are both present, irrespective of who he wanted to offend.
Generally, the nature of prohibited acts is that the two factors of wrong act and criminal mind
must simultaneously come together in the commission of an act. Where only one is involved, the
act is not criminal, and cannot ground an action in a criminal charge.
Why Crimes are Prohibted
Man’s inclination towards nature: Man is endowed with reason by creation. Creation is also a
manifestation of perfection of order. Acts in deviation of the order are prohibitive. According to
Okpara (2005)
Law of nature is law of reason. It imposes obligations and prohibitions and confers natural
rights (human rights). As it agrees with the rule of reason, it is in harmony with human
nature. Man is endowed with reason by his creator to obey natural law of the universe.
Natural laws are objective moral principles which depend upon the nature of the universe; by
nature, they are imprescriptible, inalienable and above all, universal.
Expatiating positive law, Okpara (2005) yet posits, it is understood that the great ancient and
medieval philosophers believed that natural law commends things that are intrinsically good and
prohibits things that are intrinsically evil.
Risk of harm and injury: Crimes are also prohibited because of their risk of harm and injury
to the individual, as well as the collective, interests and well-being of the citizens of the society. No
society exists in vacuum, but consists of a population of people. A society may be likened to a state
or nation. A state is a geographical entity with population and government, while a nation,
according to Ramsay Muir in Appadorai (1968), is a body of people who feel themselves to be
naturally linked together by certain affinities which are so strong and real for them that they can live
happily together, are dissatisfied when disunited and cannot tolerate subjection to people who do
not share these ties.
Maintenance of law and order: Every people so linked together have common norms,
desires, aspirations and values they cherish, duties and obligations they owe each other, prohibited
acts and behaviours they frown at. The acts infringe on personal and collective interests of the
members of the society, they constitute clogs in the wheel of progress, thus their end result is
punishment. In the definition of Culpable Homicide punishable with death, Sect. 221(b) of the Penal
Code, for example, it is stated that whether death was the probable or only likely consequence of an
act or of any bodily injury, is a question of fact. Thus, if from the intentional act of injury
committed, the probability of death resulting is high, the finding should be that the accused
intended to cause death or injury sufficient in the ordinary course of nature to cause death, This was
held in the case of GARBA vs. STATE (2000) 4 S.C, 157. In Sect. 31 of Penal Code, injury is defined as
harm illegally caused. No people or nation flourishes in disorderliness, violence, and crime. As Lord
Denning (1979) posits, in any case, whatever your role, I would as Master of the Roles, remind you
that it is, in the long run, on the maintenance of law and order that civilized society depends.
Retardation of Development: Crimes are also prohibited because the breed loss, hinder,
disrupt and frustrate economic activities. A crime-ridden nation records retrogression, or at best,
arithmetical progression in all facets of its development. Nations, in particular and the world
generally, have recorded unprecedented draw-backs in advancement, since the emergence of drug
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and human trafficking, terrorists activities and other similar international crimes. Recently in
Nigeria, people vacated their residence in the North for safety, following the horrors of Boko
Harram in the country; and for foreign investors to respond to Nigeria’s call to invest in the country,
expatriates are apprehensive of coming to fish in the troubled water. The end result is that business
and employment opportunities are stifled, while national development stagnates.
Security of lives and property: Crimes are also prohibited because not only do they cause
injuries and harms to the victims, and the offenders as well, they also ruin their lives. Many had lost
their lives in the process of stealing, even worthless things. A young man once stole louver glasses,
he was caught and burnt alive by a mob before Police could intervene. Apart from such dangerous
self-helps, a variety of punishments are attached to crimes by their enabling statutes. A case in
point is the crime of stealing. Sect. 390 of the Criminal Code states:
Any person who steals anything capable of being stolen is guilty of a felony, and is liable, if no
other punishment is provided, to imprisonment for three years.
(1) If the thing stolen is a testamentary instrument, whether the testator is living or dead, the
offender is liable to imprisonment for life.
(2) If the thing stolen is a postal matter or any chattel, money, or valuable security, contained
in any postal matter, the offender is liable to imprisonment for life.
Miserable state of affairs: Whether the punishment for a crime is death sentence, life
imprisonment or less, in fact no matter how short the period of sentence, the victim’s state of
affairs remains incurably bad, because once a convict, always a convict. A convict is robed of the
essence of his life and dignity of his human person. He spends the rest of his life as a second class
citizen, devoid of access to most of his fundamental rights – he can no longer vie for, hold, be
appointed to or elected into any public office. Crimes are ruinous, hence they are outlawed.
Causes of crimes/why they thrive
Avariciousness: In spite of multiplicity of laws, decrees, promulgations, enactments, crimes have
persisted. Man’s inclination to amass wealth, to satisfy his insatiable wants, to boost his ego, lead
people to indulge in crimes. Crimes also persist owing to people’s intention to defraud others. In
the case of BABALOLA v. THE STATE 103 (1989) 7 S.C. (PT.1) 94, stealing was defined to consist of
an intention not only to take away the property, but also an intention to permanently deprive
another of the use and ownership of such property.
Habits: Crimes have also persisted because of habits grown and nurtured over the years.
When habits are formed, particularly bad habits, they persist, in spite of efforts to get rid of them.
Gangsterism, peer group syndrome, cultism, idle and disorderly habits promote crimes in youths
which affects the society negatively. Children from broken homes, who grew up in motor parks,
under bridges, and in the streets are most likely to be chronic criminals.
Values a nation’s educational system promotes can directly or indirectly make the ground
fertile for crimes to flourish. In Nigeria, moral education has been stifled since the take over of
school by the government from religious organizations. Inculcation of moral ethics and discipline
of children in schools have been thrown to the winds. Worst still, at homes, parents have very little
or no time to observe, monitor or attend to their children and wards – due to avarice. In majority of
homes, children are left in the care of house-helps who do not only lack the requisite knowledge
and ability to control, but also the skill to sow the good seeds of morality in children. Ingobro
(2010) observed, the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) has started
the infusion of national values curriculum in the educational system in Nigeria, particularly the basic
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education system to ensure that the youths of the nation are taught to imbibe the right attitude
and moral values from their childhood. This effort should be applauded.
Complex changes erupting all over the world encourage crimes. Acculturation, distorted
value orientation, confused belief systems aggravates crime. At homes, majority of parents do not
live by examples again, they encourage indolence, sponsor examination malpractice; in schools,
teachers’ dedication to duty has depreciated to zero, students snob and insult teachers, and exhibit
apathy in their studies. Churches which are also agents of socialization, have taken to mad rush
after wealth, commercializing the gospel, rather than focus on evangelization like the early
missionaries.
Industrialization is one of the factors breeding crimes. Industrialization is a development
marker. The advanced nations of the world are all industrialized. It has an attendant evil of
multiplicity of crimes – taking people hostage following oil exploration and exploitation, its
contagious crimes of kidnapping, youth restiveness, armed robbery, drug and human trafficking
and ritual killings are examples of these crimes.
Technological developments have also made crimes to flourish. Pornography in the internet
is an example. Children and young persons these days lavish their precious time watching Western
culture films, brandishing guns and destructive weapons; these have not only encouraged, but also
increased crime wave the world over. The economy of all the nations of the world is monetized,
hence too much priority is placed on money. In a world where money is accorded the highest
priority over everything, and of course, supersedes every other consideration, crimes thrive.
Factors that militate against the growth of crime
1) Strict adherence to the rule of law: The rule of law simply means that the law rules. In
the days of Buhari and Idiagbon regime in Nigeria, armed robbery was punishable with
Public Execution. Worst still, the convicts were taken to the Primary Schools nearest to
their houses in their villages and there fired to death in the open fields, after asking them
to address their people for the last time, or proffer words of advice to the youths. Before
this stage, their names were announced several times over the radio, and this attracted
every dick and harry to the fields except their relatives who dared not show up. The
practice drastically checked the offence of robbery. Strict adherence to the law is a
veritable tool to curb crimes.
2) Awareness and Sensitization: Though ignorance of the law is no excuse, one may neither
know, and still not know that one does not know that an act is prohibited nor know the
gravity of the consequences of the act.
Government should endeavour to create
awareness of prohibited acts and also sensitize the public of the consequences. As Otabo
(2010) disclosed, during a visit of the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related
Offences Commission, the National Association of Nigerian Students (NANS) Senate
expressed their readiness to partner with the ICPC through organizing Anti-Corruption
workshops, seminars, rallies and campaigns to complement the efforts of the anti graft
agency.
3) Education: Education, generally and legal education, in particular, in secondary schools
and tertiary institutions, as general courses, is very vital to the curbing of crimes in our
societies. If the rudiments of some law courses like: Criminal Law, Law of Tort, Law of
Contract, Business Law and Constitutional Law are infused in the Schools’ Curriculum and
taught effectively, youths will be conscious of their acts and shun crimes. Studies in
Human Rights Law, in addition, will infuse, in the scholars, the spirit of respect for human
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5)
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dignity every person owes the other; and more still learn that one’s right to swing his arms
ends where the other’s right to defend his nose begins.
Probity and Accountability: It is a maxim of equity that he who goes to equity must go
with clean hands. People in the helm of affairs often embezzle public funds, loot public
treasuries, and exhibit conducts so porous that the masses are provoked to take to the
streets dragging, as a do or die affair, one public office or the other. Such conducts are
contagious and breeds crimes. Offenders should be made to face the music. Nwozor
(2010) revealed, the ICPC has arraigned a Professor and renowned Cardio Thoracic
Surgeon at the UNTH Enugu before Hon. Justice L. A. Umezulike of the Enugu High Court,
on a four count charge of using his office to confer corrupt advantage upon himself and
for demanding gratification before performing official duty. The same Newsletter
disclosed that ICPC also secured conviction of an Ex NDLEA Boss sentencing him to jail for
corruption; while in another pending action, Court resumes hearing on Corruption charges
against Ex-Minister. Prosecution of corrupt public office holders, without fear or favour,
discourages robbery with the pen.
Preservation of national interests: Self-centeredness encourages crimes. The desire in
people to live in paradise on earth, without regard to national values, sees them into
committing all manner of crimes. There is a great need to infuse the spirit of nationalism
in the entire citizenry so that all will develop special regard to hold the nation on high
esteem. This will go a long way to check the growth of crimes.
Home Training: Good home training and moral upbringing hinders crime. It is from the
home that bad attitudes and habits are either nipped in the bud or allowed to grow with
children to full blown adult criminals. Parents’ lukewarm attitude in monitoring the
company their children keep, how they spend their times, especially their free periods,
their general attitudes in order to nip the bad in the bud, breed crimes. They should not
spare the rod and spoil the child! Parents who connive a their children bringing home
material things (not theirs) for keeps, to use or wear, must not cry wolf when the children
mature to full blown thieves and robbers – when they would be too late to control. Some
men do not provide necessaries for their households, they abandon their responsibilities,
including their children’s school needs, to their wives, hence such children join the
bandwagon hawking – come rain, come sunshine – to help their mothers make ends meet.
Such helpless children end up in the motor parks, streets, and often stray into brothels,
and gambling houses where they take to juvenile delinquency and become nuisance to the
society.
Conclusion
Crimes are evil wind that blows nobody good. They throw the society into insecurity, confusion,
violence and panic; they cause injuries, pain, grief, losses and at times, death to individual victims,
hence the state punishes it, regardless of whether the victims choose to pursue it or not. In Nigeria,
since the break out of Boko Harram Sect that have been bombing media houses, tertiary
institutions, public places and churches in particular, the law makers have not found a solution to
the mayhem. The increase in crime wave and the mode of operation all over the world have
encapsulated the inhabitants of the earth planet into a timid box. Boko harram in Nigeria, coups
d’etat, rebels and terrorists restiveness in countries, particularly the under-developed ones, ritual
murder, drug and human trafficking the world over have subjected nations to a state of awe,
apprehension and insecurity. On their part, governments of nations kept not their fingers crossed.
They, in response, resorted to radical decisions, promulgations and even peace-keeping forces to
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counter rebel actions and a lot of other stringent measures to pull the bull by the horns. In
Nigeria, for example, the punishment for kidnapping was ten years imprisonment, but since the
offence became selling like hot cake, some states in the country have stipulated life imprisonment,
while others promulgated death sentence. Meanwhile, millions of offenders (youths) of different
national, have lost their lives in prisons abroad, and multitude are still languishing in similar
detentions – due to their involvement in one crime or the other.
Recommendations
The war to rid our societies of crimes is a battle for all. Neither the state nor the individual citizen,
can fight it all alone and win. The key to the victory is strict application of the law – without fear or
favour, taking into consideration the fact that every criminal act involves a guilty intention to accept
a substantial risk that ordinarily has a foreseeable consequence which a reasonable man would
perceive and avoid.
For individuals, good home training of children and youths, respect for
national values and its preservation, observance and obedience to laws and constituted authorities,
contributing one’s quota to the peace and development of one’s nation is recommended. Agents
of socialization – teachers in schools and churches should live up to the tenets of their calls
regarding the up-bringing of pupils, students and youths, at homes, parents should strictly
concentrate on the discipline and moral upbringing of children and youths. Governments should,
on their part, provide facilities for intellectual training of children and youths in schools, provide
essential amenities for all, and most importantly, adopt strict application of the law, recognizing
no sacred cow. These would ultimately check the growth of crime in our societies the world over.
References
Appadorai, A. (1969). The Substance of Politics. Madras: Oxford University Press, Calcutta.
Atabo, M.O, (2010). NANS pledges to collaborate with ICPC: In ICPC News, Vol. 5, No. 3 of July 2010.
Azikiwe, N. (1979). Ideology for Nigeria: Capitalism, Socialism or Welfarism? Nigeria. Macmillan Nigeria
Publishers Ltd.
Babatunde, L. (2003). A Handbook of Criminal Law and Procedure Through Cases. Nigeria. Lawbreed Limited.
Bryan, A. G. (2004). Black’s Law Dictionary. USA. Thomson West.
Denning, L. (1997). The Due Process of Law. New York. Oxford University Press Inc.
Ingobro W. (2010). Ex NDLEA Boss Sentenced to jail for corruption: In ICPC News. Vol. 5, No. 3 of July 2010.
Morlan, M. T. (2001). Criminal Law. London. Old Bailley Press.
Nwozor, C (2010).ICPLC Arraigns Surgeon Before Enugu State High Court: ICPC News, Vol.5, No.3 of July 2010.
Okoh, J. D. (2012). Youth Restiveness and The Problem of Who is Normal: Implications for Education. A paper
presented at the 1st Matriculation Ceremony of the Federal College of Education (Tech.), Omoku Degree
Program to be awarded in affiliation with the university of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Okpara, O. (2005). Human Rights Law and Practice.
Olakanmi, J. (2009). Criminal Code. Synoptic Guide. Nigeria. Lawlords Publications.
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (1998). United States of America. Merriam Webster Incorporated
Babalola v. The State (1989) 7 S.C (pt. 1) 94.
DPP v. Morgan (1976) A. C 182.
Garba v. State (2000) 4 S.C, 157.
Ibeh v. State (1997) 1 NWLR (pt. 484) 632 at 65.
Robbery and Firearms (Special Provision) Act No. 47 of 1970.
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Challenges of Climate Change:
The Role of Christian Religious Leaders
Nche George Christian
Department of Philosophy and Religion,
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p74
Abstract
The Global Climate has substantially changed largely as a result of human activity. The sun that shone
mildly to give the day-light, has suddenly become hostile, harsh and unfavorable to man. The rain that
dropped to give water to the earth, has also become hostile and extreme, destroying houses and lives. The
ocean and seas that were initially calm and reserved have suddenly risen and encroaching into dry lands,
flooding several places. The land that sustained and produced food for man, has turned against man. And
the air that was clean and unpolluted has become contaminated and harmful to man. Indeed, the world is
currently faced with a seemingly intractable problem. However, this global Climate change is currently
fought by world leaders. Hence, there have been several global Climate change Conferences. Precisely, the
first World Climate Conference was held in 1979. And ever since, there have been similar conferences till
date. Although, the fight against Climate change is quite old, the problem is still rearing its ugly head.
Therefore, having critically studied the issue, the researcher outlined roles for Christian religious leaders in
this War against Climate change.
Keywords: Anthropogenic, Eco-sustainability, Carbon dioxide, Climate Change, Christian Religious Leaders
Introduction
Fears loom in the air as the atmosphere spells doom. Calamity lurks in the corner as everybody
seems to be devastated. People gather in groups grubbing in search of goal related solutions.
What can be done to salvage the situation? Is the big question, whose answer seems unfathomable.
The earth has become intractably sick and seems to be defiling medications.
The Earth’s Climate has significantly changed with adverse effects on its inhabitants.
According to scientists, there have been a dramatic change in global temperatures resulting mostly
from anthropogenic (human) activities. These human activities are traceable from the industrial
revolution, to the subsequent increase in the use of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, which have led
to the heavy emission of Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) into the air. Also, activities like increased
deforestation and land use contribute to affecting the climate “microclimate, and measures of
climate variables”(www.en.wikipedia.org).
Unfortunately, the consequences of this, affect all and sundry. Hence, there have been series
of global Conferences and Summits on “Climate change”, aimed at mapping out modalities for a
workable solution. And in one of these climate summits, the U.S President Barack Obama is
reported to have said thus:
The world must come together to confront climate change. There is little scientific
dispute that if we do nothing, we will face more drought, famine and mass displacement that
will fuel more conflict for decades (www.visibleearth.nasa.gov).
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With every passing week, the scientific data get more precise, and more frightening. Yet this
has regrettably proven insufficient to move people to action. Instead, what dominates each Climate
Summit, is politics and interest.
Therefore, this Paper attempts a critical evaluation of the situation in order to create a niche
for Christian Religious leaders in the fight against Climate change and its adverse effects.
Christian religious leaders and climate change: definition
Christian Leaders
Christian leaders in this context, simply refer to those at the helm of affairs in Churches, Christian
groups and organizations, all over the world. These may include Popes, General Overseers,
Archbishops, Bishops, Priests, Pastors, Deacons, Evangelists, Apostles, Knights, Presidents of Church
administrative groups (men, women and youth groups) choir masters/mistresses e.t.c.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to the significant increase in the earth’s temperature over a long period of
time. It involves the increase in the average temperature of near surface air and oceans of the earth
in recent decades and its projected continuation. Nevertheless, for the purpose of this Paper,
Climate change can be referred to as, those changes in the earth’s climate variables caused by
human or anthropogenic factors.
The causes and effects of climate change
The Causes of Climate change can be divided into two categories; the Human (anthropogenic) and
the Natural causes. Among the Natural causes are:(i)Volcanic eruptions which release large volumes
of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust and ash into the atmosphere(ii)Ocean current which
produces a phenomena such as “El Nino” that affects the climate through the movement of CO 2
into or out of the atmosphere(iii)Earth orbital changes which affect the climate substantially through
the variations in orbital speed and coverage and(iv)Solar variations which also affects the climate
through variations in the amount of energy output. (www.climatechangechallange.org) All this,
notwithstanding, their effects on the climate are understandably negligible, when compared to the
effects of human activities.
There is “strong evidence that the warming of the earth over the last half-century has been
caused largely by human activity” wrote the Met Office, Hadley Centre U.K.
(www.climatechangechallange.org). These activities include the burning of fossil fuels and coals for
industrial purposes, deforestation, agriculture, transportation, energy generation (electricity)
individual energy use in the home (i.e heating), driving cars, air travel and so on. All these, and
others, have led to the rise in carbon dioxide (which is the most important greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere) emission. Also, methane and nitrous oxide are another important greenhouse gases
emitted from agricultural components like livestock and chemical fertilizers.
For the Effects of Climate change, they are glaring. There have been significant rise in sea level,
due to the indiscriminate melting of the Arctic ice cap. There have been evidence of extreme
weather condition around the world and several species of animals and plants have gone into
extinction. These and many more, have caused the rise in poverty level, drought, and famine; with
developing countries bearing the brunt of these consequences. As a matter of fact, Ethiopian
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population has reportedly been suffering increased poverty; water scarcity and food insecurity as a
result of Climate change. Also, precisely in 2011, flood wrecked Pakistan like never before, and
claimed over 1000 lives and rendered millions homeless. Also, in the same year, there were more
cases in Philippines, Thailand, China and Bangkok. Over here in Africa, Tanzania lost 23
lives(December 23), Nigeria 102 and 31(August 28 and 31 respectively), Johannesburg 40 (6000
displaced;January 18) and South Africa 50 (January 7) in the year 2011.
(www.mapreport.com/worlddisaster). On the other hand, there have been cases of drought in the
Horn of Africa, which is currently affecting around 10 million people in Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti and
Somalia. (www.guardian.co.uk). Obviously, these are just a few out of the numerous effects of
Climate change.
International conferences on climate change
The incidence of Climate change has aroused concern among countries of the world; hence, there
have been series of Climate Summits which are spearheaded by the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These Conferences or Summits are organized to create
platforms for World key leaders, among other reasons, to reach a mutually accepted legal
agreement on the carbon dioxide emission reduction. However, reaching that mutually accepted
agreement has regrettably been the greatest challenge.
For instance, in 1997, world leaders convened to set new goals for carbon dioxide emission by
signing a legal document which is popularly known as the Kyoto Protocol. By signing the Protocol, “
the countries of the European Union and 37 other industrialized Countries committed themselves to
reducing their emissions respectively by an average of 5 percent against 1990 levels, and over the
five-year period from 2008 to 2012”. (Awake.2011:12) However, this agreement (protocol) was never
mutual as some developed and larger developing countries who are major carbon dioxide emitters
were left out of the legal agreement. These countries include the United State of America, China
and India. And the United States and China alone contribute about 40 percent of the global carbon
dioxide emissions.
Also, in 2009, another Climate change Conference was convened in Bella Center, Copenhagen,
Denmark which lasted from 7th to 18th December 2009. This is popularly known as Copenhagen
Summit (Cop 15-Conference of Parties) and meant to strengthen the commitment to the Kyoto
Protocol and to set new legally binding agreement for 2012 and beyond. However, instead of the
expected legally binding mutual agreement to reduced Carbon dioxide (CO 2) emission, this
Conference produced the non-mutual and “ineffective” Copenhagen Accord. This was drafted by
the US, China, India, Brazil and South Africa on December 18, 2009. This agreement was described
by the Bolivian delegation as “anti-democratic, anti-transparent and unacceptable
(www.en.wikipedia.org) Hence, the Copenhagen summit was described as a failure.
The Sixteenth Session of the Conference of Parties (COP 16) to the Kyoto Protocol took place
in Cancun Mexico. This Climate change Conference drew almost 12,000 participants and said to had
produced “the basis for the most comprehensive and far-reaching international response to Climate
change.
However,
the
conference
left
the
future
of
the
Kyoto
Protocol
unresolved”(www.unfccc.int/meetings/COP_16) And as such not actually a successful one, in the
absence of a legally binding carbon dioxide emission reduction agreement.
The most recent, is the Durban Climate change Conference held in South Africa. This is
designated as the Cop 17 (Conference of Parties) and took place within the months of November
and December 2011. This conference has been particularly described a successful one. The out
comes included a decision by parties to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change as
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soon as possible, and no later than 2015. Infact, the President of Cop 17, Maite Nkoana- Mashabane
reportedly said “what we have achieved in Durban will play a central role in saving tomorrow,
today” (www.unfccc.int/meetings/COP_17)
However, the questions still remain, “will the United States, China, and other developed
countries keep to this agreement? And, are the world leaders ready to overcome barriers (like
political patterns of interest and power) to collective action?
Christian religious leaders and climate change
There have existed diverse views and opinions on the relationship between Religion and
Climate Change. Some believe in the ideal of creation care, and others see concern with nature as
Paganism. Whereas some Secularists share the view that Environmentalism is religion, with its own
creed and its own versions of paradise and hell. Yet, there are other group of religious extremists
who would naively see the current state of the earth’s climate as a sign of the End-time. Be that as it
may, it will be pertinent to unequivocally assert at this stage, that Christians, especially Christian
leaders owe the earth some duties.
An aesthetic look at the waters and its inhabitants, the flowers, the plants and the trees; as well
as a topographic analysis of the lands, well structured hills, mountains and fearful valleys; and a
critical study of the processes that bring rain; as well as the various climatic seasons would show
how beautiful, the earth is. The earth was made for the inhabitation and sustenance of man and
which in turn, should be sustained and preserved by man. But the reverse has been the case as man
is gradually destroying his inhabitation and abode.
According to Christian theology, the earth is God’s property put under Man’s Dominion from
the creation period. Unfortunately, this “man’s dominion over the earth” has regrettably been “a
doom” for the earth. According to Ituma(2009)
One of the human positions; that have made the earth very hard for man to establish a
harmonious and peaceful existence is the idea that the earth must be exploited and
manipulated for the benefits of man. As a result of this position human idea about the earth
is how to remove everything without some control or replenishment. (p.9)
Consequently, the earth’s atmosphere has been dangerously depleted and pillaged by human
activities. The ever-increasing use of fossil fuels and gas which increase the Carbon dioxide(CO 2)
emissions, the increase in land use and deforestation for industrial and agricultural purposes and so
on, account for this state of the earth’s climate. Obviously, these have adverse effects on human
livelihood and survival. For instance, there have been evidences of its effects on crops and extreme
weather conditions around the world. “It is especially clear in the dramatic change of the polar caps,
i.e. the Arctic ice cap is shrinking and the Antarctica ice shelf is melting”.
(www.climatechangechallange.org)
As it has been noted, the knowledge of the imminent danger of continual destruction of the
ecosystem has set world leaders on their toes, in the fight against Climate change. However, this
paper avers that until Christian religious leaders all over the world, take active part in this fight for
eco-sustainability, the politically cum economic driven international Climate Change Summits,
would yield less desired result.
Nevertheless, just like, there have been series of Conferences and Summits on Climate Change,
so have there been series of comments, responses, and resolutions from Christian religious leaders
alongside other religious organizations, on the same issue. For instance, as far back as twenty years
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ago, Pope John Paul II, had expressed the need to safeguard the earth’s environment. Thus he
wrote;
There is a growing awareness that world peace is threatened …also by a lack of due respect
for nature. Ecological awareness, rather than being down-played, needs to be helped to
develop and mature, and find fitting expression in concrete programmes and initiatives.
(www.vatican.va/holyfather).
Likewise, a message delivered on 1st January 2010, during the world peace day celebration,
Pope Benedict XVI wrote:
We are all responsible for the protection and care of the environment. This responsibility
knows no boundaries… respect for creation is of immense consequence…for the pacific
coexistence of mankind: if you want to cultivate peace protect creation.
(www.climatechangechallange.org).
Also, there have been such environmentally friendly comments from Christian religious leaders
like Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, Archbishop Thabo and so on. There have also been
Christian religious organizations, specifically set up for tackling the phenomenon of Climate change.
These organizations include the Interfaith Power and Light (IPL) founded by Rev Sally Bingham (a
priest in the Episcopal Diocese of California) (www.interfaithpowerandlight.org) Anglican
Communion Environmental Network (ACEN) and so many others. More interestingly, at the just
concluded United Nations Climate change Conference in Durban, South Africa, Christian religious
leaders led by Bishop Geoff Davis who represented Archbishop Desmond Tutu and others, signed a
historical Interfaith Pact on Climate Change, as a way of participating in the fight against Climate
change.
All this notwithstanding, it will be pertinent to note that the issue of creation care” is
fundamental to Christian belief. The injunction to care and uphold stewardship over the earth, runs
through the pages of the Holy Bible. At the creation period, according to Christian theology, man
was created and given dominion over all creatures (Gen 1:28) Then, in Leviticus 25:23-24, man is
reminded thus; the land is mine and you are but aliens and my tenants. Through out the country that
you hold as a possession, you must provide for the redemption of the land”. Also in Psalm 24:2, it is
unequivocally stated thus, “the earth is the lords and the fullness thereof, the world, and they that
dwell therein”.
From the foregoing, it is clear, that the earth is God’s property and should be accorded due
respect. The earth expresses God’s power, majesty, glory and wisdom. Hence, the protection and
preservation of the features and creatures of the earth should be prioritized by man. The earth was
not beautifully made to be destroyed, but to be enjoyed and sustained by man, through a
conscious stewardship over it. Song(1998:454) has remarked “The divine declaration that creation is
“very good” (Gen. 1:31) establishes the natural world as the proper context for human fulfillment.
Mankind’s vocation is to be found in respect for nature and the stewardship of its order”. However,
instead of this deference, gross disrespect, disregard and utter disdain characterize man’s attitude
towards nature. Hence, the earth is currently in shambles and its beauty eroding away. No wonder,
Pope Benedict XVI lamented, thus;
Can we remain indifferent before the problems associated with such realities as climate
change, desertification, the deterioration and loss of productivity in vast agricultural areas,
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the pollution of rivers and aquifers, the loss of biodiversity, the increase of natural
catastrophes and the deforestation of equatorial and tropical regions? Can we disregard the
growing phenomenon of environmental refugees, people who are forced by the degradation
of their natural habitat to forsake it and often their possessions as well-in order to face the
dangers and uncertainties of forced displacement? Can we remain impassive in the face of
actual
and
potential
conflicts
involving
access
to
natural
resources?
(www.vatican.va/holyfather).
Therefore, Christian religious leaders all over the world should practically rise and actively join
the global match to save the earth and mankind; not necessarily from eternal destruction; but from
generational ecological disaster. This can be achieved through the following ways:
1. Intimate Awareness Creation (IAC)
This is simply an awareness created on the basis of friendship and familiarity. The reality of Climate
Change should be made known. Christian leaders should take as a duty, the task of enlightening
their members, on the dangers of climate change. This is where intimacy comes in, as the
information shall be from the leader to the led. This should be done on regular basis during Church
services, meetings, fellowship and so on. The emphasis of this Awareness should be on the practical
ways and actions that can be taken to reduce carbon dioxide emission. These practical ways
according to the Nature Conservancy include:
i.
Walking or using bicycle instead of driving cars, (cars and trucks run on fossil fuels, which
release CO2 into the atmosphere)
ii.
Telephone or videoconference for office meetings instead of traveling by Airplanes which
produce 12 percent of transportation sector CO2 emissions
iii.
Use of compact energy-efficient fluorescent light bulbs,
iv.
Recycling and use of recycled products (paper, glass, metal and plastic) at least to spare
the trees in the forest which would have been cut down as raw materials for paper
production,
v.
Planting of native trees to help absorb carbon dioxide from the air,
vi.
Turning down the heat or air conditioners when out of use (i.e when leaving the house or
sleeping)
vii.
Buying of renewable energy sources with solar panels, windmills and other technologies,
viii.
Acting globally and eating locally in order to avoid unnecessary burning of fossil fuel just
to get food from supermarkets, instead of shopping at a local farmers markets for healthy
and fresh food and
ix.
Inflation of automobile tires always to burn less gas and emit less carbon to help save the
climate.(www.nature.org).
With these individually-centered efforts, and if properly taught and adhered to, the earth’s
climate can be saved. The idea is that, if Christians all over the world who account for 2.1
billion(www.thegreatone22.wordpress.com) of the world population, would be enlightened by their
leaders on the need to save the earth’s climate by consciously taking environmentally friendly
actions on daily basis, like the above listed ones, the earth must be healed.
Also, this method of Awareness has more prospects for the Eco-sustainability Campaign. This
is seen in the fact that, any injunction given on the platform of religion, tends to attract more
compliance and obedience from adherents. Therefore, it is assumed that if Christian leaders actively
participate in the campaign against Climate change the desired success would be achieved.
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This Intimate Awareness Creation on the need and how to save the earth’s climate, can be
facilitated through the following media.
i.
The use of electronic/non-electronic media like television, internet, radio, newspapers, etc.
this would help in reaching both Christians and non-Christians all over the world.
ii.
Through special Seminars, Symposium and Workshops on the subject of Climate change
and Way Out, and
iii.
The use of Church based Stickers, Tracts and Bills.
2. Charity for Climate Change Victims (CCCVs).
This is one of the important roles; Christian religious leaders can play in the global war against
Climate changes.
It would be inappropriate to preach eco-sustainability without remembering the Climate
change victims who suffer disproportionately from drought, flooding, famine and pollution.
These victims are mostly found in developing Countries in Sub-saharan Africa, Asia and even
Pacific Countries and Territories (like Micronesia, Palau, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Tonga,
Solomon Islands etc). Who suffer much natural disasters including flooding, drought, famine and
attendant poverty and destitution?
Consequently, many have been displaced from their homes and possessions with children
being the most vulnerable. David Bull (U.K Unicef Director) has reported that “those who have
contributed least to Climate change; the world poorest children; are suffering the most”. The report
also added that “Climate Change could add 40,000-160,000 extra child deaths a year in Asia and
Sub-saharan Africa through lower economic growth .(Jeremy 2008).
Therefore, Christian leaders should develop empathy for this group of people and extend their
charitable work to them. In the midst of dejection, hopelessness and despair, Christians should be
the source of hope. Christian religious leaders should head the course of rendering a helping
hand, through a collective efforts of Christians, all over the world. Voluntary contributions can be
encouraged during Church services crusades, meetings and fellowship for these victims. Beyond
this, Christian leaders should advocate the welfare of these victims to the necessary quarters like the
United Nations, Voluntary Non-government Organizations and Philanthropists for assistance. Also,
they should set up either a body or an account that may be called “Charity for Climate Change
Victims” (CCCVs) through which, these victims can be reached. It should be done in a way that,
people can voluntarily contribute money or other materials, online. Without doubt, this will go a
long way in putting relieved smiles on the faces of these people who are currently bearing the brunt
of Climate change.
Conclusion
The War Against Climate change is a war for all, but fought by a few. It is regrettably lugubrious that
despite the conspicuous signs of imminent danger of the Global Climate Change, many are yet to
be moved to action. But it is strongly believed that if Christian leaders all over the world, would take
to heart this solemn call, and actively join this war, victory will be assured and the earth’s Climate
would be saved.
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References
A Religious Response to Global Warming (www.interfaithpowerandlight.org). Assessed on 12 February 2012.
Causes of Climate Change (www.climatechangechallenge.org) Assessed on 12 February 2012
Climate Change (www.en.wikipedia.org/wikiclimatechange). Assessed on 22nd January 2012.
Climate Summits: Just Talk? Awake! Is Belief in a Creator Reasonable? November 2011.
Concun Climate Change Conference. (unfccc.int/meetings/cop_16november2010) Assessed on 17th February .
Earth: NASA/The visible Earth (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/barakobama). Assessed on 22nd January 2012.
Ituma, E. I. The Social Context of Incarnation Theology. Nigerian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (vol.3)
(Nigeria: Rabboni, 2009) pp.5-15.
Jeremy. L. Poor Children Main Victims of Climate Change (www.reuters.com) Assessed on 13th April 2012.
Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents (www.theogeatone22.wordpress.com) Assessed on
13th April 2012.
Message of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI for the Celebration of the World Day of
Peace
(www.vatican.va/holyfatehr2010). Assessed on 12 February 2012.
Song R. J.(1998) “Theology of Nature: New Dictionary of Theology (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press).
The nature conservancy (www.nature.Org) Assessed on 9th April 2012.
2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference.(.en.wikipedia.org) Assessed on 17th February 2012.
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Relative Effectiveness of Classroom Interaction Techniques on
Students’ Participation in Rivers State, Nigeria
Oranu Philomena Chika and Onwioduokit F. A
Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p82
Abstract
This study sought to identify the relative effectiveness of classroom interaction techniques on students’
participation in Government classrooms using three classroom interaction techniques. All senior secondary
schools in Port Harcourt Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria constituted the population. Three
research question and three hypotheses guided the study. The hypotheses were tested and analyzed using
chi square statistics. Three classrooms were randomly selected for the study. The population is made up of
10,983 students and 496 teachers and the sample size was of 1098 students and 12 teachers. Six
classroom were used; three in SS1 and three in SS11, respectively. Six teachers taught SS1 and six teachers
taught SS11 using a technique (Flanders, Teacher Initiation, Students’ Response and Teacher Evaluation;
and Teaching Cycles). Twelve lessons were recorded on a cassette, transcribed, coded and analysed.
Flanders category was the observational instrument. Test- retest method was used to establish the
reliability of the instrument at 0.87 co-efficient. The result showed that students’ participation is not
contingent upon classroom technique used. Students’ in these classrooms were less challenged therefore
teachers should go extra step to encourage voluntary students’ participation in the classrooms.
Keywords: Interaction, Techniques, Participation, Classrooms.
Introduction
In many classrooms, there are no provisions for the development of intellectual and thinking skills
among students. Often times teachers are more comfortable with lecturing, didactic questioning,
explicit teaching, practice and drill, demonstration in the classrooms. Students are given little time
for participation (Atkins & Brown 2001, Anorue,2004, Saskatoon Public School Report). The
students in such situations are passive listeners. Teachers at times give less emphasis on
instructional materials. The student in a teacher - centered classroom see the teacher as the main
source and dispenser of information. Teachers in this scenario are erroneously regarded as the
prime source of wisdom and somebody who knows everything about the subject matter. This direct
instruction strategy does not allow students to develop skills, abilities, process and attitudes
required for critical thinking and experiential learning. Direct instruction is not affective and gives
no room for metacognitive reasoning. Learning therefore becomes less challenging, boring and
less rewarding. Inspite of these shortcomings the teacher is the decisive element in any classroom.
Rodriguez asserts that elements of classroom vary. Effective instruction begins with students’
experience.
An effective teacher gives room for student participation. A lively teacher uses
humour which is a valuable teaching tool for establishing a conducive classroom climate. It
improves instructional effectiveness and is fundamental to positive classroom learning. Structuring
the classroom needs effort, skill and tact on the part of the teacher. There are many patterns of
interaction in the classroom; examples include the Teaching Cycles; Teacher Initiation, Students
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Response and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and other observation techniques of which Flanders analysis
category is the most effective (Anorue 2004) Based on these facts there is need to study relative
effectiveness of classroom interaction techniques and students participation. This is necessary
because of the need to discover what is happening in special world of the classroom with a view to
achieving the best interaction pattern and students holistic intellectual development.
Statement of the Problem
Atibile (2011) has pointed out that there is high failure rate among students that took West African
Senior Certificate Examination (WASSCE) and other external examinations. In 2011 examination only
30 percent of the candidates made credits in both English and Mathematics. Details of the result
showed that out of 1,540,250 candidates that sat for the examination, 1,460,003 candidates
representing 94.79 percent had their results fully processed, 80.15 percent obtained credit in two
subjects; while 8,573 candidates representing 5.29 percent were withheld. This result therefore
indicates potent danger for Nigerian future. Most public senior secondary schools in Rivers state
have a lot of problems such as unconducive environment for proper academic work, insufficient
classroom blocks; these problems make it impossible for teachers to perform their duties effectively
(Onumbu 2010 cited in Nwangwu 2010). Although, many factors determine the success or failure
in the classroom, to a large extent, the teacher determines the social environment in the classroom.
Kizlik (2009) has rightly observed that ‘’effective teaching requires considerable skills in managing
the myriad of tasks and situations that occur in the classroom each day’’.
Over the years people have questioned the place of education in Nigeria. Most scholars have
argued that Nigerian education system has the problem of not matching policies with action.
History has shown that most prior programme in education reflect the desire to get quick results;
thereby producing confusion, distortion, misdirection and misunderstanding. There are many cases
of worthwhile education policies that are abandoned due to poor planning, implementation and
monitoring. The 6-3-3-4 system of education in Nigeria which was abandoned for the current
Universal Basic Education is an example; all these affect student performance in the classroom. The
new curricular made little change in objectives, values, content, sequencing of classroom interaction
processes, we are yet to find out if these objectives are actually achieved in every classroom and this
is the basis of this study.
Objective of the Study
1.
2.
3.
To assess SS1 male and female students’ facilitation skills in Government studies taught by
using Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students
Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C)
To assess SS11 male and female students’ facilitation skills in Government studies taught
using Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students
Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C
To determine the relative effectiveness of classroom interaction techniques on students’
participation in Government studies with respect to Flanders Interaction Analysis
Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and
Teaching Cycles (T.C)
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Significance of the Study
It will help education administrators plan towards positive education which trains the total child to
finding solutions to the challenging situations in the classroom and other immediate environment.
Scope of the Study
This study covers all secondary schools in Rivers state both male and female teachers and students.
Research design
This study is an experimental research. Data was collected on interactions in Government
classrooms and was used to observe the nature of the classroom. In this experimental study, the
teachers and students in three (3) public schools in Port Harcourt Local Government were taught
the rudiments of a classroom interaction technique. One school was taught the rudiments of
Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC); the other was taught the Teacher Initiation, Students
Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) while the third school was taught Teaching Cycles (T.C).
Area of study
This was conducted in Port Harcourt Local Government in Rivers State of Nigeria. Out of twelve
(12) Public Secondary Schools in Port Harcourt Local Government Area, three (3) Senior Secondary
Schools were used for the study.
Population
All SS1 and SSII Government students and teachers in senior secondary schools Port Harcourt Local
Government in Rivers State constituted the population of this study. The population is made up of
10,983 students and 496 teachers.
Sample and sampling techniques
The sample of the study consisted of twelve (12) teachers and one thousand and ninety- eight
(1098) students of Government studies in three randomly selected SSI and SSII secondary schools.
Three public schools were randomly selected. Six teachers taught SS1 and six teachers taught SS11
using a technique. Five hundred and forty-one (541) students participated in SS1 while five hundred
and fifty seven (557) students participated in SS11. Six classrooms were involved in the study, three
in SS1 and three in SS11. Three public schools were randomly selected, two teachers taught using
Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) two teachers taught using Teacher Initiation,
Students response and Teacher Evaluation (IRE), while two teachers taught using Teaching Cycles
(T.C) in SS1and SS11 respectively. The teachers were experienced and taught each class once.
Twelve lessons were recorded.
Instrument
The instrument used in collecting the data was the Flanders interaction analysis categories (FIAC). It
was used to code and analyze the interaction pattern during Government lessons in the selected
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schools. The Flanders interaction analysis categories were carefully designed specifically for coding
teacher and student behaviours and are very useful in studying classroom events. The present
researcher has decided to use Government for the study. An interaction system is an observational
instrument which takes place in the classroom. The Flanders Interaction Analysis Category (FIAC)
records what students and teachers say during classroom interaction, the emphasis being on what
the teacher says. The categories in Flanders system are two, teacher verbal response and student
verbal response. Any verbal communication event by the teacher or pupils can be classified into one
of the first nine categories. There is only one non verbal category, which is silence or confusion.
Each observation is done at the end of a 3 – second period and there is room for modification, the
present researcher is using a five second period. The researcher went to the three schools four
times. Three formative tests were administered to monitor whether teacher adjustment had impact
on student learning progress and to provide ongoing feedback to the researcher on pupils and
teachers. The students were given summative – test at the end of the second month, the grades of
the summative test showed that there was mastery of the instructional objectives by the students
and the teacher the new instructional strategy was therefore effective.
Copies of the modified Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories system (FIACS) were given to
experts in the Faculty of Education for validation. These scholars were to vet the instruments in
terms of clarity of words and sentence structure. There recommendations were strictly incorporated
in final version of the instrument; the instrument was therefore found to be valid.The researcher
used test - retest method to establish the reliability of the instrument. The modified Flanders
Interaction Analysis Categories system was used among two teachers who did not take part in the
substantive study. After two weeks the experiment was repeated in the same classrooms and the
reliability co-efficient of 0.87 was obtained, showing that the instrument is reliable.
Procedure for data collection
Data for the study were collected during classroom lessons. Before the observation, the researcher
made visitation to the selected schools, established rapport with the Government teachers. A tape
recorder was used to record all the class events. . The researcher concluded by observing each of
the teachers three times and had a number of twelve (12) lessons on the whole. The
twelve
(12) lessons were afterwards transcribed and coded at every five seconds. The study period was two
years.
Method of data analysis
The data collected in this study were analyzed as follows: the research question was analyzed using
pie charts expressed in gain and gain percentages. The hypothesis was tested using chi square
statistics.
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Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using pie charts and chi square statistics.
Research Questions
1.
2.
3.
How does the different classroom interaction technique (Flanders Interaction Analysis
Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and
Teaching Cycles (T.C) affect SS1 students’ facilitation skills in Government studies?
How does the different classroom interaction technique (Flanders Interaction Analysis
Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and
Teaching Cycles (T.C) affect SS11 students’ facilitation skills in Government Studies?
How does different classroom interaction techniques (Flanders Interaction Analysis
Categories (FIAC), Teacher Initiation, Students Response, and Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and
Teaching Cycles (T.C) enable students participate in classroom learning?
Hypotheses
(Ho1)
SS1 male and female students facilitation skills is not contingent upon classroom interaction
techniques (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) Teacher Initiation, Students’ Response
Teacher Evaluation (IRE), and Teaching Cycles (T.C)
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Table 1.1: 3X2 Contingency Table Showing SS1 Male and Female Students’ Facilitation Skills in Lesson and
Classroom Interaction Techniques.
Class level
Classroom Interaction Techniques
X2
SS 1
Calculated
FIAC
IRE
T.C
Total
Fo8
6
4
18
2.13
Males
Fe(6.20)
(6.82)
(4.96)
Fo2
5
4
11
Females
Fe(3.79)
(4.17)
(3.03)
10
11
8
29
As shown in Table 1.1, the calculated value of x2 is less than the critical value (5.99) at the
degree of freedom of 2. It is concluded therefore that male and female students’ facilitation skills in
lesson are not contingent upon the classroom interaction techniques used.
(Ho2) SS11 male and female students’ facilitation skills are not contingent upon classroom
interaction techniques (Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) Teacher Initiation, Students’
Response Teacher Evaluation (IRE), and Teaching Cycles (T.C).
Table 1.2: 3X2 Contingency Table Showing SS11 Male and Female Students’ Facilitation Skills in Lesson and
Classroom Interaction Techniques.
Class level
Classroom Interaction Techniques
X2
SS 11
Calculated
FIAC
IRE
T.C
Total
Males
Females
Fo5
Fe(4.5)
Fo2
Fe(5.48)
10
6
(4.97)
5
(6.03)
11
3
(4.5)
7
(5.48)
10
14
1.40
17
31
Table 1.2 shows that male and female students’ facilitation skills in SS11 are not contingent
upon classroom interaction techniques.
(Ho3) The lesson participation of SS1 and SS11 students is not contingent upon classroom
interaction techniques (Flanders interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC); Teacher Initiation, Students
Response, Teacher Evaluation (IRE) and Teaching Cycles (T.C).
Table 1.3s: 3X2 Contingency Table Showing SS1 and SS11 Students’ Participation in Lesson and Classroom
Interaction Techniques
Class level
Classroom Interaction Techniques
X2
Calculated
FIAC
IRE
T.C
Total
Fo10
11
8
29
0.156
SSI
Fe(9.67)
(10 .63)
(8.70)
Fo10
11
10
31
SSII
Fe(10.33)
(11.37)
(9.30)
20
22
18
60
As shown in Table 1.3, the calculated value of x2 is less than the critical value (5.99) which
shows that students’ participation is not contingent upon classroom interaction used.
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Discussion of Findings
The level of students’ participation in Government classrooms in Rivers State was investigated in
this study. Based on the result obtained after data analysis; students’ participation in Government
classrooms is not contingent upon classroom interaction techniques used. This is buttressed by the
fact that most teachers dominate classroom instruction as confirmed by research reports of Atkins
& Brown, (2001) Anorue, (2004) Lathrop, (2006) Weimer, (2008) who believed that the teacher
determines the classroom climate. In the present study, SS1 and SS11 students’ facilitation skills and
level of participation in lesson were analyzed respectively; the result obtained after data analysis
showed that students’ facilitation skills and level of lesson participation in the classrooms are not
contingent upon classroom interaction techniques used. By facilitation skills, the researcher
observed the extent of collaboration among students; how focused, assertive and the nature of
decisions. The researcher also observed ‘’students question skills, the nature of questions, how
students use different strategies to draw out knowledge of theory/experience, how corrections are
offered to fellow students; the quality of such correction, how clear and logical, how innovative;
helpful, and the quality of decisions’’ (Bishop, 2000; Lathrop, 2006). The result obtained reflected
poor facilitation skills by these students. This makes one think that there was poor level of students’
engagement and that teacher do not take extra steps to encourage students’ participation. The chi
– square analysis of students’ facilitation skills in SS1 and SS11 as expressed in figures 1.1 and 1.2
respectively indicated that teachers do not encourage inquiry - based learning. Teachers’ in these
classrooms failed to use different strategies to draw out knowledge, positive ideas and experiences
from the student. The percentages of students’ facilitation skills and participation as expressed in
tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 have shown that there was poor quality of classroom discussions as teachers
adopted to a large extent direct instruction method confirming the findings of Atkins & Brown,
(2001) Anorue, (2004) Lathrop, (2006) Weimer, (2008); the study therefore challenges teachers to
engage all students positively in classroom sessions. The results also indicated that students in
Government classrooms shy away from active classroom discussion; these students very likely are
afraid of speaking in a group, peer criticisms, they may also lack understanding of the material; they
may lack interest in the subject, they may be waiting for the teacher to call the ‘’smart kids’’ who
know the answer; they may not like the instructor as documented by scholars like Roe (2012), Dees
(2010). Teachers need to create a warm and positive classroom, where students are free to make
voluntary verbal contributions with a high level of creativity instilled in the students. The emphasis
should be on negotiated instruction and teachers’ should increase their wait time (Azubike 2000).
Teachers should design good methods of evaluating classroom participation, knowing that some
students are shy and some are over - participatory. Lessons should be clearly structured; theory
should be related to experience and originality should be emphasized in classroom assignments.
Students should recommend how to increase participation in the classroom (Weimer, 2005).
Teacher should prepare the lessons ahead of time; emphasizing high level of student engagement.
They should have good method of delivery and summarizing discussions.
Recommendations
Students should be taught not to shy away from active participation in the classroom. Teacher
should create a warm and lively classroom environment. Teachers should use good question
strategies and possibly use modern communication gadgets to reach students. This is necessary so
as to draw out knowledge from students that are shy and reflective.
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References
Anorue, C. (2004) Patterns of Teacher Student Interaction in Social Studies in Imo State Secondary School.
Education Dissertation University of Port Harcourt.
Atkins, A & Brown. (2001) Sinclair & Couthard’s “IRF” model in one- to one classroom: An Analysis.
http://www.birmingham.uk/Documents/college_artslaw/cels/essays/csdpPatakin.pdf
Atibile, A (2011) Nigeria WEAC Results,only 39 percent pass in
Mathematics, English. allafrica.
Com/…/2011081208.
Azubike, N. (2000) The Effects of Increased teacher wait time on students’ Achievement in Science. Journal of
Experimental Education 45, 16-18.
Dees,J.(2010) How to get Students Participate in Class Discussion. www.therereligionteacher.com/how-to-g…
Kizlik,R(2009)ClassroomManagement,ManagementhatWorks http://.www.Behaviouradvisor.com
Lathrop, A. (2006) Tips for Encouraging Student Participation in Classroom Discussion. Faculty of Applied
Sciences, Brock University. www.facultyfocus.com
Rodriguez, .L (no date) Classroom Management. 4faculty.org
Lathrop, A (2006) Teaching how to Question: Participation Rubrics. www.facultyfocus.com.
Nwangwu, S. (2010) EOCDF: Promoting Education in Rivers State builds school admin. Block PPSB Bulletin,vol 1
no 2.
Rodriguez, .L (2009) Classroom Management. www.4faculty.org
Roe, A. (2012) Over programming Leads to Poor Student Participation.
Saskatoon
Public
School
Online
Report
(no
date)
Approaches
to
Instruction.
http://.www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/cethics/approaches.html
Nwangwu, S. (2010) EOCDF: Promoting Education in Rivers State…builds school admin. Block PPSB Bulletin,vol
1 no 2.
Weimer,M (2005) Putting Participation Puzzle together. www.facultyfocus.com. Magna Publications, Inc 2718
Dryden Drive Madison Wisconsin 53704 USA. www.magnapus.com
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Aggression in Iran 5 to 11 Grade Children in Relation to Parental
Involvement and Attachment- Security
Nayereh Shahmohammadi
Departement of Research and Educational Planning,
Ministry of Education, Tehran, Iran
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p90
Abstract
Aggression is a response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism, in the form of a subtle stimulus
such as an insult or verbal harangue. Aggression is often accompanied by strong negative emotional states.
The emotion that we can call anger is usually aroused by some provocation. Aggression is the result of two
variables. One is state of the person in which the person is capable of aggression, is ready to aggress and
has aggressive responses available .The other is a situation that elicit the actual aggressive behavior. In the
present investigation an effort has been made to probe into some of the factors related to aggression in 5
to 11 grade school children of Palestine. The variables chosen were personal parental involvement (social,
academic, and total) and attachment security (dependency, availability, and total).
Keywords: Aggression, Behaviour, Parental Involvement ,Attachment Security, Interaction, Parent-child
relationship, Gender
Introduction
Few people would deny that "aggression" is very common in contemporary society. For some, such
as those living in South Africa, Northern Ireland, Central America, and Middle East, aggression and
violence are experienced daily and in intensely personal ways. For others the phenomenon is
known, for the most part, in only indirect ways, such as through the mass media. However, even
those fortunate enough to have been spared the direct experience of lethal violence may
occasionally encounter something perceived to be aggression in a less intense form, such as verbal
insult, rough physical contact ,or hostile rejection. Aggression whether harmful to life or limb or
merely painful to ego, seem to be a real and important part of human condition.
Seeking a definition of aggression raise some problems. One might think that people would
be in substantial agreement of defining something so important and pervasive, but such is not the
case. The term "Aggression" is applied to wide array of behaviors that often appears from each
other. Perhaps most people ,including psychologist ,would agree in general with definition of
aggression given by Buss 1961 ,i.e., aggression is " a response that delivers noxious stimuli to
another organism". Certainly what we ordinary call aggression does involve noxious stimulation of
one person to another, in the form of a bullet in the body , a shattering bomb blast , a physical blow
or a more subtle stimulus such as insult or verbal harangue.
One construct that most people would probably consider necessary in aggression is intent to
harm another person .The notion of intentionally is explicit in the definition of aggression given by
one influential group of psychologists: "Aggression is an act whose goal response is injury to an
organism"[9]
Aggression is often accompanied by strong negative emotional states. The emotion that we
call "anger" is usually aroused by some provocation. Anger is most often thought of as an
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intervening condition, which instigates, and then guides, aggressive behavior. This type of
aggression is therefore called affective or angry aggression and its main is injury or harm to
provocateur [13]. It is accompanied by distinctive patterns of activity in the central and autonomic
nervous systems, including activation of the hypothalamus ,increased blood flow to the musculature
,heightened blood pressure and pulse, rate , papillary dilation and decreased flow of blood to the
viscera.
Behavior need not have a strong emotional basis to be aggressive, however, nor does it have
to be associated with aggressive cognition or affective states. People often attack others with intent
to harm without necessarily feeling any malice toward the victim. The primary goal of such
aggression is not injury or harm to the victim; the aggression is simply a means to some other
desired end. One such end is self- defense .Most courts of law recognize self-protection as a valid
defense for act of violence. Aggression that occurs in military contexts is also often instrumental to
some larger end such winning a war of defending territory. Another use of aggression that is
instrumental is the attempts of establish social and coercive power over others[37]through
aggressive means. Finally, Milgran (1963) showed that people were capable of committing gross
acts of violence against another human being simple in obedience to commands from person with
authority.
Aggression is the result of two variables. One is state of the person in which the person is
capable of aggression, is ready to aggress, and has aggressive responses available. The proposed
state of the person can be thought of as a background condition that makes aggression possible,
given the right situation. This state may be the result, for example, of past learning, or of a
biologically inherited aggressive temperament, or of temporary reactions to certain stimuli that
elicit readiness to aggress. Anything that creates in the person potential for aggression is to be
counted among these so-called "background' or 'setting' variables. The situations that elicit
aggression from a person who is in a state of readiness include a wide rage of aversive condition or
provocations that cause the person to feel stressed and aroused. When one of these situations
occurs for a person who is potentially aggressive, aggression is elicited.
Psychologists who take a social-psychological approach to behavior usually tend to treat
aggression as a set of acquired behaviors and to attach less emphasis to innate and biological
determinants. Advocates of this approach apply to aggression the principles of social learning
theory[2], in which aggressive behavior is usually dealt with in terms of (1) features of the
environment which foster the initial learning or acquisition of the behavior:(2) environmental that
facilitate the performance of aggressive acts, once learned ; and (3) conditions that maintain
aggressive behavior.
Reinforced aggression tends to generalize in accordance with the principles of response
generalization. Increasing, the likelihood of one aggressive response through reinforcement
increases also the probability of occurrence of other aggression. Loew (1967) has shown that
subjects who are given the experimenter's approval for making hostile verbal statement are more
likely than non-reinforced subjects to attack another person where subsequently more likely to emit
hostile verbalizations than were non-reinforced subjects. Given rewards to a person for aggression
may therefore have the ultimate effect of making that person more violent in general.
1. Attachment Security
During the past two decades, researchers have clarified the role of attachment security in
promoting psychological well-being during infancy and adulthood. Most recently, attention has
turned toward understanding the role of attachment with parents in healthy adjustment during
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adolescence. Adolescence introduces a period of significant transition in family and social role
expectations, coupled with increases in the range and intimacy of social relationships. During early
adolescence (ages 13-14), the emergence of autonomy is an important developmental task [1].
Adolescence involves a transition from a dependency relationship with parents to mutually
reciprocal relationships with others (e.g. parents, peers and intimate partners). Recent models,
based on attachment theory, emphasize the importance of attachment or connection to, rather than
detachment from, parental figures for the development of autonomy and adjustment during the
adolescent years, despite decreases in shared activities and interactions[25],[26].
The consolidation of identity and clarification of values at this age assist adolescents in
regulating their behavior independently of others around them. However, this process can pose
risks for adolescents and their relationships with those to whom they are close. In their attempts to
differentiate their own beliefs and values from others, many adolescents experiment with risky
behaviors in the areas of delinquency, substance use and abuse, and sex. For some, such risky
involvement is limited; for others, however, it becomes problematic. Moreover, the stressful process
of differentiation and identity consolidation can result in significant psychological distress.
Compared to adults, adolescents show higher stress levels and fewer coping resources [1],[16]. In
addition, depressive symptoms increase substantially from middle to late adolescence, particularly
for girls[30][7].
It is important to understand that the quality of parent-child relationships within adolescence
is linked to the quality of these relationships prior to adolescence, and adjustment during
adolescence is related to childhood adjustment. Similarly, although adolescence marks a period
during which the crystallization of identity is the central developmental challenge, identity
development extends from birth across the life span[17]. Nonetheless, the period of adolescence
presents unique develop- mental challenges for adjustment and new opportunities for identity
development and growth in parent-child relationships.
2. Attachment Theory
Attachment theory was proposed by John Bowlby(1980) to account for infant social and emotional
development and adjustment. He conceptualized attachment as a life-span construct, with children
maintaining attachment bonds to their parents across childhood and into adulthood. A basic
premise of the theory is that the quality of attachment relationships stems from interactions
between infants and their caregivers, reflecting the degree to which infants can rely on their
caregivers to provide proximity and companionship, a safe haven in the face of threat or anxiety,
and a secure base from which to explore. The unique pattern of caregiver sensitivity and
responsiveness to the infant's needs results in a particular attachment organization in the
child[3],[1].
Attachment patterns have been delineated in childhood, adolescent and adult attachment:
secure, avoidant (dismissing), ambivalent (preoccupied) and, most recently, disorganized
(unresolved). Secure attachment is characterized by a developmentally appropriate balance
between exploration from and proximity seeking with the caregiver in times of perceived danger or
threat. In contrast, insecure attachment is manifested in several different ways. The preoccupied
child curtails exploration of the environment and new social relationships and shows heightened
vigilance and fear of abandonment by his or her caregiver. Avoidant attachment in adolescence and
adulthood may be either dismissing or fearful. Dismissing attachment is characterized by the
tendency to be disengaged from attachment figures and to devalue the importance of attachment
and associated feelings. In contrast, fearful attachment is characterized by the tendency to avoid
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attachment figures due to fear of rejection and, at the same time, the desire to pursue relationships
and express attachment behaviour[7],[10]. As reviewed below, the security of attachment has been
found to have profound implications for adjustment in both childhood and adolescence.
3. Attachment and Adjustment in Childhood
Extensive research suggests that attachment has important implications for adjustment in
childhood. For example, in normative samples, children who are securely attached to their mothers
engage in more prosocial behavior and are perceived as more socially competent than insecure
children[[11]. They demonstrate higher positive affect and lower negative affect in social
interactions than insecure children. Securely attached children are also rated by their teachers as
more empathic and more compliant[16].
On the other hand, several sources of research show a link between insecure attachment
patterns (avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized) in infancy and non- compliance and aggression in
early childhood. Consistent with the theory that insecure attachment is related to poor emotional
regulation; longitudinal studies have demonstrated that avoidant attachment in infancy predicts
negativity, non-compliance and hyperactivity at 3.5 years of age, and higher ratings of problem
behavior in Grades 1 to 3. Compared to secure children, avoidant children are more aggressive and
confrontational with their mothers[34], and more aggressive, hostile and distant with their
peers[11][20]. Similarly, disorganized attachment in infancy has been shown to predict later
aggressive behavior. Several researchers have shown, for example, that children with disorganized
attachment patterns in infancy develop controlling and coercive behavior as they move into the
preschool and early childhood period[15],[25]. Ambivalently attached children, on the other hand,
are more adult-oriented and emotionally dependent than securely attached children. With peers,
ambivalently attached children have been found to be lower in peer status, more withdrawn and
more apt to be victimized.
Insecure attachment patterns are not, however, consistently related to later behavior
problems. A number of researchers[10],[19] do not report that avoidant or disorganized attachment
predicts later aggressive behavior. A review of this literature shows that the association between
insecurity of attachment and amount of later problem behavior is found more consistently among
children in high-risk contexts (e.g. family poverty, low social support, parental psychopathology)
than among children in low-risk contexts. For example, Lyons-Ruth et al. (1991) found that infant
security was most predictive of later aggressive problems in families where mothers suffered from
psychopathology, particularly chronic depression, and where mothers engaged in hostile, intrusive
parenting practices toward the infant. These authors reported that 56% of low-income children who
were classified as disorganized in infancy and whose mothers suffered from psychopathology at
that time displayed aggressive behavior in kindergarten. In contrast, only 25% of low-income
children with one risk factor and 5% of low-income children with no risk factor (i.e. neither maternal
psychopathology nor maternal use of hostile, intrusive parenting) showed aggressive behavior in
kindergarten.
In summary, there is consensus that insecure attachment is a risk factor for later problems in
life, but is neither necessary nor sufficient in it. Maladaptive parenting factors appear to increase the
risk that insecure attachment will be associated with poor adjustment. However, it must be kept in
mind that these generalizations are based on small samples.
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4. Development of Attachment in Adolescence
There are two issues to consider with respect to attachment in adolescence: 1) the nature of
changes in the child-parent relationship and 2) the adolescent's development of new close
relationships (e.g. with peers). Complex changes in the child-parent relationship occur during
adolescence. Although some studies have shown that self-reported attachment security to both
parents decreases with pubertal maturity [31], recent investigations indicate that only certain
components of the attachment relationship change while others remain stable. For example, the
degree to which children seek proximity and rely on the principal attachment figure in times of
stress decreases, but that attachment figure's perceived availability does not[10],[27]. These findings
indicate that the maintenance of physical proximity to parents and need for protection in times of
threat or stress may be less essential for older children due to increased mental and physical
capacities (e.g. more sophisticated coping mechanisms). However, the availability of the attachment
figure (i.e. the belief that the attachment figure is open to communication and responsive if help is
needed) remains important to young people[21],[22].
5. Attachment and Adjustment in Adolescence
In the past decade, studies have begun to examine the contribution of adolescent-parent
attachment to psychological adjustment. The majority of these studies have examined this
relationship within late adolescent (junior college, first-year University) samples. Few studies have
examined adolescent-parent attachment and adjustment in early (age 12-13) and middle
adolescents (at around age 15 years).
With reference to the relation between attachment patterns in adolescence and adjustment,
reports to date mostly confirm findings based on studies of young children. That is, secure
attachment is typically related to healthier adjustment, whereas insecure attachment is linked to
various forms of maladjustment.
In normal population studies, late adolescents who are classified as securely attached are rated
by their peers as less anxious, less hostile and more able to successfully regulate their feelings (i.e.
more ego-resilient) compared to insecurely attached adolescents [3][4][9]. Adolescents who report a
positive relationship with their parents, and who feel comfortable turning to them for support, have
been found to have a greater sense of mastery of their worlds[32],[18],[19]and to experience less
loneliness[20],[21][22],[23][36]. More positive attachment to parents among 15 year-olds is also
associated with fewer mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, inattention and conduct
problems [30][34].
A positive relationship with parents may also protect adolescents from risk. Adolescents who
report close, accepting relationships with their mothers report less involvement in delinquent
activities. These positive relationship qualities are those typical of secure attachment. Indeed,
adolescents' secure attachment to their mother has been linked to less experimentation with drugs
[40] and less frequent substance use[7].
In terms of specific insecure attachment styles, a dismissing style (i.e. poor communication and
trust, combined with feelings of alienation and disengagement from the attachment relationship)
has been associated with externalizing problem behaviors (e.g. aggression and delinquency[30],
more experimentation with drugs[40] and riskier attitudes about safe sex[40]. Dismissing young
adults report less family support and more loneliness than their peers.
Like dismissing adolescents, fearful adolescents are avoidant, but they are distressed by their
lack of closeness to others, and suffer from feelings of inadequacy and anxiety[4]. Fearful
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attachment with mothers has been linked to delinquency and greater experimentation with
drugs[40].
Adolescents who have a preoccupied attachment style (i.e. have positive views of others, and
negative views of themselves) see themselves as socially incompetent and are rated by their peers
as more anxious than all other attachment groups. Compared to other adolescents, these teens
report more physical symptoms[14]. In a three-category system of attachment classification (secure,
dismissing, preoccupied), preoccupied adolescents have been found to be the most vulnerable to
maladjustment[7].
Research on high-risk populations confirms findings based on normative samples: high-risk
adolescents with insecure attachment patterns are more likely than securely attached adolescents to
experience a range of mental health problems[1]. These include suicidality, drug use[27], aggressive
and antisocial behaviour[16],[23],[40]. For example, in a sample of male adolescent inpatients,
Rosenstein and Horowitz (1996) found that symptoms of conduct disorder were associated with a
dismissing attachment pattern. Preoccupied adolescents, on the other hand, have been found more
likely to report anxiety, dysthymia and an interest in others combined with a fear of criticism and/or
rebuff[34],[1]. Preoccupation has also been found to be associated with adolescent externalizing
behaviours, though only in the presence of the additional demographic risk factors of male gender
and low income[1].
Although similar patterns of results are present in normative and clinical samples[1], research
with younger children [30] also shows that the relation between attachment and adjustment is
stronger among children in high-risk (e.g. poverty, low social support, parental psychopathology)
than low-risk contexts. In other words, the relationship between attachment and adjustment
appears to be moderated by exposure to adversity. This suggests that insecure attachment alone
does not differentiate well-adjusted from poorly adjusted adolescents. Extrapolating from existing
research with young children suggests that adolescents who grow up in conditions of adversity and
inadequate access to resources may not suffer from psychopathology if they share secure
attachment relationships with their parents. Conversely, adolescents who develop in a supportive
and resource-rich environment, albeit with less secure attachment, may have poor outcomes, at
least in some domains. Research examining the moderating effects of adversity on the relationship
between attachment and adjustment in adolescents is urgently required.
6. Parenting, Attachment Security and Adjustment in Adolescence
In infancy, caregivers who are sensitive and consistently responsive to their child's needs have been
found to foster secure attachments. These children develop perceptions (i.e. internal working
models) of themselves as lovable and of others as helpful and available. Conversely, caregivers who
are insensitive and rejecting have been found to have avoidant children who view themselves as
unworthy, and others as uncaring and undependable. Research has linked avoidant attachment to
mothers' suppressed anger, lack of tenderness in touching and holding, and rejection of childinitiated attachment behavior. Such children tend to suppress their feelings and avoid contact in
times of stress to avoid further alienating their caregivers. Caregivers who are inconsistent (i.e.
sometimes responsive and sometimes rejecting) tend to have children who are preoccupied with
discovering ways of eliciting care and are hyper vigilant to sources of distress. Such children
experience conflict between the desire to approach the caregiver for support and feelings of anger
and anxiety at the caregiver's unreliability[3]. They come to view themselves as incapable and
unworthy of obtaining support.
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In adolescence, parental involvement, encouragement of psychological autonomy, and
demands for age-appropriate behavior combined with limit setting and monitoring (i.e.
authoritative parenting) contribute to good psychosocial, academic and behavioral adjustment
among adolescents[4],[36]. Similar to the way in which parental sensitivity and responsiveness
contribute to secure attachment in infancy, recent findings indicate that parental
warmth/involvement, psychological autonomy granting and behavioral control/monitoring are
associated with security of attachment in late childhood and early adolescence[17]. Low warmth and
low control were particularly associated with dismissing/avoidant attachment, and low
psychological autonomy granting with preoccupied attachment. Thus, in adolescence, it appears
that parental behavior that fosters autonomy in the context of parental availability, in addition to
parental warmth/responsiveness, becomes important for secure attachment.
With respect to adolescent adjustment, parental warmth/involvement and behavioral control
are associated with greater social competence, autonomy, positive attitudes toward school and
work, academic achievement and self-esteem, as well as with less depression, school misconduct,
delinquency and drug use[36],[1],[27]. With respect to protection against depressed mood,
adolescents' security with their mother seems to be particularly important. In terms of resistance to
substance abuse, the effect of parenting appears to operate through adolescents' development of
better self-regulation skills (i.e. self-control, behavioral competence, adaptive coping), and less
affiliation with deviant peers[30]. The negative associations between observations of maternal
warmth, and teacher and official reports of delinquency, are robust, persisting even after controlling
for child IQ, age, attachment to delinquent peers, ethnicity, poverty, family size, parental deviance,
supervision and discipline [35]. On the other hand, hostile punishment and coercive interactions
between parents and children combined with poor parental monitoring contribute to conduct
problems in preadolescence and antisocial behaviour in adolescence [32],[33].
Although it is likely that the link between adolescent attachment quality and parent behaviour
is bi-directional, there is some evidence to suggest that parental rejection is a stronger predictor of
delinquency than the reverse[35], supporting the crucial importance of parenting behaviour for
adolescent outcome. Of particular importance is the recent finding that in high-risk contexts (e.g.
neighbourhood poverty, crime, unemployment), parental monitoring may be effective in reducing
adolescent deviance only for securely attached adolescents[1].
7. Attachment, Parental Socialization and Gender
To understand the relationship between adolescent-parent attachment and adjustment, it is
important to examine two potentially significant moderating effects: gender of child and gender of
parent. First, there is some evidence that sex differences emerge in attachment patterns by
adolescence and early adulthood. The factors that contribute to these differences are important to
investigate. Second, there is evidence that attachment relationships with mothers and fathers may
differ in their importance for predicting adjustment.
Sex differences in attachment quality in infancy and early childhood are neither implied
theoretically nor typically found. However, by late adolescence and adulthood, sex differences in
patterns of insecure attachment are sometimes found, with more men being dismissing and more
women being preoccupied[26][24]. Gender-specific parental socialization practices may contribute
to these gender differences in attachment style. For example, parents monitor the behavior of their
daughters more than their sons[9].
With respect to differences in attachment relationships with mothers and fathers, it is
important to understand that most studies of child attachment and adjustment have focused on
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mother-child rather than father-child relationships. This focus has occurred because the primary
caregiver in infancy is typically the mother, because infant attachment is predictable primarily from
mothers' as opposed to fathers' attachment style, and because childhood attachment security is
predicted more from infant attachment to mother than from infant attachment to father[23],[25]. In
late adolescence, mothers remain the principal attachment figure. Although both boys and girls see
their mother's availability as remaining constant across age, adolescent girls perceive their fathers
as less available than younger girls[26]. Consistent with these findings, several studies have
demonstrated that there are significant changes in the quality of girls' relationship with their fathers
during adolescence[33]. For example, with the transition to adolescence, girls report feeling more
distant, uncomfortable and withdrawn from their fathers, and feel that their fathers do not meet
their emotional needs[25],[26].
Despite the greater importance of mothers as attachment figures, and of attachment to
mothers for adjustment, some research indicates that attachment to fathers may be significantly
associated with certain aspects of adjustment. For example, independent of and in addition to
security of attachment to mothers, security of attachment to fathers has been found to be
associated with peer competence[21],[22],[23],[35]. Moreover, fathers' warmth and involvement
have been found to play a unique role in intellectual development and academic achievement, and
to be associated with higher self-esteem in middle childhood[16]. Moreover, it is possible that
stronger relations between child-father attachment and adjustment might emerge in adolescence.
In support of this hypothesis, a longitudinal study of north German children found that coping
styles at age 16 were related to several measures of quality of early childhood attachment to fathers
but not to mothers[8]. Moreover, adolescents' ratings of their father's negative affect but not their
mother's was associated with the adolescents' ratings of the quality of their relationship with their
parent. It is important for research to clarify the changing nature of girls' compared to boys'
relationship to their fathers during adolescence, the relation of these differences to differential
parental socialization, and the implications for adjustment.
8. Need of the Study
Bearing in mind all theoretical background, it is obvious that Families not only directly shape the
development of aggression through their control tactics but also indirectly contribute in their
children's aggressive behavior. Parental monitoring or their children's where about activities and
social contacts is an important determinant of children's aggression. Some parents have high
involvement in their children and are aware of their activities, problems and success where as other
parents may not bother as much about their children's experience. Lack of parental monitoring has
been found to be associated with delinquency attack against properly and proper relations with
peers and teachers [32],[33][36].
The outcome of poor parental disciplinary practices and lack of monitoring result not only in
child who is aggressive and antisocial but also a child who is socially unskilled. However the number
of studies reporting the effects of parental involvement on aggression are rather scanty.
Another variable of interest in the present study is attachment security. The quality of
attachment in early childhood has implications for child's later personality. Early social interactions
with attachment figures do shape the child later attitudes and behavior, including their sense of self
as well as cognitive and social development. It would affect his peer relationships in many respects.
As few researchers have reported that security attached children are less aggressive and more
popular.[15]
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This area has however not been much researched, besides most of the children with mothers.
Same is about parental involvement. The role of the father has rather than been ignored. Many of
later researchers, however, have indicated the importance of fathers' role in child rearing. The role
of the men in the family and society has undergone drastic change in the pas two decade. As a
result of social change, men are assuming as more active role in the family rather being solely the
bread winner. It would be equally important to study fathers' involvement as that of mother of the
child involvement; very few attempts have been made to study the role of parental involvement and
attachment security in relation to regression. This area has largely been unexplored though there
are many studies conducted to investigate the relation of aggressive with other parental variable
like child rearing attitudes, disciplinary practices, etc. Therefore, it would be worthwhile endeavor to
conduct a study to investigate the relationship of children's aggression with parental involvement
and attachment security.
9. Aims of Present Study
a.
b.
c.
to investigate the relationship of aggression with :
 personal parental involvement (social, academic and total)
 attachment security (dependency ,availability ,and total)
to study gender differences in aggression
to find out the significant predictors of aggression in terms of differences in:
 parental involvement
 attachment security
10. Hypotheses
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Maternal personal involvement (social, academic & total) will be negatively correlated with
aggression in children.
Parental personal involvement (social, academic & total) will be negatively correlated with
aggression in children.
Attachment security of children (dependency, availability and total) for mother will be
negatively correlated with aggression in children.
Attachment security of children (dependency, availability and total) for father will be
negatively correlated with aggression in children.
Aggression would be higher in boys as compared to girls.
Girls will perceive higher parental involvement than boys.
11. Sample
The sample of the present study consisted of 600 school children (5 to 11 grade) out of these 300
were boys and the rest were girls. The sample was randomly selected from various schools. Study
subjects were from two-parent families and living with parents.
12. Tools
For this research three types of questionnaires were used which as follows:
1. Eron et al's (1961) Aggression Index[12] : this is a guess who techniques in which every
child in a class rates everybody else on a selected series of 10 aggression items. The
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subjects are asked to write the names of their classmates who act in the way described by
particular question. The subject can give as many as name as he thinks acts in that manner.
Parental Involvement Scale (personal)[39] : this scale was used to measure the amount of
personal involvement of parents in their children life. It consists of 30 items pertaining to
the mother, 30 to the father.
Kern Attachment Security Scale (KSS)[20] : children attachment security has been assessed
separated for each parent using the Kerns Security Scale (KSS). A 15 items, forced choice,
self report measure with higher scores indicating more secure attachment. This scale has
two subscales. The first 9 items include dependency and the other items include availability
of parents.
13. Analysis Methods
In order to assess relationship between aggression in children, parental personal involvement and
attachment security, also relationship between aggression and subscales of parental involvement
attachment security, Correlation analysis was used.
Also for assessing the differences between genders in aggression, attachment security T – test
was manipulated. Moreover regression analysis was conducted to assess prediction of aggression
by subscales of parental involvement and attachment security.
14. Findings
1.
2.
3.
4.
Older children perceived their parents as significantly less warm (e.g. listening less to their
opinions and ideas, speaking less of good things the child does) and more rejecting (e.g.
nagging more about little things, enforcing rules depending more on their mood) than
younger children. Although confiding in mother did not change with age, older children
were less likely to discuss problems with their fathers than younger children.
Older children perceive their parents as less warm and more rejecting, and report less ease
in confiding in them, at least in fathers. Children perceive parents' availability for help as
remaining constant across age but that actual parental involvement decreases with age.
This latter decrease may be due to greater child autonomy and less need by the child for
parents' involvement with age. Confiding in mother and father were particularly limited,
however. Specifically, children were free to select either or both their mother or father
Girls and boys were equally positive in describing the quality of their relationships with
parents and in confiding in their mothers, although girls reported less confiding in their
fathers than boys
No gender difference was found in regard to parental support to their children aggression
(e.g. helping with school problems if needed, talking to teachers if needed). Girls reported
less conduct problems/aggressive behavior and fewer property offences than boys. Girls
tended to have lower self-esteem and more internalizing problems than boys. In addition,
girls behaved more pro-socially and were less victimized than boys. Nonetheless, the
impact of parenting practices on girls and boys is similar. Parenting is also associated with
adjustment in younger and older children in similar ways. That is, for both girls and boys of
all ages, angry, arbitrary parenting (i.e. low use of reasoning) is associated with a poorer
parent-child relationship (i.e. child perceptions of parents as less warm and more
rejecting).
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5.
6.
7.
8.
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Younger children perceived their relationship with their parents as more positive, and they
reported more ease in confiding in both mothers and fathers. As previously noted, positive
parent-child relationship quality in turn was associated with a wide range of positive
outcomes in child adjustment and feeling of security.
Parents report similar practices in parenting sons and daughters. Nonetheless, girls
perceive their parents as less rejecting and warmer than boys. Boys and girls are equally at
ease confiding in their mothers, but girls confide less in their fathers than boys
Secure attachment during adolescence is related to less aggressive behavior. Securely
attached adolescents are less likely to engage in substance abuse, antisocial and
aggressive behavior [7],[40]. Securely attached adolescents enjoy more positive
relationships with family and peers [31],[19]. They demonstrate less concern about
loneliness and social rejection than do insecurely attached adolescents and they display
more adaptive coping strategies[17][14][28].
Parent-child relationships undergo important transitions during adolescence, including a
decrease in time spent with parents and a shift from dependency to mutual
reciprocity[24],[25]. Parents play a significant role in supporting secure attachment during
these transitions[26]. Adolescents benefit from parental support that encourages
autonomy development yet ensures continued monitoring and emotional connectedness.
Specific parenting skills that promote attachment security and autonomy development
include psychological availability, warmth, active listening, behavior monitoring, limit
setting,
acceptance
of
individuality,
and
negotiation
of
rules
and
responsibilities[1],[17],[18]. Parental support during stressful periods of transition (e.g.,
entry to high school) predicts positive adolescent adjustment[31].
15. Implications and Suggestions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
In order to make children less aggressive parents should show higher involvement in
children, more they will interact with them, more children will learn personal behaviour.
When parents shows interest in the child activities, the chances that she will share his
problem with parents is higher. This would lead to lesser frustration and conflict, in
children leading to lower aggression.
It is important that parents show such behaviour towards children that they (children) are
able to develop a secure attachment with them. The children need to be assured that the
parents get pleasure in meeting with children.(dependency) needs.
Parents should make themselves available to children so that the latter can have the
confidence that the former will be available to them when even need to be. This feeling of
security is very essential; otherwise child may be at loss to understand various problematic
situations and may react aggressively.
Parents need to recognize the continued importance of their relationship with their
children. Although the parent-child relationship undergoes transformation during
adolescence, the adjustment of adolescents depends in good measure on the quality of
their relationship with their parents.
Children are more vulnerable to adjustment problems in adolescence than in childhood.
Parents need to anticipate that their children require increased support during periods of
transition, such as entry into high school.
Children need to feel that their parents are engaged and supportive of them.. Nonetheless,
they require ongoing parental support in terms of parents remaining open to
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communication and responsive if help is needed Specific parenting skills include warmth,
acceptance of individuality, active listening, behaviour monitoring, limit setting and
negotiation.
7. Parents need to recognize the special role of fathers in supporting the well-being of their
children. Fathers' increased psychological support of daughters may be particularly
beneficial to them. Parents need to recognize the continued importance of their
relationship with their children.
8. Children are more vulnerable to adjustment problems in adolescence than in childhood.
Parents need to anticipate that their children requires increased support specially at upper
classes and upper ages
9. Obviously, children adjustment is also determined by factors outside the family and the
parent-child relationship. Even though parents may only indirectly affect how peers and
other social influences determine the adjustment of their children, parents' support
through the stressful challenges remains important.
10. Parents need to support their children in their exploration of social norms by listening to
concerns about social approval and peer pressure, discussing values and reasons for limit
setting, and negotiating rules when appropriate. Parents need to monitor involvement in
potentially dangerous situations and work with their children to ensure safety. Parents
need to be careful not to dismiss problems in the children-parent relationship as simply
due to age, temperament or other child characteristics. Both they and their children
contribute to the quality of the relationship.
11. Parents who recognize risk factors in themselves that may place their children at risk for
insecure attachment may benefit from counselling or therapy for their own difficulties,
and/or to reduce the transmission of risk within the family.
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The Effect of Local Processing Method (Kilishi) on the Nutrient
Profiles of Heterobranchus Birdosalis in Owerri
Municipal Local Government Area
Ekeledo, B. C.,
Department of Fishery Technology, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri-Nigeria
Chukwueke, B. O.,
Department of Science Technology, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri-Nigeria
Doi:10.59017jesr.2012.v2n10p104
Abstract
The effect of local processing method (Kilishi) on the proximate compositions of catfish (Heterobranchus
birdosalis) was determined using standard procedures of AOAC. Some quantities of catfish were purchased
form a fish pond in owerri and they were shared into two parts. One part was processed to fish Kilishi while
the other was left unprocessed (raw flesh). The proximate composition of the kilishi and raw flesh of H.
birdosalis were determined. The percentage mean protein, lipid, ash, fibre for the kilishi were 66.95, 17.44,
1.55, 2.00 which were higher than those of the raw flesh except for moisture 10.51 and carbohydrate 1.55.
The results indicate that kilishi method of fish processing induced positive changes on the catfish, thus it is
recommended for healthy eating.
Keywords: kilishi, Nutrient profiles, Heterobranchus birdosalis
Introduction
There are various reasons for the merits of eating fish. One of such reasons is that fish is less tough
and more digestible compared to meat. This is possible because of the greater ratio of muscle
protein in fish to other animals, thus making fish acceptable by infants and adults alike (Eyo, 2001).
However, processing provides a higher production, less waste, improved nutrient levels, variety
and thus high foreign exchange (Andrade, 2000). Processing also prolongs the storage time of fish
and permits a state of wholesomeness in long distribution and marketing channel (Njoku, 2005).
The dried meat product, kilishi is produced mainly by the Hausas and Fulanis in the Northern
part of Nigeria a country in West Africa. The desirable qualities of meat kilishi include ease for bulk
transportation, fortified nutrient levels and its long shelf life (Alonge, 1981).
This research investigates the feasibility of adopting the kilishi traditional meat processing with
the view to improving the nutritional qualities of Heterobranchus birdosalis
Materials/Method
4000g of H. birdosalis were bought from a pond in owerri and they were beheaded, washed,
eviscerated and skinned. They were shared into two equal parts; one part was saliced into fillets. The
fillets were washed and spread on a clean dry tray and were sun dried for five hours. 50g defatted
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groundnut, 20g ground pepper, 10g sliced garlic, 10g ground ginger, 3g clove, 3g salt, 1 cube magi
were mixed together in a clean bowl and were spread on the sundried fillets respectively. The
infused fillets were smoked dried and were turned intermittently for three minutes to blend and
obtain the finished product, fish kilishi.
The fish kilishi and the raw flesh were taken to the food processing laboratory to determine the
proximate compositions using standard methods of AOAC (1990).
Organoleptic assessment of the fish kilishi was determined using five point hedonic scale.
Results
Table 1: Average value of duplicate determinations on proximate compositions
of kilishi and raw flesh of H. birdosalis (%)
Sample
Moisture
Fish kilishi
Raw flesh
10.51
75.00
Crude
protein
66.95
18.90
Lipid
Total ash
Crude fibre
Carbohydrate
17.44
2.22
2.00
0.55
1.55
0.45
1.55
2.88
Some
minerals
0.013
0.009
Table 2: Average value of duplicate determinations on proximate compositions
of kilishi mixed ingredients (%)
Sample
Moisture
kilishi mixed
ingredients
6.75
Crude
protein
40.75
Lipid
Total ash
Crude fibre
Carbohydrate
15.57
5.12
13.43
18.38
Table 3: Sensory assessment of the fish kilishi
Sample
Taste
Aroma
Texture
Rancidity
Fish kilishi
8.0
8.0
7.0
Nill
Overall
acceptability
7.7
Table 4: Some mineral compositions of raw flesh and kilishi of H. birdosalis (%)
Minerals
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Phosphorus
Iodine
Magnesium
Raw flesh
0.0018
0.0033
0.00013
0.00012
0.0035
0.00019
kilishi
0.0040
0.0043
0.00042
0.00030
0.0040
0.00036
Discussion
The proximate composition of the raw flesh and fish kilishi of H. birdosalis are presented in Table 1.
Each value is the mean value of the duplicate determinations showing nutritive effect of the
processing method.
Eyo, 2001 states that the major compositions of fish tissue (muscle) are water, protein, lipid
and micronutrients of varying proportions. This statement is in line with the result in the raw flesh
and kilishi product obtained.
The raw flesh sample presented low protein, lipid, crude fibre and ash content but high
moisture, which is similar to the report of Eyo (2001). As the water content of the fish increases, the
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protein, lipid, ash and fibre decrease. The increase in protein level of the fish kilishi when compared
to the raw fish suggests that reduction of the moisture content of the fish increased the
concentration and digestibility of protein, thus the availability of amino acids (Eves, 1993). The
increase in protein could also be attributed to the mixed ingredients (defatted groundnut) used in
the processing as can be related to the work done by Suleiman and Abdullahi (2008) and on Claris
gariepinus by Ekeledo and Ekeoma (2009) of which the results are not quite significantly different
(P>0.05).
From the report, there was a decline in the moisture content of the fish kilishi due to heat cure
(sun drying and smoking) given to it. Eyo (2001) stated that the heat from the sun, drainage of fish
and wind passing all over the fish will aid dehydration. This statement is in agreement with the
result obtained.
The lipid content of the kilishi product increased due to the fact that as moisture is reduced,
fat content is increased. Fats were not lost through dripping during smoking because the space of
time for the smoking of the fillets was very short.
The ash content of kilishi was higher than raw flesh sample. Perhaps smoking increased the
ash content of the fish kilishi.
The increased fibre content of the kilishi was as a result of celluloses and lignin that were
deposited on the product from the wood used in the smoking of the kilishi. Eyo (2001) stated that
the woods used for smoking are composed of celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignin.
The heat applied to the kilishi resulted to the breaking and decrease in the carbohydrate
content of the product.
Table 2 explains that the kilishi ingredients used have nutritive qualities which were impacted
into the product to enhance its nutritive values and consumer’s acceptability.
Table 3 reports the sensory assessment of the fish kilishi. The taste, aroma, and texture of the
product were good, thus the acceptability of the product by the panelists were high. There was no
taste of rancidity in the product, hence the product was fresh and it did not deteriorate. Ferriera
(1987) reported in agro industry that smoking is not only a conservation method but it is also a
flavor, aroma and coloration improving method which are attributes sought by consumers.
Conclusion
The proximate compositions, protein, lipid, ash, crude fibre and minerals of catfish were influenced
positively, it is therefore concluded that fish kilishi processing is an acceptable processing method
for improving the nutritional qualities of Heterobranchus birdosalis considering that majority of
these are gotten are from the wild.
Recommendation
It is recommended that oven drying should be used in place of smoke drying in order to enhance
the color and appearance of the product and to promote consumer’s acceptability of product.
While sun drying the fillets it should be covered with net to avoid dust, dirt from resting on the
fillets and to avoid vermin from attacking the fillets.
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References
Andrade, E.G. and Oliveira, P.R., (2008). A composicao centesimal de quarto species de pieces de a gua doce,
submetidas a um processo de defumacco. In congress brasileiro de ciencia e technology de Alimentos,
12, Fortaleza, Resymos.
AOAC., (1990). Official methods of analysis of the association of official analytical chemist, (15 th ed) Virginia
1298pp.
Ekeledo, C.B. and Ekeoma, R.I., (2009). The Effect of local processing method (kilishi) on the nutrient profiles of
Clarias gariepinus in Owerri Municipal L.G.A. Int. J. Health and Envt. (3):1.8-9.
Eves, A. and Brown, R., (1993).Effect of traditional drying on nutritional values of fish. Tropical Science, 33:183189pp
Eyo, A.A., (2001). Fish processing in tropics. National Institution for fresh water fisheries research (NIFFR) New
Bussa, Nigeria. 8-131pp
Ferreira, S.O., (1987). Applicacao detechnologia e species de pescado de agua visando atender a agro industria
rural master of science dissertation Universidad de Sao Paulo, Escola superior de Agricura “Luiz de
queiroz”- ESALQ-USP. Sao Paulo. Brazil, 122pp
Njoku, D.C. and Ejiogu, C.O., (2005). Fisheries and wide life of Nigeria. Okson publishers, Owerri, Nigeria, 191pp
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Agricultural Entrepreneurship Development for Youth
Empowerment in Nigeria: Constraints
and Initiatives for Improvement
Ugochukwu P.N. Amadi
School of Agriculture and Home Economics,
Federal College of Education (Technical), Umunze, Anambra State, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p108
Abstract
The survival of Nigeria’s agriculture rests squarely on the youth who are the farmers and leaders of
tomorrow. Hitherto, the teaching and learning of agriculture has proceeded in such a manner that
graduates of such programmes have failed to make successful launch into the world of agricultural
enterprises (entrepreneurship). Major constraints that predisposed this anomalous situation were identified
to include poor policy framework, socio-economic pressures, undue parental and peer influences, improper
value orientation and of course, the nature of curricula. In response to the situation, some programmes
and/or initiatives aimed at inculcating entrepreneurial skills were proposed by this study with identified
target beneficiaries.
The initiatives bordered on curricular reorientation that integrate
entrepreneurship/enterprise education, retraining of graduates, financial support system among others.
Keywords: Agriculture, Entreprenuership, Programmes, Nigeria
Introduction
That agriculture has lost its pride of place in the economy of the Nigeria nation has sustained its
fervor as indicated in the prevalent macroeconomic environment. The macroeconomic indicators of
this anomalous development accordingly include: Ever widening food supply – demand gap; Ever
rising food import bills; Rapid decline in foreign exchange earnings from agricultural exports; and
Rapid decline in agricultural production.
The rapid decline in agricultural production has been attributed to the continuous decline in
agricultural labour. This consequently in occasioned by the continued efflux of the youth and
school leavers from the rural farming communities in search of employment other than agriculture.
Supporting this claim Miri (1996) avers that for the survival of agriculture:
We need to attract the younger generation whose perception of agriculture is just a case of
labouring in the field …. A generation who would rather work in an office than out in the
fields getting their hands dirty …
Miri opines that agriculture must be promoted as a scientific employment with young people
seeing it is more than just feeding an animal or digging a hole and planting a crop. The views of
Bamaisaiye (1989) cited in Amadi (2001) is consistent with the foregoing expose on the declining
performance of the agricultural sector. The following factors were indicated:

Mass migration of youth into urban centre thus leaving farming in the hands of old,
illiterate parent;
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Lack of scientific knowledge of agriculture among the surviving generation of illiterate
farmer;

The sustained use of traditional farming tools and methods; and

The non-lucrative and energy consuming farm-occupations with the attendant low morale
among farmers and youth.
Similarly, Amadi (1996) expressed the need to not only attract, but also retain youth in the
agricultural occupations through proper mobilization.
The recognition of education as an important vehicle for agricultural transformation, and the
youth as possible agent or target mobilizers necessitated the following policy thrusts initiated as
certain times in the past by the government:
1. The evolution of the 6-3-3-4 education system as reflected in the various versions of the
National Policy on Education namely; 1978, 1981, 1998, 2002 and 2008 editions. By this
arrangement agriculture was classified as pre-vocational and vocational at the primary,
junior and secondary levels respectively.
2. Consistent with number (1) above, was the revision of the school curriculum with emphasis
on the development of occupational skills (Comparative Education Study and Adaptation
Centre (CESAC), 1985).
3. The launching of the agricultural entrepreneurship scheme of the National Directorate for
Employment (NDE), in 1986.
4. The launching of school-bound agricultural programmes for example:
i)
The Rivers State’s school-to-Land Programme
ii)
The Anambra State’s Mobilization for Agriculture and Industries (MOSAI) and,
iii) The Imo State’s School-based Food Basket Programme.
Commenting on these programmes, Amadi and Emeruwa (1989) reported that they were
packaged to inculcate in the youth, requisite vocational and entrepreneurial skills and appropriate
work habits in preparation for a successful entry into the world of work.
The ideals of the agriculture curriculum notwithstanding, Ivowi (1983), Zahradeen (1990), and
Ochu and Umunnagbu (1993) variously observed that agricultural education programmes at the
secondary level are not as practically oriented as was originally intended in the curriculum. Ochu
and Umunnagbu (1993) further cited the views of wheeler (1990) and Ebun (1990) who
independently reported that a good proportion of students of agriculture graduate in excellent
grades without adequate exposure to the practical training that would ensure skills development.
Ochu’s work which sought information on the degree of relevance of the Senior Secondary
agricultural education practical content reveals that with a per centage rating of 56%, the
curriculum was deemed relevant to intermediate manpower development but that notwithstanding,
Igbokwe (1994) wondered why school leavers and graduates of such programmes have continued
to find themselves ill-equipped to move into adult life productively. Going by these developments,
Amadi (2001) in a study reported the existence of a wide generation gap between the school
(agricultural education programmes,) and the world of work. This picture becomes clearer when we
compare the performance of graduates of agriculture with that of their counter parts in other
vocational areas such as woodwork (carpentry), electrical work, Home economics, to mention a few.
The agricultural occupation skills that are indicated in the curriculum are for convenience classified
into three broad categories namely;
1) Vocational skills
2) Entrepreneurship skills and
3) Psycho production skills

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These categories are not mutually exclusive as there can be some overlaps. Vocational skills
are specific behaviours, habits or attitudes which are concerned with the abilities of a person to
secure gainful employment (self, or paid). Entrepreneurship skills are viewed as those specific
behaviours or habits that are required by an individual to make a successful launch into agricultural
business (Okorie, 1997). Entrepreneurship emphasizes self reliance and relative economic
independence (Iwuanyanwu, 1997) and rather creates a favourable atmosphere for economic
interdependence and synergy within the society (Amadi, 2004).
The Psycho production skills (Olaitan & Ali 1997) are acquired abilities for performing tasks
adequately with the hands in response to sensory stimuli. It may suffice to emphasize that the
performance of psych production skills requires proper coordination of the senses.
In summary therefore, it important to restate that Nigeria’s economy can only regain its pride
of place if agriculture is given the necessary the necessary support to sustain its contributory quota
to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and if youths are fully mobilized and motivated to form the
core agents of the needed change.
Problem Statement
The problem focus of this study is the show of indifference of the youth to agriculture which has
sustained, despite government efforts through her numerous agencies such as the school. It is
therefore intended that, the results and recommendations of this study will provide the needed
thrust.
Statement of Purpose
The youth Agriculture Entrepreneurship Development Initiative (YAEDI) aims to facilitate the
development of programmes that will induce in the Nigerian youth a receptive mindset, that
capture their interest and engender commitment to agriculture and agriculture-related
opportunities that abound in the sector. It is also intended that this initiative will develop support
structures and incentive opportunities that will consolidate any possible progress likely to be made.
The initiatives proposed in this study aims to not only create interest in youths in pursuing
agriculture as a career but also to encourage everyone (old and young, men and women) who
demonstrates the interest to engage in agribusiness ventures. A statement of fact imperative at this
juncture is that “one must not necessarily own a farm to be involved in agriculture as an
entrepreneur”. As a matter of fact, there are series of agro-allied activities people can get involved
in with or without any agricultural training or educational background experiences. For instance,
youth can engage in the marketing of farm produce or supplies which presently is not considered
integral part of agriculture by youths. The study is therefore aimed to achieve the following specific
objectives:

Identifying entrepreneurial qualities or skills which youth should acquire to be successful in
agricultural businesses.

Identifying the processes of imparting such qualities.

Identifying agricultural enterprise opportunities in which youth can participate.

Identifying the target-classes of youth or groups who would profit by the initiatives.

Designing assistance packages that would benefit “special youth” and,

Creating Financial Assistance Programme (FAP) for youth studying agriculture or related
courses at the post-secondary level (Didiza, 1998).
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There is a felt need to redress the imbalances of the past and to create a National Youth Policy
(NYP) that will aim to empower the youth and allow them optimal access to opportunities so as to
realize their full potentials”. Most critical of problems of youth employment are, that:
1) High percentage of youth lacked access to further their education beyond primary and
consequently were denied access to the job market.
2) High percentages of youth remain unemployed upon completion of their educational
programmes at secondary and/or tertiary level.
Entrepreneurship Qualities/Skills
Entrepreneurship can be viewed in the light of a wide social, cultural and economic context as being
innovative at home work, school or leisure. It involves life attitudes, including the readiness and the
courage to act within the prevailing social, cultural and economic contexts. These qualities which
Nelson (1979) referred to as “Occupational Survival Skills” include special attitudes, knowledge and
skills relating to decision making, problem-solving, trouble shooting, human relations and business
communications to mention a few. Hodgett (1982) added to list the following; sound mental ability,
high achievement drive, technical competence, resourcefulness and creativity. Steinhoff and
Burgess (1993) further the following to this list: high vision for business, ability to plan, organize
and follow through. This list though inexhaustible, further includes the following entrepreneurial
behavior (Haftendorn & Salzano, 2005): Creativity and curiosity, Motivation by success , Willingness
to take or bear intelligent business risks, Ability to cooperate with others, Ability to identify business
opportunities, and Ability to tolerate uncertainties.
Agricultural Entrepreneurship Initiative for the Youth
As indicated earlier, there are specific issues of serious concern affecting agriculture which
inadvertently call for a critical assessment of roles youth can play as potential future leaders. The
Worrisome revelation that the youth have continued to migrate out of the rural farming
communities is exacerbated by the concurrent ageing of the peasants. The youth have shown little
concern, and only a few initiatives are in place for replacing the declining and ageing farmer
population in the rural farm holds (Amadi 2001).
Target Initiatives and Beneficiaries
The youth agricultural entrepreneurship initiatives can take any form and be targeted at a specific
youth-group which may be primary level leavers, secondary school leavers, graduates of agriculture
or non agriculture programmes at tertiary level. The proposed groups are as shown below:
Target Group 1: Primary School Leavers/pupils
We need to appreciate the fact that it is at the primary level that awareness about careers is
inadvertently created; it therefore becomes necessary that agriculture is positively presented as one
of the career options they could consider. Schools (Teachers and administrators) should mount
awareness programmes aimed at conscientizing children about agriculture as a profitable career
option, (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, (OECD, 1999). The primary
school curriculum should be reviewed to make agriculture a core programme of study. In addition,
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awareness campaigns should be mounted through the production and circulation of attractive
brochures, posters and pamphlets bearing career and vocational messages typical of agriculture.
Target Group 2: Secondary School Students
Noteworthy is the fact that students at this stage of secondary level are faced with two important
choices that can programme their future. First is the choice of subjects and secondly, they make
career choices. Choice of career more often is a function of subject choice yet; some make parallel
choices which run in conflicts with intended careers. The present Policy on Education which
classifies secondary agriculture as pre- and vocational is a commendable development.
There is however, the need for attitudinal change toward agriculture in order to correct the
wrong perceptions of the youth who see working on farmlands as signs of social and economic
poverty. The curriculum should stress enterprise education even at the fundamental level.
Action Proposed: The attitudinal change is possible through awareness education so as to
expose the youth to the multiplicity of career options that agriculture can offer. Secondly, students
of agriculture should be supported financially through tertiary level agricultural programmes.
Entrepreneurship and business concepts can be taught through team-based experiential / workbased learning. Entrepreneurship and enterprise development can be integrated throughout the
curriculum as an optional subject or an after-school activity.
Target Group 3: Tertiary School Students (Undergrads)
The Unified University Curriculum in Nigeria is another commendable landmark in the educational
development of the country that can tap into for developing entrepreneurial skills in the youth.
Action Proposed: It is imperative therefore, those tertiary students of agriculture are
supported financially via bursary awards; internships, industrial works experience scheme, etc. The
one-year National Youth Service could be used to achieve internship with graduates farmed out to
reputable agricultural establishments.
The curriculum should emphasize entrepreneurship
education through Cooperative Occupational Experience Programme (COEP).
Target Group 4: Post Tertiary Youth
Graduates of agricultural programmes have suffered from unemployment as a result of low or non
mobilization of investment resources thereby ending up in endless search of nonexistent jobs.
Action Proposed: Unemployment census should be undertaken to identify such graduates
for the purpose of retraining them for entrepreneurship development and business start-ups. Again,
the federal Government’s initiative through the agricultural skills programmes of the NDE is highly
commendable.
Target Group 5: Deschoolers
Some young people by omission or commission find themselves out of school pre-maturely; at a
stage they would not have acquired the “occupational survival skills”.
Action Proposed: Assembling of the dropouts at community/local and state levels for the
purpose of imparting necessary occupational and entrepreneurial skills is imperatives. Farm-skill
centres need to be established at local levels. Graduates of farm-skills programmes should also be
provided with financial support to float businesses.
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Target Group 6: Holiday Makers Agricultural Programme
This programme targets all categories of students who are studying agriculture at various levels so
as to expose them meaningfully to practical farming skills and competencies. It is believed that
such hands-on experiences will further stimulate their interest, consolidate their knowledge and
capitalize their potentials and capabilities. The programme currently run as Students Industrial
Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) as well as other work-based experience programmes at the
tertiary level needs to be revised, planned, coordinated and monitored by specialists in agriculture.
Constraints to Effective Youth Agricultural Entrepreneurship Development and Empowerment
Constraints to effective youth agricultural entrepreneurship development and empowerment are
multidimensional and have been identified to include the following: Curricular constraints, Societal
value disorientation, Government priority emphasis on nonagricultural components of the
economy, Socio-economic pressure, Parental influence, Low aptitude disposition, Difficulty in
accessing resources such as land, finance and market information, Natural hazards that cast doubt
on economic viability farming.
Curricular Constraints
This takes various forms and shapes ranging from poor curriculum orientation to poor
implementation of school-based agricultural programmes. The poor curriculum orientation gave
rise to:

Poor awareness about the scope of opportunities in the field of agriculture.

Lack of awareness of the economic diversity of agricultural enterprises.

Agriculture is presently offered as an alternative to science subject streams including
Home Economics rather than as part thereof, as a result of which some interested students
do not follow through to the tertiary level.

Agricultural awareness, training and education are not adequately addressed in the
primary and secondary school curricula due to poor implementation.
Poor Societal Value Orientation
It is believed that the poor image of agriculture is caused by the poor value orientation of the
Nigerian society. While premium is placed over such vocational callings as medicine, engineering
and law, agriculture was relegated, a condition that worsened over the dominant influence of the
emergent petro-economy. Youth thus look down upon agriculture.
Government Policy Frameworks
These have not made the case better since policies are not matched with commensurate actions
and economic defaulters have not been appropriately sanctioned by the various government
agencies. Policy emphasis is always on petroleum and more of lip service on agriculture. Even at
that, youth are not properly involved when they should normally occupy a central position youth
programmes are not properly mobilized financially.
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Parental Influence
This borders on the undue influence of most parents over their wards’ career choice, most of who
would vow not to allow their wards to take to agriculture as a course of study. This wanton
pressure misdirects even the enthusiastic ones to career choices not consistent with their
dispositions (Okorie & Ezeji, 1988).
Peer Influence
A sort of bandwagon effect rules children of school age. The youth, ipso facto tend to follow a
monotypic pattern in career choice as there is a tendency for the opinion of one influencing those
of the others.
Difficulty in Accessing
Production resources such as land, finance and market intelligence are a serious constraint
considering the fact that agriculture is capital intensive. Funds mobilization is still a major setback
and of course, returns to investment (RTI) are still low due largely to low input value for those who
eventually take up the adventure.
Summary of Strategies for Effective Youth Agricultural Entrepreneurship Development
Although some suggestions have been proferred alongside target initiatives, it would be proper to
once more articulate an assemblage of the strategies. These include initiating:
1) Awareness-raising programmes at primary, secondary and tertiary levels designed to
familiarize pupils with the philosophy of entrepreneurship which would exert positive
influence on enterprise culture (Hayton et al, 2002).
2) Programmes which aim at immediate enterprise creation to be run in schools.
3) Teachers and vocational instructors’ programmes should emphasize enterprise education.
Entrepreneurship should also form integral part of both primary and secondary school
curricular.
4) Resource materials and training packages relevant for entrepreneurship development
should be made accessible to institutions of learning running agricultural programmes.
5) The government (local, state and national) should form genuine alliances with agencies
that possess comparative advantage in various aspects of training provisions with special
interest in agriculture entrepreneurship.
6) Establishment of farm schools aimed at production intermediate school-based community
Partnership – could help to strengthen curriculum areas through the engagement of
mentors from the local business community.
7) Skilled farm manpower development scheme akin to the farm settlement scheme of the
old whose curriculum will emphasize both vocational and entrepreneurial skills acquisition
should be introduced.
8) Establishment of Pilot farms (at local and state levels) with commercial orientation for the
training and induction of youths through excursion and fieldtrips.
9) Institution of Youth Revolving Loans Scheme which will target the financing of youth
agricultural enterprises at a highly subsidized interest rate.
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10) Monitoring and Evaluation (M & E) of Youth Agricultural Entrepreneurship Scheme to align
the youth activities with intended objectives.
References
Amadi, U.P.N. & Emeruwa, B.C. (1989). Appraisal of Instructional Materials Needed for Implementing Senior
Secondary Agriculture Curriculum. Postgraduate Seminar Presented in the Dept. of Vocational Teacher
Education. University of Nigeria, Nsukka 24th August.
Amadi, U.P.N. & Obodo, G.E. (1996). Youth Organization as a Strategy for Entrepreneurial Skills Development in
Agriculture. In Esomonu N.P.M. (ed.). The Essential of Entrepreneurship Education in Technology, Science
& Art, Umunze: research & Publication Unit, FCE(T), Umunze.
Amadi, U.P.N. (2001). Availability and Utilization of Instrucitonal Resources in Teaching and Learning
Agricultural Occupation Skills in Imo State Secondary Schools. Unpublished PhD Thesis of the Nnamdi
Azikiwe University, Awka.
Bamaisay, E.A. (1989). Agricultural Education and Economic Development Policy Implementation for the Higher
Education. In Nwagwu N.S. et al (eds.). Education for Self-Reliance and National Development. A
publication of the Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning.
Comparative Education Studies and Adaptation Centre (CESAC) (1986). Agricultural Science Curriculum for
Senior Secondary Schools. Lagos: CESAC.
Didiza, A.T. (1991). The Agriculture Youth Development Initiative for South Africa in South Africa Agricultural
Youth Development Initiative. Johannesburg:The Agricultural Youth Development Initiatives.
Haftendon, K & Salzano C. (2005). Facilitating Youth entrepreneurship Participation: an Analysis of Awareness &
Promotion Programmes in Formal and Non-formal Education Geneva: International Labour Organization
(ILO).
Hayton,J et al (2002). National Culture and Entrepreneurship: A Review of Behavioural Research in
Entrepreneurship. Theory & Practices 26 (4).
Hodgett B. (1992). Effective Small business Management. New York: Academic Press.
Igbokwe, E.N. (1994): Identification of Tasks for Senior Secondary Agriculture Curriculum. A survey of Poultry
Production. Review of Education 14. Institute of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Ivowi, U.M.O. (1983). Resources Management in Technical Education. In Eyibe, S.c. (ed) Administration, Planning
and Supervision. Focus on Technology Education. Oko : Oko Polytechnic press.
Miri, S. (1996). What Future for Agriculture in the Pacific. Spore No. 56. A Publication of the Centre for
Agriculture & Rural Development (CTI). Netherlands.
Nelson, R.E. & Leach, J.A. (1981). Increasing Opportunities for Entrepreneurship. In Greenwood L. (ed.).
Contemporary Challenges.
Ochu, A.O. & Umunnagbu, M.I. (1993). An Assessment of the Effectiveness of the Senior Secondary School
Agricultural Education Programme in Manpower Development in Nigeria. Journal of Teacher Education
1(2).
Okorie, J.U. (1997). Instructional Facilities for the Growing Vocational & Technical Institutions in Nigeria. Lead
Paper at the 5th Annual National Conference on Vocational & Technical Education held at FCE(T), Umunze.
Okorie, J.U. & Ezeji, S.C.O.A. (1988). Element of Guidance, Vocational and Career Education. Onitsha Summer
Educational Publishers.
Organization for economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (1999). Entrepreneurship and Enterprise
Development in Transition economies: Policy Guidelines and Recommendations. Paris International
Labour Organization (ILO).
Steinhoff, D & Burgess, J.F. (1993): Small Business Management Fundaments 6th edition New York: Mc GrawHill
Inc.
Zahradeen, U.A. (1990). Integrating Productive Work into Voocational Technical Education in Nigeria. Technical
Education Today 2(1).
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Time Resource Management For
Effective School Administration
Kalu, Joyce Nnuola
Department of Educational Management
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p116
Abstract
This work has attempted to expanciate on the meaning and strategies of time management practices. In
order to expose the practice of effective use of time by the school administrators, it became necessary for
this work to analyze the specific tasks of school administration, the knowledge of which will guide the
administrator in proper scheduling of tasks, ordering of priorities and allocation of time according to their
degree of importance in achieving educationally productive goals. The value of time management were
examined and these include the achievement of meaningful productivity, avoidance of stress and
frustration, the creation of balance between work, lfe, leisure and rest, etc. This work finally looked at the
factors that influence the administrators’ effective use of time which include interruptions and events that
just come up, lack of professional training and knowledge of time management skills, large population of
students and staff and fear of offending people.
Keywords: Planning, Effective Time Resource Management.
Introduction
Time, as Nwaiwu (2000 p. 171) notes, is the interval between the beginning and the end of an
operation. In our traditional society people used the position of the sun and the shadow it casts to
make an estimate of time during the day. The length of the shadows cast by the sun helped people
estimate time in the morning, mid-day, afternoon and evening, when to start going to the market,
when children were expected back from school or when to leave the farm for the house. At the
dawn of a new day, the early cock crow indicated different segments of time before the day finally
breaks. The first cock crow signaled the breaking of a new day when distant travelers usually set out
on their journey while others waited for the second cock crow to start on their daily business. That
was in the traditional society marked by simple organisations where time calibration and allocation
was done in large segments of early morning, dawn, afternoon, evening and Night. Business was
strictly private, organisations were simple, and accountability was to self or family.
Given the complex systems of our present organisations with highly computerized technology,
and specialized functions, personnel cannot rely on mechanisms that have broken the day into
morning, noon and night to perform functions effectively. Hence the efficacy of timing device called
clock which has segmented the day and night into hours, minutes and seconds to guide man in
time allocation and performance of his multifarious and multidimensional tasks. Whatever resources
are available to the organisation are managed within a definite time frame. An organisation
stipulates when work commences and closes, when to recruit personnel, when to orientate recruited
personnel, when to supervise them, when to appraise, when to receive visitors and when to go for
work-break.
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When, talks about time and time are one of the most precious assets (resources) of any
organisation. That ‘when’, indicates the time frame work within which to allocate the various
management functions of an organisation. How managers of an organisation spend their time on
their job determines to a large extent the productivity level of the organisation and its effective and
efficient performance, profits and survival of the individual and the organization as a whole.
Time is an immaterial resource, inelastic, scarce and erodes fast and once spent, cannot be
wound back, stored or recalled for use. The effective and efficient management of time is as
important as the management of other human and material resources available to the
administrator. This is because given an abundance of human and material resources (which is never
the case at any time) a poor time manager would be faced with low productivity inefficiency,
ineffectiveness, low morale, stress and frustration with himself and among his workers.
The Meaning of Time Management
Time management as postulates by Achunine (2004 p.218) can be defined as the effective and
efficient utilization of a manager’s or an administrator’s corporate time to achieve organisational
and personal goals.
It involves identifying tasks to be performed, planning and scheduling of organisational
activities, prioritizing such activities, allocating time to the tasks according to their degree of
importance in enhancing productivity minimizing interruptions and frivolities and dealing with
routine tasks in such a way that the truly important tasks could receive due attention.
How a school administrator applies these strategies/principles to the management of his
contract time will determine largely the coverage of the school’s curricular prescriptions for a given
period of time. It will also determine the school’s performance in the internally and externally set
examinations, the discipline tone and general performance in other areas of school administration.
When time are scheduled and appropriate amount of time allocated to the performance of each
according to their degree of importance in achieving definite organizational goals and at the same
time pruning time wasters, one can be said to exercise control of one’s corporate time.
Time utilization, Adedeji (1998 p.220), remarks could be explained within the framework of
doing the right thing at the right time in the workplace. For effective classroom management and
control, time management skills must be imbibed. Wikipedia defines Time Management as “a range
of skills, tools, and techniques used to manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and
goals. This set encompasses a wide scope of activities, and these include planning, allocating,
setting goals, delegation, analysis of time spent, monitoring, organizing, scheduling, and
prioritizing. Initially, time management referred to just business or work activities, but eventually the
term broadened to include personal activities as well. A time management system is a designed
combination of processes, tools, techniques, and methods. Usually time management is a necessity
in any project development as it determines the project completion time and scope.
Tasks of School Administration
The introduction of the 3-3 system of secondary education with its comprehensive programme
offerings and new social expectations have made the tasks of the present school administration
more cumbersome, stretching and challenging. If administration is to facilitate teaching and
learning, how one schedules the various tasks and allocates commensurate amount of time to the
various tasks, determines to a large extent the productivity level of the organisation.
These various tasks and functions have been identified by Agabi (2002)
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Policy implementation and programme planning Human Resource Management

Student Personnel Management

Instructional Resource Maintenance

School plant management

School finance Management

Record Maintenance Time Management

Maintenance of a Healthy school community relations.
These tasks and functions are all in the principal’s duty schedule. They can be productively
addressed by the administrator; if he acquires the necessary tune management skills by Killian,
Michael and Sexton (1999 p.83).
These tasks have been categorized into;

Professional goal functions

Critical/crises functions, and

Maintenance functions
Alegbe (1989 p.338)) agreed that curriculum and instruction are at number one in importance
in achieving school goals, most school principals do not allocate commensurate amount of time to
them. It is believed that since the boards of education and The Ministry reward and reinforce the
well- managed and efficiently operated school, principals perform more of routine office jobs by
which they can easily be assessed and pay only lip service to curriculum and instructional matters
(professional goal matters). It is certain that when principals allocate most of their time for
instructional leadership functions, negative outcomes result in the schools.
Strategies of Time Management
There are some strategies which guide effective and efficient utilization of time by
managers/Administrators. Sound time management is more than what common sense or
experience can teach one. The strategies must be learnt and practiced until one gets involved with
the science and art of time management. Its application is not strictly guided by true laws but it can
be systematically practiced. Achunine (2004 p.79) proposed that time could be managed through
the following;
1. Planning
Administrators should plan effective use of their time and should not perform tasks by chance.
Planning can either be short-range covering daily, weekly, monthly tasks or longer-range. The
daily time table is an example of a clear, rather rigid plan of how the days in each week can be
spent productively in the school. It shows a daily/weekly plan of time allocation to the various
school subjects, programmes and other resources. It ensures that everyone in the school is
productively engaged all the time, doing what the school approves as worthwhile. The issue of the
school time table highlights the importance of managing time to great advantage. For a school
administrator to plan effective and productive use of core time he must be very familiar with the
specifics of his job and the goals the school and school system are striving to achieve during a
definite time period. In line with this Smithson (1998 p. 178) postulates that every school
administrator must have details of his job description embracing all the task areas of the
principalship. An analysis of the duties and responsibilities based on clear knowledge of the job
description of the principalship and the goals of the school system would inform a principal which
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functions he can perform based on his superior expertise and experience and which he may
delegate to other staff.
Achunine (2004 p.228) states that it is advisable to keep a “things-todo” list or draw up a
personal time chart on a daily and weekly bases. The chart conveys at a glance what he is expected
to do and what he expects himself to do to achieve mapped out goals and objectives.
Personal Time Chart
Activity
From……..
To………...
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
When tasks are planned, administrators should not allow urgent events to thwart their plan of
activities. Nwankwo and Lulsegged (1985 p.26) articulated some consequences of poor planning —
continuous lack of, or inadequate, time and opportunity for carrying out the essential duties.

Increased misunderstanding and confusion,

Lack of direction, purpose and commitment

Frequent stampede or panic measure to beat deadlines

Generally poor quality of administration and lower quality of products among members.

Lack of coordination

Lack of self-realization arising from time wastage and little lime to attend to private
matters.

Conflicts in schedules, timing, activities and even interpersonal relations.
2. Scheduling Task/Activities
This skill involves the school administrator in making an inventory of specific activities which would
lead to the realization of the long and short-term school goals. Goal setting and subsequent
strategies developed to achieve those goals are the key to spending time productively. For example;
i) School goals: To provide more security for the school property.
Activities:
a) Building fences
b) Providing burglary proof for windows and door
c) Hiring security men.
ii) School goals: Involving the community more closely in school affairs.
Activities:
(a) Arranging PTA meetings
(b) Arranging Old Boys’ Forum
(c) Arranging school’s Day
(d) Arranging school’s social/cultural day activities.
iii) School goals: Introducing science programme for the school.
Activities:
(a) Recruiting science teachers
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(b) Procurement of science instructional materials
(c) Developing science curriculum/laboratories.
3. Setting Up Priorities and Time Allocation
When tasks have been scheduled, the next move is to put the specific activities through which the
goals of the hoo1 are expected to be achieved into hierarchy, according to their degree of
importance in enhancing productivity, from the most educationally productive to the least
educationally productive functions.
Killian, Michael and Sexton (1999 p.134), proposed the idea of time scheduling and time
allocation to tasks based on how educationally productive they are for ensuring effective teaching
and learning. In their time management ladder, they grouped the numerous functions of the school
administrator into three categories;
The professional goal functions, the critical/crisis functions and maintenance functions, with
the professional goal functions at the apex of the ladder and the maintenance functions at the base
of the ladder in order of priority.
The professional goal functions embrace all efforts by the administrator towards the
development and implementation of the curriculum and instructional matters and most functions in
staff personnel matters that lead directly to effective teaching and learning. Maintenance functions
embrace all routine management tasks geared towards maintaining stability and status quo in the
school.
The middle level critical/crisis functions embrace mostly activities critical to student personnel
administration and fiscal management etc.
Killian and Sexton (1999 p.89) maintained that it is very important to allocate large quality time
at a stretch to programmes of importance instead of allocating bits of time stretched out for a long
period to the same function. For instance, allocate some two to three weeks in the year at a stretch
for supervision of all teachers in the school, lasting for about three hours each day. This will give the
administrator a clear and comprehensive picture of the direction the programmes of the curriculum
are going and what general and specific problems there are in relation to effective teaching and
learning in the school. Allowances must however be made for emergencies and unexpected events
as they are bound to come up in any human organisation.
Over-estimation of time should be preferred to under-estimation to avoid frustration of not
meeting deadlines.
Priority order of
activities
Daily Planning Document
Estimated time needed
When is this time
for completion
available?
Priority 1
Activities
Priority 2
Activities
Priority 3
Activities
Setting Priorities By Executives
4. Delegation
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A principal must ask himself, which of the activities mapped out on the schedule could be done by
someone else just as well as he can, or even better?” There is no time enough for the administrator
to do all that are considered important, so the school administrator should carefully select some
assignments which he is best suited to perform in the school based on his expertise and experience
and delegate others to some other competent staff. Wayne, Edwards (2002 p.140) are of the view
that a lot of maintenance functions and pupils personnel matters should be delegated to the viceprincipals, guidance counsellors and class masters.
5. Evaluation
At the end of each day, an executive should ask himself: “How has my official time been spent
today? How much have I kept to the scheduled for specific activities? What activities actually
consumed the largest amount of time? Have I maintained the priority list and estimated time
allocation?” (Achunine 2004 p.229).
6. Eliminating Frivolities and Time Wasters
Managers and administrators are contracted to spend their core time usefully towards the
achievement of organisational goals.
In Africa, misappropriation of official time for unofficial activities is evidenced among many
managers, (Alugbuo, 2005 p.62). Principals are expected to put in a contract time of six and half
hours on each working day. The debit time principals owe as a result of not completing the contract
hour is not made up in most cases through spending extra time in the day or week. Frivolities and
time wasters in school organisation include receiving and attending to personal visitors during
official hours, escorting personal visitors out, going to the market or mechanic workshop, spending
unauthorized break periods, attending to other social engagements, prolonged phone chats and
unnecessary meetings. In a study on time management by principals, Achunine (2004 p.34)
discovered that whereas principals would wish to allocate only 4% of their working time to non
official tasks, in actuality they allocate 7.05% to these activities. This amount of time was found to
be more than 6.4 1% they allocate to staff personnel functions and 4.55% they allocate to finance
and business management. Time spent on frivolities is time robbed the organisation and time spent
away from productivity, effectiveness and efficiency.
If “frivolities” must find their place within the organisation’s contract time, they must be
scheduled within the authorized break periods. If however, the unexpected happens, for example,
an administrator’s visitor must be attended to in the office; such amount of time spent on him must
be made up outside the official hours. Time spent on gossips and unofficial conversations is big
time wasted. Rest and leisure must be planned and allocated proper place for effective use of time.
Values of Time Management
Alegbe (1989 p.218) enumerated about five values of time management.
include:
1. To Avoid Stress And Frustration
People feel frustrated when they do not finish important jobs they set out to do within a time limit.
Such people develop panic in their lives and at times rush in inadequately done tasks. At such times,
people find themselves working long hours even into the nights, weekends and spending what
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should be rest and leisure hours rushing under stress to get specific tasks accomplished.
Procrastination wastes corporate time and makes task performance run into time allocated to other
obligations. Stress sets in when this happens. Thus managing time is stress management of the
highest order.
2. Balance Between Work And Personal Life
Some administrators complain that school work does not allow them time to do some of the things
they would personally want to do (such as writing a book, attending conferences, seminars and
workshops and even taking their annual leave and family leisure) whereas some others have time
for all they would want to do. This is attributable to how well one can plan for effective use of time.
Good time management skills integrate the administrator’s corporate time plan with that for his
personal life. Good time management enables one to achieve a more balanced life with adequate
time and energy for work, leisure, home, family and self.
3. For Meaningful Productivity
“Time equals productivity” so goes a saying in the business world. How managers of organisations
spend their time on their job determines to a large extent the productivity level of the survival of
the individuals and organisation as a whole. When people work on intelligently scheduled
programmes, allowing more time for priorities, eliminating frivolities and time wasters, they become
more effective and efficient in their work thus leading a meaningful productivity.
Efficient and effective use of time automatically increases the productivity level of an
administrator.
4. Goal Achievement
When an administrator properly schedules his corporate and personal activities and allocates
proportionate time to the performance of the functions, he tends to achieve both corporate and
personal goals which he has mapped out.
5. Staff Development
Since an administrator skilled in tune management delegates specific functions to staff, he offers inservice opportunities to staff to learn, grow, ultimately develop competence through practice and
experience.
Factors That Influence Time Management
Even though what administrators do on a given day may be determined in part by advanced
planning, scheduled daily/weekly responsibilities, certain factors play a major role in influencing
time management practices of administrators. Some of the factors include;
1. Events That Just Come Up:
Events that just come up tend to make the planning process highly influenced. They have the
characteristic of shattering an administrator’s daily, weekly, monthly or yearly Calendar e.g. teacher’s
strike action, emergencies in the school compound etc. Duignan (2000 p.178) observed that certain
activities or events (unplanned for) come up and often initiate a series of reactions from the
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administrator that last for a whole morning, day or week. The administrator is therefore compelled
to spend much of his time reacting to events that just come up instead of acting on already
scheduled events. Administrators are however advised to develop strategies whereby they act on
their task priority instead of spending a huge proportion of their time reacting to events that come
up.
2. Lack of professional training and lack of knowledge of skill of time management.
Wayne, Edwards (2002 p.229) postulates that many school administrators do not have a
professional training in educational administration, and such could not be said to be conversant
with the specifics or job description of the school administrator. It is when he is sure of what to do
that the individual tries to order his priorities right. Lack of appropriate academic and professional
knowledge and skill could be blamed for the inadequate performance of many principals. In
addition some school administrators have not been exposed to courses/ seminar in time
management as do other managers of industries. Surely, training deficiencies are contributory to
inefficiency and ineffective management of resources in general and time in particular.
3. Large staff and students population:
Drucker (1995 p.281) found in his study that the principals of schools with large student population,
especially those located in the urban areas spend unnecessary large proportion of their school
hours on pupils and personnel matters and public relation issues instead of curriculum and
instruction planning and implementation, principals in the rural schools with lesser student
population spend more time than their counterparts on curriculum development than on public
relations and pupils problems. In order not to allow the expenditure of time resource to waste
unnecessarily to issues that are not directly connected to improving curriculum, teaching and
learning, the size of students/staff population should be minimal.
4. Fear of offending people:
Fear of offending people has been identified as one of the factors that could influence how the
principals spend their time. Some administrators could be constrained to reschedule their time
unnecessarily if they are the type that fears offending people, especially visitors to the school.
Achunine (2004 p.228). But school administrators should learn to say No at times since there is no
time and nowhere anyone could do what everyone wants. The important thing is to tackle
scheduled priority tasks at the scheduled time since these will enhance the administrator’s
productivity level.
Conclusion
Even though in human situation no one can scientifically and completely manage time resource, yet
through acquisition of time management skills, through practice and exercise of discipline, and also
plugging time leaks and will to achieve, administrators can control their time to enhance
productivity at work place.
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References
Achunine (2004), Management of Administration of Secondary School Education, Owerri; Totan Publishers
Agabi (1991), Introducing Educational Planning. Port Harcourt: International Centre for Educational Services.
Adedeji (1998), The Relationship between Resource utilization and Academic performance in vocational education
in Osun State Secondary Schools, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis; University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Alegbe (1989) “The role of the educational administration iii the Nigerian Environment: Getting Better or Worse”.
Novelty md. Enterprise Lt
Alugbuo, (2005), Time Management: Implication for administrative efficiency and effectiveness, Public Service
Management Journal Vol.1 No.4; Owerri Government Press.
Drucker, P. F. (1995), The Effective Executive, London; William Heinemann Ltd.
Duignan (2000), Administrative Behaviour of School Superintendents: A descriptive Study; The Journal of
Educational Administration. Vol.XV, No.2.
Federal Republic of Nigeria; FRN (2004), Lagos: Ministry of Education Press.
Killian, Michael and Sexton (1999), Climbing the Ladder to leadership. NASSP Bulletin Vol.63, No.425.
Nwaiwu, (2000), Factors of effective secondary school administration in Owerri Zone; unpublished M.Ed Thesis;
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Smithson (1998), Secondary School size: a continuing conundrum for administrators and planners, the journal of
Educational Administration; Vol.XV, No.2.
Wayne, Edwards (2002), The role of prinapals in five New Zealand Primary Schools: An ethnographic perspective,
The Journal of Educational Administration; Vol.XVH, No.2.
Wikipedia. En, Wild. Org/wiki/Time Management.
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How to Improve Prediction of Risk from Ground
VOCs Using in-Borehole Gas Monitoring
Nwachukwu, A. N and 2Ugwuanyi, J. U
1
University of Manchester, United Kingdom
University of Agriculture, Makurdi Nigeria.
1
2
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p125
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) have a variety of negative impacts on human health (Harold, 1998;
Barbara et al, 2007), some (e.g. benzene and formaldehyde,) are known to be human carcinogens (IARC,
2004). There is, therefore, often a pressing requirement to monitor these compounds. However,
monitoring these compounds is not straightforward as their concentrations vary with environmental
parameters such as temperature, barometric pressure and groundwater movement. Because of this, the
sampling frequency that is used at present is ineffective for determining their representative concentration;
therefore, a device which can be left in-situ to collect high temporal resolution data has been developed
(Gasclam, Ionscience, UK). VOC’s are measured by Photoionisation detector (PID), however; PID measures
aggregated VOC concentration. Because VOC’s have differing toxicities and behaviours, individual
identification is required, therefore, a sample must be collected. In order to do this, a sorbent material
must be used to transfer the sample to the GC-MS for identification. The sorbent material must be
appropriate for the range of VOC’s and of sufficient capacity for extended exposure (BS EN ISO 160171:2001). To solve these problems, an optimum VOC monitoring methodology known as dual measurement
VOC monitoring has been developed following the incorporation of a suitable sorbent into the latest inborehole monitoring device, the Gasclam (Ionscience, UK).
Keywords: Dual VOCs measurement; risk prediction; carcinogenicity; sorbent material; photoionisation detector
(PID).
1.0 Introduction
VOC is an acronym for volatile organic carbon/compound. VOCs have been defined in different
ways by different people based on their environment and circumstances, however; there is this
consensus that they are organic compounds which are volatile under normal
atmospheric/environmental conditions irrespective of the state or form in which they exist (CIRIA
766). They can undergo vapour intrusion, emission and/or vapour release at normal temperature
and pressure
VOCs are made up of diverse mixture of different products which vary in their chemical
framework, resulting in a huge variation in their toxicity, mobility and breakdown properties of
different products. They are however, of three categories:
i.
Petroleum (non-halogenated) hydrocarbons, for example, benzene, toluene, butyl
benzenes.
ii.
Halogenated hydrocarbons, for example, chlorinated ethenes and ethanes (e.g. dry
cleaning fluids or degreasers) or chlorofluorocarbons (freons).
iii.
Nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen-containing organic compounds, for example,
tetrahydrofuran.
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VOCs can be derived from natural sources, however; their presence in the environment is
mainly due to spillage/leakage of solvents or fuels associated with industrial and commercial
activities such as their production, storage, distribution, and use in industrial processing (CIRIA 766).
It has been widely observed that volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are often the most frequently
detected contaminants in soil and ground water abandoned landfills and Brownfield sites (West et
al., 1995). This is largely due to extensive use of solutions of VOCs and products containing some
VOCs resulting in accumulation and release of considerable quantities to the environment. In
addition, indiscriminate disposal of waste chemicals and accidental discharge from petrol
underground storage tank contribute significantly to VOCs released to the environment. The
redevelopment of Brownfield and other contaminated sites necessitated by increasing demand for
housing in the UK means that the fate, transport and exposure pathways of this contaminant need
to be ascertained.
The presence of elevated VOC concentrations in drinking water may be a concern to human
health because of their potential as carcinogens (benzene and 1, 3-butadiene) (Rowe et al., 2007). In
addition to cancer risk, VOCs may adversely affect the liver, kidneys, spleen, and stomach, as well as
the nervous, circulatory, reproductive, immune, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems (Row et al.,
2007). There is also an increasing concern about its migration from the subsurface into overlying
buildings as important exposure pathways. Given the known or suspected human-health concerns
and the increasing demand for contaminated sites, there is therefore need for effective monitoring
methodology for its fate and transport from source of discharge in order to determine the true
subsurface concentration and the potential for migration.
However, monitoring VOCs is not straightforward. This is because, unlike other ground-gases
such as CH4, CO2, CO and H2S; VOCs not only vary in concentration but also in type. Total VOCs is
not a good measure for risk assessment since individual VOCs differ in effect (be it health or
environmental). There is, therefore, often a requirement to characterize them. This is particularly
pertinent due to often close proximity between human population and their potential sources.
2.0 Current VOC monitoring techniques
The monitoring of ground-gas concentrations such as that of VOCs, methane and carbon dioxide,
generated by contaminated sites (example, landfills and brownfields) is becoming a more common
legislative requirement due to the potential problems these gases pose, such as the risks of
explosion, toxicity, carcinogenicity and global warming. Before now, several monitoring techniques
have been used for characterisation of contaminated sites and these have helped to shape the
policy direction of development of land and remediation strategies. In particular and as detailed
before, in-situ monitoring of VOCs can be a complicated task, especially given the fact that they not
only vary in concentration but also in type coupled with complex interactions of several factors
responsible for generation and migration of VOCs and other ground-gases.
Monitoring of ground-gases including VOCs in contaminated sites can be sub-categorized into
sampling and analysis.
2.1 Sampling – Presently, the majority of contaminated sites gas analysis is achieved either through
spot sampling or through the use of large expensive fixed position monitoring stations. Other
methods include Purge and trap (also called headspace), solvent extraction (using methanol or
hexane), static headspace and solid phase micro-extraction (SPME). More recently it has been
recognised that gas production and migration responds to environmental factors such as
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barometric pressure and groundwater movement, with the accompanying realization that these
conventional sampling methods will often miss such changes.
For example, using portable gas detection instruments to spot check boreholes from time to
time is fraught with potential issues. Considerable published material exists that question whether
the traditional method of collecting gas-data from boreholes is at all adequate. The use of the
numerous guidance notes (e.g. CIRIA and CL: AIRE) from the legislators and enforcers would seem
to indicate they too think the current methods are flawed. To evaluate boreholes effectively detailed
and frequent measurements are required, particularly when events occur e.g. such as when the
barometric pressure falls. Data collected on in periodic spot check basis does not give a complete
picture, so decisions are made reliant on historic set points rather than real trend information on the
borehole being monitored.
Investigating VOC contamination in the subsurface involves several components and specific
activities are required to assist in the delineating the current nature and extent of contamination
and provide appropriate and adequate data to enable site clean-up goals to be established
(Siegrist, 2003). Conventionally, risk assessment involves analysis of samples taken from points
evenly spaced across a site, as well as sample taken from any area known to be of higher risk due to
past land usage or natural patterns.
If an investigation is not designed to assess all aspects and areas of contamination on a site,
even if accurate analysis of sample is achieved, result will not present realistic assessment of
contamination present (Siegrist, 2003). The conventional methods of monitoring VOCs rely on
periodic concentration measurements. They have been proven to be unrepresentative, with
significant uncertainties in the prediction of VOC migration in the subsurface.
2.2 Analysis - After the in-situ extraction of VOC compound is done, the samples are then taken to
the laboratory for analysis with the use of gas chromatographs and/or spectrophotometers (Mercer
and Spalding, 1991, 2001). The problem with this approach as noted above is its reliability and
representativeness. The off-site laboratory analysis often takes weeks before the result is available.
In the best case, in-situ measurement are done with the field portable gas chromatographic system
equipped with a variety of detectors including electron capture, photonisation and mass ion
detector (Koglin and Einfeld, 2001). The on-site potable analytical techniques can indeed provide a
quick-turnaround data in the field which can be used to guide a site investigation in progress which
in a way reduces the sampling error resulting from storage and transportation of samples. However,
the methodologies, in-situ and ex-situ, require sampling at intervals, thereby missing out the effect
the changes in environmental controls (such as temperature and pressure) would have on the
migration of the pollutant.
3.0 Major Flaws in current methods
3.1 Sampling – Ground-gas (i.e. products of respiration and VOC) concentration and flow have
been recognised to vary with environmental parameters which show high temporal variability. The
possibility of getting representative measurement of such parameters requires multiple
measurements. In the case of ground-gas risk assessment, flaws in the existing multiple
measurement approach to measuring and predicting risk arising from ground-gases such as VOCs
have been identified explicitly in the literature (Wilson et al., 2009) and are implicit in the continuous
evolution of guidance notes (e.g. CIRIA).
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Boult et al (2011) explained that the two underlying causes of these flaws are that, whilst
accurate quantification of risk requires accurate measurement of ground-gas concentration and of
ground-gas fluxes,
1. Neither is measured directly :
 concentration of the gas in the ground is inferred from periodic (weekly – monthly)
sampling of the gas accumulated within a borehole
 flow of the gas from the ground is inferred from periodic measurement of gasflow from
the same borehole.
 The relationships these inferences are based on will be highly site-specific and time
dependent.
2. Both are likely to be temporally variable.
3.2 Analysis - There are many different types of VOCs each with differing toxicities and behaviours
and therefore, requiring specific identification and quantification. Analysis by typical field
instrumentations such as photoionization detector (PID) and flame ionization detector (FID), does
not allow this specificity since they give only aggregate VOC concentrations. FID and PID are
common tools used for site investigation. PIDs contain a UV lamp of a particular energy (e.g. 10.6
eV or 11.7 eV); any chemical species with an ionization potential at or below this energy will be
detected. FIDs require a fuel gas (hydrogen) to burn hydrocarbons in a small flame, ionizing the
chemical species which are present; thus any chemical species with a C-H bond (hydrocarbons) will
be detected (including lighter end C1 –C3 hydrocarbons which may not be considered part of TVOC
definition). While each of these instruments responds to a wide range of compounds and yield a
“total value”, the detection limits of these instruments are typically in the range of 0.1 – 0.5 ppmv
(as isobutylene for PID and as methane for FID), and therefore may not be suitable for the low-level
TVOC assessment.
Generally, these approaches are slow, iterative and costly. As observed by West et al (1995),
the analysis of each sample can cost as much as 300 dollars. The slow and periodic sampling
coupled with the high cost of analysis usually results in inadequate number of samples, and thereby
making it absolutely impossible to infer a representative concentration.
“The quantification of risk requires accurate measurement of ground-VOC concentration and
fluxes” (Morris, 2008), neither of which can be achieved by the existing technique but by technique
that enables collection of time-series data. Time-series data allows temporal variability to be
quantified and accounted for and can ultimately improve understanding of processes, thereby
reducing uncertainty in risk prediction (Morris, 2008). There is therefore a requirement for a
continuous in-situ monitoring methodology which would ensure effective risk assessment and
prediction.
Having identified the flaws in the current VOCs monitoring methodology, this paper aims to
demonstrate how Gasclam In-Borehole Gas Monitoring technology can be used to obtain an
improved VOC risk prediction by remedying the flaws in the current VOC monitoring methodology.
4.0 The solutions to the flaws
4.1 Solution 1 – In-borehole ground-gas monitor (Gasclam)
The solution will be to increase the sampling frequency of these gases to match the frequency of
their environmental controls and also use a device that can measure them directly. Matching the
gases with their controls will not only help to derive an optimum methodology for monitoring
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them, but will also help to predict how the gases will change in future. To do this cost effectively, an
in-situ device is needed, and such a device must be secure, able to operate unmanned, and must be
certified for explosive environment (ATEX). A recently developed device is the gasclam (Ionscience,
UK) (figure 1).
Figure 1: Gasclam
Gasclam In-Borehole Gas Monitor (IGM), developed by Salamander, is the latest gas sensor
technology that allows continuous unmanned measurements of ground gas including VOCs. In
addition to that, it allows the understanding of spatial and temporal variability in the migration of
VOC across a contaminated site. This will allow reduction in the uncertainty in prediction of VOC
migration in the subsurface, a more site-specific risk assessment and consequently allows informed
decision on remediation and redevelopment strategies for contaminated sites.
It logs long term, real trend information, allowing informed decision to be made on accurate,
reliable data – a revolution in gas management and prediction. The Gasclam gas monitor measures
methane, carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations as well as atmospheric pressure and
temperature. Optional CO, H2S and VOC, plus water depth are available along with a telemetry
module for remote, real time data communication. Incorporated into it for VOC measurement is the
photoionisation detector (PID). Its sampling frequency can be set and is variable from two minutes,
to once daily. Data is downloaded to a PC or viewed remotely using the optional GPRS telemetry
system.
It is made from stainless steel and therefore intrinsically safe. It is environmentally sealed and has
ingress protection rated IP-68. It is battery operated and can be powered for up to three months
based on hourly sampling. Target applications for the Gasclam ground gas monitor include landfill
for long term profiling, Brownfield for development issues, monitoring for coal mine fires, leakage in
crude/petroleum, solvent storage and filling stations, refineries for local compliance, and for below
ground carbon capture and storage monitoring regimes (www.ionscience.com/products/gasclam). It
has the following advantages over the spot sampling:
a) The new Gasclam monitor can be installed in a borehole and gas data collected
continuously (figure 2).
b) Data can be collected for up to 3 months and routine site visits are not necessary, which is
always a problem when using portable instruments.
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d)
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The savings in time are very significant, but Gasclam doesn't just give a snapshot of gas
levels as provided from a portable instrument. It provides continuous and comprehensive
information regarding gas conditions.
Measurements of methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide,
VOCs and pressure are logged to memory. Data can be retrieved to a lap-top or can be
collected remotely with the telemetry module (figure 2).
Gasclam Installation
Figure 2: Process of Gasclam installation
4.2 Solution 2 - Appropriate sorbent
The solution for identification and quantification of the various VOCs would be to use an
appropriate sorbent to collect and transfer the sample of VOCs for analysis (GC-MS). The sorbent
must be suitable for the range of VOCs and of sufficient capacity for extended exposure (BS EN ISO
16017-1: 2001). Also, in order to be able to report VOC as concentration, the volume of the gas
passed over the sorbent must be recorded. This means that for effective VOC monitoring, dual
measurement is required.
5.0 Dual measurement VOC monitoring
Measuring ground VOC can be a difficult task since it would be hard to determine the amount of
the soil contributing them. A mixture of VOCs each of unknown mass/volume from the ground is
measured by the PID as time resolved aggregate VOC concentration. With the aid of the pump, the
mixture is now passed across the sorbent which absorbes them. The sorbent is transferred into the
laboratory for their individual identification and quantification as mass using the GC-MS. This mass
is now divided with the known volume of the gases gotten when passed through the pump, and the
concentration is realised as time averaged individual VOC concentration. So, while the PID resolves
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the problem of temporal variability, the sorbent tackles that of variability of type, hence a dual
measurement VOC monitoring (figure 3).
Dual measurement VOC monitoring
Gasclam in-situ
Laboratory
Transfer
1. Identification
material
Sorbent
2. Quantification - mass
information
Measured volume
Mass / volume
+
Aggregate VOC
Pump
PID
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
24/10/2009 00:00
13/11/2009 00:00
Mixture of VOC’s
Each of unknown mass/volume
Figure 3: VOC monitoring methodology
6.0 Conclusion
This research demonstrates the utility of Gasclam In-borehole gas monitor, the effectiveness of
which depends on the incorporated devices. They are the photoionisation detector (PID) and the
adsorbent tube. With the aid of the gasclam PID, it is now possible to collect Time resolved
aggregate VOC’s concentration, whilst with the aid of the sorption material incorporated into the
gasclam, VOCs sample can be adsorbed and subsequently desorbed by means of thermal
desorption/ Gas Chromatography (TD/GC-MS). The result is a gas chromatogram which gives Time
averaged individual VOC’s concentration. This means that for improved risk prediction from ground
VOCs, dual monitoring VOCs measurement is required.
References
Barbara, L., Rowe, Patricia L. Toccalino, Michael J. Moran, John S. Zogorski, and Curtis V. Price., (2007).
Occurrence and Potential Human-Health Relevance of Volatile Organic Compounds in Drinking Water
from Domestic Wells in the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives 115:1539–1546.
Boult, S., Morris, P., & Talbot, S., (2011). Contaminated land application in real environment (CL: AIRE) bulletin,
RB 13. [Available online] URL: http://www.ground-gassolutions.co.uk
BS EN ISO 16017-1 :( 2001). Indoor, ambient and workplace air. Sampling and analysis of volatile organic
compounds by sorbent tube/thermal desorption/capillary gas chromatography. Pumped sampling
Harold, J. R., (1998). Odor and VOC Handbook. McGraw-Hill publishing Companies, USA.
IARC, (2004). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), overall evaluation of carcinogenicity to
humans, IARC monographs vol. 1-88.
Katy, B., Helen, H., Lara, P., Don, B., and Cecilia, M., (2009).The VOCs Handbook: Investigation, assessing, and
managing risks from inhalation of VOCs at land affected by contamination. CIRIA Report 766.
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Koglin, E., and Einfeld, W., (2001). Site characterization and monitoring technologies,technology profile: On-site
analysis of VOCs in water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Mercer, J.W., and Spalding, C.P., (1991). Characterization of the vadose zone In Site Characterization for
Subsurface Remediation. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Morris, P., (2008). How to deal with time series ground-gas data, using analytical techniques from other
disciplines. (Online) Available: www.gasclam.co.uk/downloads/Peter%20Morris.ppt. Assessed 11th
December, 2008.
Rowe, B.L., Toccalino, P.L., Moran, M.J., Zogorski, J.S., and Price, C.V., (2007). Occurnece and potential humanhealth relevance of volatile organic compounds in drinking water from domestic wells in the Untied States.
Environmental Health Perspective 115:1539–1546 (2007). Available Online: http://dx.doi.org/
Siegrist, R. L., (2003). Sampling technologies for site characterization and long-term monitoring in evaluation of
demonstrated and emerging technologies for the treatment and clean up of contaminated land and
groundwater (Phase III). NATO/CCMS Pilot Study, USEPA 542-R-02-011. Accessed 22nd March, 2009.
URL// http://www.epa.gov/swertio1/download/partner/2002_special_session.pdf.
West, O. R., Siegrist, R.L., Mitchell, T.J., and Jenkins, R.A., (1995). Measurement error and spatial variability effects
on characterization of volatile organics in the subsurface. Environmental science and technology, 1995, 29
(3), 647-656 (Online) Available: http://pubs.acs.org Assessed 15th January, 2009.
Wilson, S., Card, G., and Haines, S., (2008). The local authority guide to ground-gas. The Chartered Institute of
Environmental Health: London.
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A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility,
Mass Tort And Environment Protection
Sukhvinder Singh Dari
Symbiosis Law School, Noida Symbiosis International University, Pune,India
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p133
Abstract
The corporations have weaved a bilateral fibre for itself in the percipience of the critiques worldwide. The
research paper highlights the corporate social responsibility that lies with the corporations examining it
under two different tabs. The first part of the paper provides a critique on some Industrial disaster wherein
the right to health and Clean Environment which forms an integral part of the responsibilities those vests
with industries towards the social stratum were violated at large. The paper further examines the scope of
right to enviornment and the role of industries giving special reference to the liability that has been
brushed off by the industry owners. The first part concludes with a note of conflict. A critical analysis has
been done to examine the liability of the parent company and states whether or not they have adequately
fulfilled their responsibility after the tragedy.The second part highlights the social mandates that the
industries are ought to follow. Witnessing the current status quo the paper relies on primary as well as
secondary data to divulge the concern of these industries in segregation of global poverty and poor health
stipulations. It brings in light the laxity of Private enterprises in maintaining societal mandate or the
organizational capabilities to nourish the underprivileged or provide health care to the ailing citizens midst
the territorial boundaries of developing and under developed nations.The research paper concludes by
providing paradigms and methodology to the issues such as setting the bench mark of the corporate social
responsibilities that a industry should contribute for the protection of the environment and the
consequence of non-fulfilment of the same. It also proposes an effective redressal mechanism that can be
incorporated for the interpretation of existing legislations.
Keywords: - Corporate Social Responsibility, Accountability, Industries, Bhopal Gas Tragedy, Social Economic
Mandates, Negligence of Private Enterprises, Developing and Under Developed Nations, Redressal mechanism.
“Can we learn from this lesson, or can mankind educate itself only by disaster and tragedy?"
Sen. Paul Douglas, on the acceptance of the Senate's 1962 drug bill1
Introduction
It is an undisputed fact that the term Corporate social responsibility is nowhere defined in a perfect
manner in any of the lexicons. Few people tried propounding a complete definition however, none
succeeded. Till date such a definition has not been coined this clearly depicts every dimension of
this Term. McWilliams & Siegel (2001) define CSR as "actions that appear to further some social
good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law " and similarly Carroll's
(1991) tried propounding a model of 'Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility ' taking
1
Harvey Teff & Colin R. Munro, Thalidomide: The Legal Aftermath 111 (1976), quoted in R. Harris, The Real Voice
215 (1964).
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philanthropic requirements as grounds. The term is often used synonymously for other terms such
as Corporate Citizenship and is also linked to the concept of Triple Bottom Line Reporting (TBL),
which is used as a framework for measuring an organisation’s performance against economic, social
and environmental parameters. The rationale for CSR has been articulated in a number of ways. In
essence it is about building sustainable businesses, which need healthy economies, markets and
communities . Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has variously been described as a ‘motherhood
issue’ (Ryan 2002, p. 302) ‘the hot business issue of the noughties’ (Blyth 2005, p. 30) and ‘the talk
of the town in corporate circles these days’ (Mees & Bonham 2004) . There seems to be an infinite
number of definitions of CSR, ranging from the simplistic to the complex, and a range of associated
terms and ideas (some used interchangeably), including ‘corporate sustainability, corporate
citizenship, corporate social investment, the triple bottom line, socially responsible investment,
business sustainability and corporate governance’ (Prime Minister's Community Business
Partnership). It has been suggested that ‘some…researchers…distort the definition of corporate
social responsibility or performance so much that the concept becomes morally vacuous,
conceptually meaningless, and utterly unrecognizable’(Orlitzky 2005) ; or CSR may be regarded as
‘the panacea which will solve the global poverty gap, social exclusion and environmental
degradation’ (Van Marrewijk 2003) .
Mass Torts
Tort means a breach of some duty independent of contract giving rise to a civil cause of action and
for which compensation is recoverable. The person committing a tort or wrong is called a tort
feasor or wrong doer, and his misdoing is a tortious act. The principal aim of the law of torts is
compensation of victims or their dependents.2
‘Mass Torts’ can be put in plain words as ‘such activity of the defendant, the harm caused by
which is wide and a large number or sector of society gets affected simultaneously. A mass tort is a
civil action involving numerous plaintiffs against one or a few corporate defendants in state or
federal court. As the name implies a mass tort includes many plaintiffs and law firms have used the
mass media to reach possible plaintiffs. Mass torts may include mass disaster torts, mass toxic or
noxious torts and product liability torts3.
A noxious tort is one in which the wrongful act consists of exposure to a deadly substance.
This could occur in a variety of ways, such as an accidental release (example a chemical spill or
explosion), workplace exposure (example to solvent fumes or asbestos), or harmful effects from
medications or other consumer products.
Tracing from the pages of history, Corporate Social Responsibility, as identified in long history
in both the East and West, is about a commitment to social philanthropy, in the belief that the
creation of wealth is primarily geared for social good. This aspect of ethical business in modern
times can be traced back to 19th-century philanthropists like Robert Owen. The businessmen then
“ran successful businesses, made money because they offered honest products and treated their
people honestly, gave honest value for money, put back more than they took and told no lies.”
History of Mass tort litigation often produces arbitrary results; it fails to deliver the right
compensation to the right victims when it is most needed; that it misallocates risk among
2
3
G.Williams, The aims of the Law of Torts, (1951) 4 Current Legal Problems, 137.
Available at http://www.scribd.com/doc/55412373/Bhopal-Gas-Tragedy-Project browsed on August 16, 2011 at
4 am.
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consumers, corporations, and governments; that it generates unconscionable; and that it does not
achieve corrective justice4.
Industry is the backbone of development. It is considered as standard to weight prosperity and
civilization of a country. In the present time it is believed that the more industrious a nation is the
more prosperous country. The demand for companies that invest in CSR has increased in the recent
years from customers, employers, suppliers, community groups, governments as well as some
stakeholders. As the concern for more serious issues viz Global warming, corporate liability in cases
of threats posed by the industrial activities and the tortuous liability of corporate bodies due to
rapid urbanization has increased rapidly in the past years this has lead to further increase in
demand for CSR several companies have responded by increasing their CSR budgetary allocations.
Due to this, there is increase in number of companies’ continuously working on CSR related issues.
Companies are, for example, starting to take more concern to the environment, health and social
issues. However other companies have resisted investing in CSR as they believe that it contradicts
their aim to maximize profits. But Mass Torts like Bhopal Tragedy in India, Thalidomide tragedy
demands proper implementation of CSR and avails the responsibility on Corporations towards
society and world at large.
Definition of Corporate Social Responsibility
"Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave
ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the
workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large" 5.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be defined as the "economic, legal, ethical, and
discretionary expectations that society has of organizations at a given point in time" 6.
Corporate social responsibility may also be referred to as "corporate citizenship" and can
involve incurring short-term costs that do not provide an immediate financial benefit to the
company, but instead promote positive social and environmental change 7.
Bhopal Gas Tragedy
On the night intervening 2nd and 3rd December, 1984, there occurred in Bhopal the most tragic
industrial disaster in which thousands of persons lost their lives and lakhs of people suffered injuries
of various kinds. On a clear night, with little wind and no rain expected, the worst nightmare was
unleashed on the unsuspecting people of Bhopal. Workers, on the night shift in the plant detected a
faint smell of boiled cabbage (associated with MIC), but they ignored it. What they did not know
was that shoddy maintenance and poor safety precautions had meant that water was leaking into
tank, carrying 40 tons of MIC, and a violent reaction was about to take place. When a few workers
dared to venture out towards that tank, they felt the rumble under their feet and in a few moments,
the tank burst out of its concrete casing and exploded, sending a deadly cloud of MIC into the air.
Schuck, Peter H., "Mass Torts: An Institutional Evolutionist Perspective" (1995). Faculty Scholarship Series. Paper
2159. http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/2159
5
Shamasastry, R., 1967, Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Mysore Printing and Publishing House, Mysore.
6
Carroll and Buchholtz “Corporate Social Responsibility”2003, p. 36
7
Arthaud-Day, M.L. "Transnational Corporate Social Responsibility: A Tri-Dimensional Approach to International
CSR Research." Business Ethics Quarterly 15 (2005): 1–22.
4
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The prevailing wind at ground level sent the cloud swirling across the surrounding slums and into
the city of Bhopal.
This was the first time that an accident had occured in a Union carbide plant. In the Indian
plant itself, one of the workers, Ranjit Singh, had died in 1981 of exposure to MIC when a few drops
of it fell on his clothing and he removed his safety mask a little too early. Compensation was paid,
the event was hushed up and there was little to indicate that this was more than an isolated
aberration. However, in the 80s the plant started running at a loss due to diminishing demand for
Sevin and hence was forced to cut back on costs. Unfortunately, the person responsible for cutting
costs did not know the first thing about chemicals and ended up getting rid of all the safety
mechanisms, including the all-important flare to burn off any escaping MIC in case of a leak.
Between 1981 and 1984, six such leaks were documented, but did not lead to any deaths, according
to a subsequent report by the Madhya Pradesh government. In the American plant manufacturing
'Sevin' as well, over 28 such leaks were documented, but the information wasn't released for the
fear of causing an uproar in the local community. The Bhopal plant, in 1984, had ceased to conform
to any international safety standards and Indian standards being non-existent, it continued to cut
back on safety.
Around lakhs of people were affected because of the incident. This massive figure includes
approximately thousands who died instantly and several hundred thousand maimed for life,
including children born with defects arising from the disaster. Such a large number almost matches,
another tragedy - the bombing of Hiroshima at the end of World War II.
While the Bhopal case was being argued in the High Court, the Supreme Court of India, in a
separate poisonous gas leak case, came up with a new doctrine which could be used in the Bhopal
case as well and that was absolute liability.
Thalidomide Tragedy
Thalidomide is an immunomodulatory and antiangiogenic drug. Although the exact mechanism of
action is not fully understood, it has been shown to be active in a variety of diseases. There are
multiple trials going on to evaluate the optimal dose of thalidomide and the importance of
combining thalidomide with other drugs. This review introduces the properties and putative
mechanism of action of thalidomide and summarizes the most important clinical trials with this
biological modifier.
Thalidomide tragedy in 1950 this drug was approved for OTC sales in Europe, Japan, Australia,
Canada and Brazil. The German manufacturers of this drug had not collected human safety data
before releasing it to the market. Clinical trials in pregnant women and animal studies were started
simultaneously in the US. Shortly after the beginning of the trial Australian, American and European
physicians started reporting large number of birth defects by 1961.Over 8000 children was born
without hands and legs. Deception in research was reported in the Milgram study. Stanley
Milgram’s research on Holocaust people’s response to authority, where the subjects, who were not
fully informed of the study modality, were made to carry out certain activities without
comprehending the implications. This encroached upon the psychological domain of the
participants8. Such mass tort tragedy has once again questioned the Role of corporate houses for
CSR.
8
Committee on Human Research Training Module: Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore,
MD. (http://www.jhsph.edu/chr acc12.12.05).
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Oleum Gas Tragedy
The doctrine of absolute liability, which was laid down in the case of MC Mehta v. Union of India,
where the leak of Oleum Gas had killed a few people near the factory, stated that any emissions
from the premises of a factory or establishment engaged in the manufacture or storage of such
harmful substances would make the owner of such establishment absolutely liable for any damage
arising out of such escape. Unlike the previous doctrine of strict liability which governed damages
arising out of such incidents, this doctrine allowed no defenses whatsoever for such an incident and
is similar to the "polluter pays" principle in environmental law in the US.
CSR and Environmental Sustainability
The sustainable development is promotion of corporate social responsibility and accountability,
strengthening of public-private-partnerships and continuous attention to improvements in
corporate sector practices and processes.
The idea of Corporate Environmental Responsibility under the veil of CSR derives its
inspiration from the principles of UN Global Compact for Corporate Sustainability which read as
follows:
Principle 7: Business should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges;
Principle 8: undertake responsibility to promote greater environmental responsibility;
Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly
technologies.”
CSR is thus the umbilical cord between sustainable development and Disaster Management,
only then can the idea of development be socially safe and commercially viable.
In the light of environmental sustainability and CSR, the increasing pressure on the Indian
Government was followed by enactments and legislations. Realising that commitment and voluntary
initiatives of industry for responsible care of the environment will help in building a partnership for
pollution control, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) in the year 2003 came up with the
Charter on Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection ( CREP). The CII (Confederation of
Indian Industries) has also established an Environment Management Division (EMD) involved in
research and propagation of environmentally sound industrial systems and processes and ensuring
greater compliance on part of industries. In the global context, such measures have been reenforced with international reference standards set by the United Nations, Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Guidelines and International Labour
Organization (ILO) Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and
Social Policy.
Hence, CSR now entails within its ambit various ideas and concepts, prominent among them
being Design For Environment (DFE) and Green Engineering. Thus, it has been widely observed
amongst industries riveting across ideas of DFE and Green Engineering. Design For Environment
primarily embraces the following tasks within itself:

Improved maintenance of equipment’s

Energy leak and loss prevention

Improved building envelopes

Use of high efficiency devices

Improved monitoring and control of potentially hazardous systems
On a similar note, it is found that two out of the twelve principles of Green Engineering
directly hit upon the idea of CSR in the context of an industrial hazard or disaster.
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“Inherent rather than circumstantial: Need to strive to ensure that all materials and energy
input and outputs are as inherently non hazardous as possible.
Prevention instead of treatment: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or cleanup
hazardous waste after it is formed.”
Thus, the sustenance of these expanding environmental operations depends upon the
realization on the part of corporate that it owes a debt to the society to make up for environmental
degradation and to become environmentally conscious and socially responsible
Change in the Perception of CSR
Changing social expectations are nothing but a strong denotation of how aware the consumers all
around India have become. The case of Environmental Tragedy was no different. Such Tragedy also
demands Corporate Social Responsibility In India, the focus of CSR was mainly on Charity. Whether
or not companies had a penchant for CSR, they addressed the issue of Environmental as they
regarded factory monitoring as a potential legal liability.
But with the Environmental Tragedy, came an increased risk of observance of CSR on the legal
angle, and this forced many organisations into greater compliance. Consequent to the mishap,
there was a gradual and remarkable shift from the ‘Two P’s Balance’: People – CSR and Profit –
Business earnings” to the ‘Three P’s Balance’: Planet – Environmental Protection, People and Profit. ”
With the onset of increasing disasters resulting out of industrial activities worldwide, CSR now
stood as a plethora of Economic, Ethical and Environmental tenets. The norm then was in event of
an industrial disaster, the organisation alleged to have inflicted the disaster should follow an allencompassing definition of CSR that must include: Medical Rehabilitation, Social Rehabilitation,
Economic Rehabilitation and Environmental Rehabilitation. The changed notion of CSR became
global and percolated into every organisation’s structure.
The meaning and the ambit of the idea has been steered through to such an extent that of
late, the idea of environmental sustainability and CSR reporting has been absolutely intertwined
now. Further, it has happened to such an extent that CSR has begun to be known as ‘Sustainability
Reporting’. Every Company’s attitude on CSR is now more on ‘transformation’ rather than on
‘Information .
Recommendations and Conclusion
CSR should be viewed as a process and not as a destination. Although CSR has grown at a rapid
pace over the last few decades, it still faces a lot of challenges in proper implementation. Some
business still believe that CSR would deviate their attention from economic activities but many
companies have experiences that it doesn’t lessen the profits rather it increases the long-term
profits of a company by reputation and image building of a company enhancing its most valuable
asset i.e. “Goodwill”. Recommendations suggested are as follows:
a) To mandate CSR through legislative enactments (as in Saudi Arabia) from the
government’s side.
b) To rationalise and harmonise the economic, compliance, ethical, and sustainability
dimensions of corporate responsibility and sustainability in the context of stakeholder
requirements.
c) Integrating eco-design and other sustainability requirements into product and service
offerings.
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d)
To manage the sustainability performance, optimisation process to continually increase
stakeholder satisfaction.
e) To promote and encourage whistleblowers to ensure a check on business operations.
f) To manage non-financial risk, particularly to brand, reputation, performance and instability
as an integral part of corporate sustainability management.
g) To promote and regularise welfare practices for the greater good of the society.
h) To controll the perils of uncontrolled development, satisfy the needs of the present
generation and at the same time ensuring that the resources for future generations are not
jeopardized.
What is needed is a joint effort by the government and civil society i.e. People, NGO’s, NPO’s
etc to make CSR a success. The need is and awareness and encouragement of corporate
sustainability and corporate philanthropy from NGO’s and civil society to ensure that business
operations are sustainable. It is expected from business houses to realise that money and profit is
the primary but not the ultimate aim of a business rather it is service and welfare of the society.
References
Aggarwal, Anil (et.al). (1999) Green Politics (GEN-I), New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment.
Confederation of Indian Industries, Disaster Risk Management and Role of Corporate Sector: The Indian
Perspective
Crowther, David and Jatana, Renu, Corporate Social Responsibility Theory and Practice with Case Studies, New
Delhi: Deep & Deep Publication Pvt. Ltd.
ICFAI Center for Management Research, (2002) The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Kotler, Philip and Nancy Lee.,(2005) Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the Most Good for Your Company
and Your Cause, John Wiley and Sons,
Mathur, (2005) Corporate Governance And Business Ethics: Text And Cases, McMillan India, Ltd.
Akhila
Vijayaraghavan.
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CSR
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In
India.
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Confederation of Indian Industries, Disaster Risk Management and Role of Corporate Sector: The Indian
Perspective
Crowther, David and Jatana, Renu, Corporate Social Responsibility Theory and Practice with Case Studies, New
Delhi: Deep & Deep Publication Pvt. Ltd.
ICFAI Center for Management Research, (2002) The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Kotler, Philip and Nancy Lee.,(2005) Corporate Social Responsibility: Doing the Most Good for Your Company
and Your Cause, John Wiley and Sons,
Mathur, (2005) Corporate Governance And Business Ethics: Text And Cases, McMillan India, Ltd.
http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/govt/s-approach-to-csr-gives-scope-for-orruption/407860/.
(2009). Corporate Social Responsibility Voluntary Guidelines. India Corporate Week, December 14-21, 2009,
Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Government of India.
(2009). Corporate Social Responsibility Voluntary Guidelines. India Corporate Week. Ministry of Corporate Affairs,
Government of India.
(2002).Department Of Trade And Industry. Business And Society: Corporate Social Responsibility. Retrieved from:
http://leadtheaction.com/member/myblog/index.php?blog=Is%20Corporate%20Social%20Responsibility%
20Relevant%20Today?
Global Compact India, Summary Of The National Voluntary Guidelines On Social, Environmental & Economic
Responsibilities.
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fileticket=RsdBSBxVP3Q%3D&tabid=73.
Dr. P. Sri Sudha. Corporate Social Responsibility (Corporate Social Responsibility) Standards And Guidelines – A
Legal Perspective. Retrieved from http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l362-Corporate-SocialResponsibility.html.
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Eu-India Trade – The Missing Link. Retrieved from http://www.diplomatist.com/article/dhillon.html.
National Voluntary Guidelines On Social, Environmental And Economic Responsibilities Of Business, Ministry Of
Corporate Affairs, Government Of India. Retrieved from http://www.nasscomfoundation.org/mediacenter/latest-updates/698-national-voluntary-guidelines-for-the-social-environmental-and-economicresponsibilities-of-business-2011-ministry-of-corporate-affairs-government-of-india.
(2008). Oecd-Ilo Conference On Corporate Social Responsibility Employment and Industrial Relations: Promoting
Responsible Business Conduct in a Globalising Economy. OECD Conference Centre 2. France.
Payel Jain Vinod Kothari & Company. (2009). A Step Towards Achieving “Social Corporate India”, Through
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Sanjay Gandhi. (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility In India, (1st Ed.), Sage Publications. (2010). Somasekhar
Sundaresan. Govt's Approach To Corporate Social Responsibility Gives Scope For Corruption.
Thalidomide dad's tragedy", Sunday Mirror, London, July 3, 1994.
"Thalidomide horrors show up in the children of victims", Gold Coast Bulletin, Australia, April 26, 1995.
Sjöström, H., and Nilsson, R., Thalidomide and the Power of the Drug Companies, Penguin Books, 1972, p. 191.
Sharpe, R., The Cruel Deception: The Use of Animals in Medical Research, Thorsons Publishing Group,
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http://www.citizenworks.org
Union Carbide Corporation Ltd v. Union of India 1992 AIR SC 248
www.unglobalcompact.org
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Issues in Physics, Environment and
Sustainable Development
Nuradeen Aliyu Kankia
Department of Physics,
Federal College of Education, Katsina-Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p141
Abstract
The environmental problems cannot be addressed comprehensively by looking through the limited lens of
only one of the traditional disciplines established in academia, such as, physics, chemistry, biology,
engineering, or economics. It is hard to solve most global problems without the detailed information that
those disciplines provide, but the study of Earth systems science suggests that we also need to find
appropriate ways to integrate high-quality disciplinary work from several fields. To understand and assess
the possible dangers to the Earth caused by the exploitation of its resources and the development of
industry, a new branch of science, Environmental physics, has evaluated in the past 30 years, which is
dedicated to study of ‘Environmental Issues’
Keywords: Physics, Environment, Sustainable development,Earth
Introduction
Nature has amazing richness across the range of spatial and temporal scales at which Processes and
their interactions occur. We know from our own experience that winds blow and oceans move. Our
Earth is not solid, if we define solid to mean forever immovable in space. The drift of continents can
have the major influence on both climate and life. Except for local phenomena such earthquakes,
landslides, and mountain glaciers, the time frame for major continent-scale Earth motions is
thousands to millions of years. How the “solid” Earth interacts with air, water, and life is essential for
understanding the Earth as a system, as knowledge of how and why the Earth system changes over
geologic time allows us to calibrate our tools needed to forecast global changes.
The Earth is a marvelous place and since its formation 4.6 billion years ago both living and
non-living entities have developed. In a global environment that is structured within the relationship
between the land, the air, the oceans and the biosphere. However, to appreciate our environment it
is necessary to understand the basic physical science that regulates its development.
In the past few decades the possible detrimental impact humanity is having on the planet has
caused increasing concern. As humanity has sought to improve its so called prosperity, it has often
done so by exploiting the Earth’s abundant natural resources. The discovery of the ozone hole, the
first signs of industrially induced global warming, the widespread phenomenon of acid rain and the
growing evidence of health problems caused by urban pollution, have attracted world-wide
attention from both social and political commentators. Debates have taken place, in the Scientific
and political communities, about the actual evidence for such phenomena and what actions should
be taken to alleviate such impacts. The environmental problems cannot be addressed
comprehensively by looking through the limited lens of only one of the traditional disciplines
established in academia, such as, physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, or economics. It is hard
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to solve most global problems without the detailed information that those disciplines provide, but
the study of Earth systems science suggests that we also need to find appropriate ways to integrate
high-quality disciplinary work from several fields. To understand and assess the possible dangers to
the Earth caused by the exploitation of its resources and the development of industry, a new branch
of science, Environmental physics, has evaluated in the past 30 years, which is dedicated to study of
‘Environmental Issues’.
Environmental physics is an interdisciplinary subject that integrates the physics processes in
the following disciplines: the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere, and the geosphere.
Environmental physics can be defined as the response of living organisms to their environment
within the framework of the physics of environmental processes and issues. It is structures within
the relationship between the atmosphere, the oceans (hydrosphere), land (lithosphere), soils and
vegetation (biosphere). It embraces the following themes, Dželalija(2004) are; human environment
and survival physics, built environment, urban environment, renewable energy, remote sensing,
weather, climate and climate change, and environmental health.
To understand how any specific environmental process evolves, it is necessary to appreciate
that all these processes are interdependent. The formation and mobility ofclouds, for example,
illustrate just one aspect of a number of global environmental processes and require the study of:
solar radiation transformations and the radiation balance, phase changes in the water cycle,
monitoring physical phenomena, exchanges between the Earth, the oceans, the atmosphere and the
biosphere, transport phenomena, especially mass and thermal energy transfer. However, it is
important to appreciate that the principles and lows of physics are in evidence in many different
environments and govern how all species live on the Earth.
The environment may be defined as the medium in which any entity finds itself. For example,
for a cloud, its environment may be the region of the atmosphere in which it is formed, while for a
plant, it is a field in which it lies, and for a whale it is the sea in which it swims. Thus, it is informative
to discuss environmental issues within the context of the surroundings in which an object finds
itself. In the following review the applications of the principles of physics to environmental
processes and problems will be discussed and put in the context of current environmental issues.
Issues Arising in Our Environment
Global warming
Global warming; this is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since
the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean
surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase
occurring since 1980; Solomon et al (2007). Warming of the climate system is equivocal, and
scientists are more than 90% certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of
greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation. These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major
industrialized nations, Houghton et al (2001).
Climate model projections were summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st century
the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 °C (2 to 5.2 °F) for their lowest
emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 °C (4.3 to 11.5 °F) for their highest. The ranges of these estimates
arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.
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According to AR4, warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the
globe. The effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in
the amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.
Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the continuing
retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include a more
frequent occurrence of extreme-weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall,
ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant
to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the loss of habitat
from inundation.
US National Research Council (US NRC 2012), Proposed policy responses to global warming
include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, and possible future
reengineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., humaninduced) climate change. Parties to the UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to assist in adaptation to global warming. Parties to the
UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required, and that future global warming
should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level. Reports published in
2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Energy Agency suggest
that efforts as of the early 21st century to reduce emissions may be inadequate to meet the
UNFCCC's 2 °C target.
Climate Change
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns
over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather
conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer
extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes (such
as oceanic circulation), variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic
eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world; these latter effects are currently
causing global warming, and "climate change" is often used to describe human-specific impacts.
Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and
theoretical models. Borehole temperature profiles, ice cores at the frequencies of visible light largely
passes through the atmosphere to warm the planetary surface, which then emits this energy at the
lower frequencies of infrared thermal radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases,
which in turn re-radiate much of the energy to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism is
named after the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse, but the
way it retains heat is fundamentally different as a greenhouse works by reducing, floral and faunal
records, glacial and per glacial processes, stable isotope and other sediment analyses, and sea level
records serve to provide a climate record that spans the geologic past. More recent data are
provided by the instrumental record. Physically based general circulation models are often used in
theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and
effects in climate change.
Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed
by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation
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is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average
surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.
Solar radiation airflow, isolating the warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by
convection.
The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The
argument and the evidence was further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838, and
reasoned from experimental observations by John Tyndall in 1859, and more fully quantified by
Svante Arrhenius in 1896, Stephen (2001) .
If an ideal thermally conductive blackbody However, since the Earth reflects about 30% of the
incoming sunlight, the planet's effective temperature was the same distance from the Sun as the
Earth is, it would have a temperature of about 5.3 °C. the temperature of a blackbody that would
emit the same amount of radiation) is about −18 °C, about 33°C below the actual surface
temperature of about 14 °C. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual
surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the
greenhouse effect; Vaclav (2003).
Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible. However, human activities,
primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have intensified the natural greenhouse
effect, causing global warming.
Conclusion
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and climate change etc are
not merely national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts
and cooperation.
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product
have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions
should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.
References
Dželalija,M (2004); Environmental Physics, University of Molise, University of Split, Valahia University of Targovist.
Houghton, J.T.; Ding, Y.; Griggs, D.J.; Noguer, M.; van der Linden, P.J.; Dai, X.; Maskell, K.; and Johnson(2001), C.A.,
ed., Climate Change: The Scientific Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the
Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis, M.; Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M.; and Miller, H.L., (2007); Climate
Change : The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
Stephen H. S (2001), Geosphere-biosphere Interactions and Climate, Lennart O. Bengtsson and Claus U.
Hammer, eds., Cambridge University Press, , pp. 90-99.
Vaclav, S., (2003). The Earth's Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change. MIT Press. p. 107.
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Charting a Course of Development Through Proper Technical,
Technological and Engineering Education
Olawale Olaniyi Emmanuel Ajibola
Department of Systems Engineering,
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p144
Abstract
Knowledge refers to the possession of information, facts, ideas, truth or principles. The imparting and
acquiring of knowledge through teaching and learning refer to education. The nucleus of education is
knowledge. A well directed education is the process that yields knowledge. Engineering is the application of
science in the design, planning, construction and maintenance of manufactured entity while Engineering
education is the training of engineers for the purpose of initiating, facilitating and implementing the
technological development of a Nation. Engineering uses scientific ideas to develop technology but
technology provides the ingredient for Engineering. Technical education engenders formal preparation of
Technicians for occupations between the skilled trades and the professions based on underlying sciences
and supporting mathematics as well as methods, skills, materials, and processes of a specialized field of
technology. In this work, the roles of these tier of education in the development of a nation was discussed
in relation to the existing developmental efforts made towards achieving technological advancement in
Nigeria. It is hoped that the policy makers in Nigeria will find the paper useful for the betterment of hoi
polloi by charting a course of developing the entity called Nigeria through well-found technical,
technological and engineering education.
Keywords: course of development, technical education, technological education, engineering education,
Introduction
Technology refers to the application of scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or,
as it is sometimes phrased, to the change and manipulation of the human environment, Britannica
(2008). It is the study, development and application of devices, machines and techniques for
manufacturing and productive processes; the sum of a society’s or culture’s practical knowledge,
especially with reference to its material culture, Microsoft Encarta (2009). Technology could also be
conceived as a method or methodology that applies technical knowledge or tools. In the most
casual form, it could mean machines, equipment and systems considered as a unit. Technology is
the nucleus of the subject matter of this paper. Technology is sometimes confused with
engineering; it is often mistaken for machinery or computing device but Technology embraces
more than machines as it also involves processes. Engineering uses scientific ideas to develop
technology, Falade, (2010). And the scenario is the same for technological and engineering
education.
Technical education is the academic and vocational preparation of students for jobs involving
applied science and modern technology. It emphasizes the understanding and practical application
of basic principles of science and mathematics, rather than the attainment of proficiency in manual
skills that is properly the concern of vocational education. Technical education has as its objectives
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the preparation of graduates for occupations that are classed above the skilled crafts but below the
scientific or engineering professions. People so employed are frequently called technicians.
Technical education is distinct from professional education, which places major emphasis upon the
theories, understanding, and principles of a wide body of subject matter designed to equip the
graduate to practice authoritatively in such fields as science, engineering, law, or medicine.
Technical occupations are vital in a wide range of fields, including agriculture, business
administration, computers and data processing, education, environmental and resource
management, graphic arts and industrial design, and health and medicine; technical educational
curricula are correspondingly specialized over a broad range of disciplines. Technical education is
typically offered in post-high-school curricula that are two years in length, but they are not
designed to lead to a bachelor's degree, and are offered in a wide variety of institutions, such as
technical institutes, junior colleges, vocational schools, and regular colleges and universities,
Britannica (2008).
In the early millennia of human existence, a craft was acquired in a lengthy and laborious
manner by serving with a master who gradually trained the initiate in the arcane mysteries of the
skill. Such instruction, set in a matrix of oral tradition and practical experience, was frequently more
closely related to religious ritual than to the application of rational scientific principles. Craft training
was institutionalized in Western civilization in the form of apprenticeship, which has survived into
the 20th century as a framework for instruction in technical skills. Increasingly, however, instruction
in new techniques has required access both to general theoretical knowledge and to realms of
practical experience that, on account of their novelty, were not available through traditional
apprenticeship. Thus the requirement for a significant proportion of academic instruction has
become an important feature of most aspects of modern technology. This has accelerated the
convergence between science and technology in the 19th and 20th centuries and has created a
complex system of educational awards representing the level of accomplishment from simple
instruction in schools to advanced research in universities. French and German academies led in the
provision of such theoretical instruction, while Britain lagged somewhat in the 19th century, owing
to its long and highly successful tradition of apprenticeship in engineering and related skills. But by
the 20th century all the advanced industrial countries, including newcomers like Japan, had
recognized the crucial role of a theoretical technological education in achieving commercial and
industrial competence.
The application of science in the design, planning, construction and maintenance of
manufactured entity is called Engineering. Engineering education is the training of engineers for the
purposes of initiating, facilitating and implementing the technological development of a nation,
Ajibola (2011). It is a very important area of human endeavour in the sense that engineering is the
life support for developing, growing and maintaining the economy of any nation irrespective of the
level of economic advancement attained by the nation. Engineering is the application of Science for
the efficient utilization of natural resources to produce wealth. It has also been defined as the
“application of laws governing forces and materials of nature through research, design,
management and construction for the benefit of mankind, Musa Alabe (2009).
Engineering Education and Practice in the United States
The recognition of the importance of technological education, however, has never been complete in
Western civilization, and the continued coexistence of other traditions has caused problems of
assimilation and adjustment. The British author C.P. Snow drew attention to one of the most
persistent problems in his perceptive essay, The Two Cultures (1959), in which he identified the
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dichotomy between scientists and technologists on the one hand and humanists and artists on the
other as one between those who did understand the second law of thermodynamics and those who
did not, causing a sharp disjunction of comprehension and sympathy. Arthur Koestler put the same
point in another way by observing that the traditionally humanities-educated Western man is
reluctant to admit that a work of art is beyond his comprehension, but he will cheerfully confess
that he does not understand how his radio or heating system works. Koestler characterized such a
modern man, isolated from a technological environment that he possesses without understanding,
as an “urban barbarian.” Yet the growing prevalence of “black-box” technology, in which only the
rarefied expert is able to understand the enormously complex operations that go on inside the
electronic equipment, makes it more and more difficult to avoid becoming such a “barbarian.” The
most helpful development would seem to be not so much seeking to master the expertise of others
in our increasingly specialized society, as encouraging those disciplines that provide bridges
between the two cultures, and here there is a valuable role for the history of technology.
America, the prime of technology, has an outstanding history of technology. The case of God’s
own country is a pointer to the fact that Nigeria is not yet prepared to plan for the much desired
technological development and so the dream of vision 20:2020 will ever remain a mirage because
none of the indicators for the take-off of successful planning has been put in place. To start with,
Nigeria cannot make an accurate statement about her population. The United States of America
that is primed as the world’s best economy and the world’s power is no doubt the most advanced
country in the world. Despite her technological prowess, the government of the United States in
recognition of necessity to further climb the ladder of development attempted to redefine the
blueprint of her economy. The government commenced her planning from the basis; the
Committee on the Education and Utilization of the Engineer to investigate educational aspects of
the preparation of engineers in the United States was commissioned to provide the springboard to
kick-start the new phase of development in technology. One of the four panels established by the
committee is the panel on Technological Education, Engineering Technology Education (1985). The
recommendations of the panel as contained in the executive summary of their nine chapter report
include:

Student chapter of engineering related associations be encouraged by the associations
and faculty sponsors in order to provide students with additional contacts and activities
with national societies and their representatives

Cooperative education in all of its forms should be expanded through greater industrial,
institutional, and governmental support, with faculty industry linkages being encouraged

“Hallmark” programs in engineering technology should be identified, publicised, and
supported nationally

Appropriate accrediting agencies should play a greater role in efforts to increase the
quality of engineering technology programs

Students should be prepared for and encouraged to seek technician certification

Professional registration or certification of engineering technology faculty should be
encouraged

Manpower statistics on enrolment, degrees, and salaries should be maintained at the
college, state and national levels.
Finally, the panel considered resource allocation pattern of various institutions as regards
areas of engineering technology, and the following recommendations were developed:

Institutions should plan to develop a limited number of “centres of emphasis” in
subspecialties
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Continuing efforts should be made to upgrade laboratories and shops, recognizing the
importance they play in the education of engineering technicians and technologists

Linkages with industry should be developed to share specialized laboratory and shop
facilities, both in industry and on campus.
Other recommendations referred to as “specific recommendations” were not considered this
paper for lack of space. But one thing that is sure is that these recommendations among others
shall be implemented to the letter because the factor of “corruption” will not come into play in the
US. The consideration here is that ‘if a country like the US could still place emphasis on all the facets
of Engineering education with special consideration for technical education’ then Nigeria should as
a matter of urgency revive engineering education at all levels

Engineering Education and Practice in Nigeria
The ultimate goal of any nation striving to develop its technological prowess concerns the quality of
life of her citizenry hence the relationship between technology and the society cannot be
overemphasized. There is no doubt that technology has brought a higher standard of living to
people in advanced countries, just as it has enabled a rapidly rising population to subsist in the
developing countries. It is the prospect of rising living standards that makes the acquisition of
technical competence so attractive to every country the world over. Although it is a worthy desire to
possess a comfortable sufficiency of material goods, and leisure for recreative purposes, the quality
of a full life in any human society has other even more important prerequisites, such as the
possession of freedom in a law-abiding community and equality before the law. Certainly, highly
oppressive regimes have used technological devices to suppress individual freedom and to secure
obedience to the state especially in Africa. However, high technological competence requires a high
level of educational achievement by a significant proportion of the community holds out the hope
that a society that is well-educated will not long endure constraints on individual freedom and
initiative that are not self-justifying. In other words, the high degree of correlation between
technological success and educational accomplishment suggests a fundamental democratic bias
about modern technology. It may take time to become effective, but given sufficient time without a
major political or social disruption and a consequent resurgence of national assertiveness and
human selfishness, there are sound reasons for hoping that technology will bring the people of the
world into a closer and more creative community. And Nigeria must not be left out in the scheme of
things.
The hope of anybody who takes a long view of the history of technology as one of the most
formative and persistently creative themes in the development of mankind from the Palaeolithic
cave dwellers of antiquity to the dawn of the space age in the 20th century is deep-rooted in the
ability of technology to promote the quality of life. Above all other perceptions of technology, the
threshold of space exploration on which mankind stands at the end of the 20th century provides
the most dynamic and hopeful portent of human potentialities. Even while the threat of
technological self-destruction remains ominous, and the problems of population control and
ecological imbalance cry out for satisfactory solutions, man has found a clue of his own future in
terms of a quest to explore and colonize the depths of an infinitely fascinating universe. As yet, only
a few visionaries have appreciated the richness of this possibility, and their projections are too easily
dismissed as nothing more than imaginative science fiction. But in the long run, if there is to be a
long run for our uniquely technological but wilful species, the future depends upon the ability to
acquire such a cosmic perspective, so it is important to recognize this now and to begin the
arduous mental and physical preparations accordingly. The words of Arthur C. Clarke, one of the
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most perceptive of contemporary seers, in his Profiles of the Future (1962), are worth recalling in this
context. Thinking ahead to the countless eons that could stem from the remarkable human
achievement summarized in the history of technology, he surmised that the all-knowing beings who
may evolve from these humble beginnings may still regard our own era with wistfulness: “But for all
that, they may envy us, basking in the bright afterglow of Creation; for we knew the Universe when
it was young.”, Britannica 8.0 (2008).
There are so many technical institutions in Nigeria today; so many technical institutions have
been developed at the technical college, polytechnic and university levels. However, many of these
institutions don’t have adequate infrastructure. There are no teachers of high quality; even the
motivation among students is very low because of the societal disdain that doesn’t accord the
necessary recognition to technical education such that many students don’t want to attend
technical institutions, Aina (2011). Other identifiable problems facing the trio of technical,
technological and engineering education as enumerated by Ajibola, O.O.E, in his paper title “an
expository analysis of problems and prospects of engineering education in Nigeria” are:

Inadequate Funding from the Federal Government

Inadequate Government Allocation to Education in Nigeria (1970 -2002)

Inadequacy of the Academic Content

Staffing Problem

Poor Infrastructural Facilities

The Disconnect between Classroom and the Industry

Intermittent Parental Intrusion into the Educational Structure

Students’ Lack of Will to Invest in their own Future

Negative Influence of Political Office Holders on On-coming Generation

The Erasure of Moral Fabric in Africa

The Ill-implemented Industrial Training Programme
Our reward system is also faulty. A psychological reward is a process that reinforces behaviour;
something that, when offered, causes a behaviour to increase in intensity. Reward is an operational
concept for describing the positive value an individual ascribes to an object, behavioural act or an
internal physical state. Natural rewards include those that are necessary for the survival of species,
such as eating, drinking, sex, and fighting. Secondary rewards derive their value from the primary
reward, and include shelter, money, pleasant touch, beauty, music, etc. The functions of rewards are
based directly on the modification of behaviour and indirectly on the sensory properties of rewards,
Wikipedia (2011). For instance, altruism may induce a larger psychological reward, although it
doesn't cause sensations. Rewards are generally considered more effective than punishment in
enforcing positive behaviour. There is no doubt that it is the best brains that study technological
based subjects. However, the reward system in Nigeria is to say the list, awkward. Remunerations
and other inducing factors for engineering related disciplines are embarrassingly insulting even in
an engineering firm:

While an accountant is placed on a salary of N250,000.00 and above, the engineering
graduate is expected to receive N15,000.00.

His office is housed in a wooden carton whereas his counterpart who read Personnel
management is housed in the Management building with full blast air-conditioning
system.

He does not get promoted at the same time as his counterpart Legal department of the
same establishment, and

The responsibility of maintenance of all the facilities which others enjoy with an exception
to him rests on his shoulders.
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In his paper titled “Technical and Vocational Education: Key to Nigeria’s Development”, Dike,
V.E. did an extensive exposition of the implications of the deletion of technical education from the
educational structure of a hitherto developing nation called Nigeria. He reiterated the fact that our
engineering educational system has collapse for lacking in foundation. “While technical and
vocational education has continued to strive in many societies Nigeria has neglected this aspect of
education. Consequently, the society lacks skilled technicians: bricklayers, carpenters, painters, and
auto mechanics; medical laboratory and pharmaceutical technicians, electrical/electronic technicians
and skilled vocational nurses”. The consequence of the aforementioned is the dearth of technically
skilled labour which translates to the lack of lubricant necessary to facilitate the smooth running of
the engine of development in Nigeria. The aftermath of excluding technical education in the
scheme of development in Nigeria is the collapse of the technological education and by implication,
the university education. The absence of the technical inputs from the products of technical and
vocational institutions in the graduates from both institutions has reduced such graduates to
diploma/degree certificates carrying apprentices. The shabby performance of builders; building
technologists, mason and bricklayers is no longer news. That individual or enterprise that has
important projects to execute in Nigeria relies on the competence of technicians from neighbouring
countries to draw his workforce from. It therefore behoves on the stakeholders to embrace technical
education and fine-tune all the other parameters required to strengthen both the technological and
university education.
Although technical education produces the apparatus for running the technological and
engineering education, the latter produces new technology while the formal acts as the interface
between the technical and the engineering education. Technicians, technologists and engineers are
produced from technical colleges, polytechnics and universities respectively. The availability of these
personnel in the right proportions in an organization promotes rapid industrialization in the
presence of enabling environment and appropriate infrastructure. The thrust of research in
engineering education is the generation of scientific knowledge and application of it in the
production of scientific and technical manpower, the development of material processing systems,
the production of machinery and equipment for general and specialized functions and the
application and service needs of the society. Research is generally directed at discovering, creating
and adding to a pool of knowledge. Such research results are disseminated by researchers to the
industry through the training of the students by incorporating the research findings in their
classroom activities thus enriching both teaching and learning situation within the department; and
the students are later employed to work in the industry where ideas are shared among the other
employees. The findings can also be transferred directly to the industry via seminars, workshops and
conferences etc. This promotes the development of endogenous technology and advancement in
productivity, Falade (2004). The difference between a developed, rich and prosperous country and
the developing or underdeveloped country is the difference in their level of scientific, engineering
and technological advancement
Discussions
Nigeria was a forerunner in the development and exploitation of technical education for the
improvement of the life of her citizens. In the pre-colonial era, the workforce of the country was
technical education driven. The evidence of the assertion can be seen in decayed infrastructure
called Federal Government Technical College, Yaba which glory had been subsumed by that of Yaba
College of Technology which shares the same fence with the institution. In 1960s, 1970s and early
1980s for instance, there were standard automobile, carpentry and metalwork workshops which
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provide qualitative services at modest prices to members of the populace who appreciate the
quality of services they offer. The Federal Government of Nigeria, recognizing the prospect of
Technical education formulated a policy that made it mandatory for every State and Local
Government in Nigeria to establish at least a Technical College in its domain. Most State
government conformed to the policy; there was no record of any Local government that executed
the policy largely due to their lack of political will or their ignorance of the import of technical
education. Although compliance with the policy statement was not total, the impacts of the
Technical colleges were felt and the economy was better it. The technical education at that time
provided the knowhow for the low-level manpower the purpose for which it was meant to achieve.
However, funding as it is the case with any other institution owned by government was grossly
inadequate causing the fortune of technical colleges to dwindle. The advent of the Colleges of
Technology/Polytechnics and the Universities with multifarious areas of specialization designed to
cater for middle level and high level manpower respectively have exacerbated the success records
of technical colleges as the attention of governments at various levels shifted from the low level
manpower production.
Technical education is no doubt very expensive so it requires strong political will to for people
to put the money where their mouth is. Also at the policy formulation level majority of the
technocrats who are in charge of policy formulation don’t have technical education background, so
they tend to concentrate more on their fields at the expense of technical education so when experts
are required they seldom invite experts on technical education and consequently, technical
education is rarely talked about. That foreigners constitute the large chunk of the technical labour
force in Nigeria portends that we lack leadership and adequate manpower in that area. It also
portends that we lack planning, that is based on manpower cannot be adequately done especially
when you remember that many of the national developmental plans have failed, not as a result of
inadequate paper work, but as a result of inadequate manpower particularly in the middle level
cadre. It is a pity that technical education, with all its potential, has not been fully realized in Nigeria
and the omen is not good, Aina (2011). Very recently, giant strides were taken by government at
various levels to resuscitate technical education, some of which were considered below, viz.:
Committee on repositioning technical education in Nigeria: The cycle of technical
education which must translate to development must be based on the tripod stand with the three
levels of education as its legs such that the university education provides the pedestal for modeling
an idea as conceived by science, design the model based on the model and interpret the design to
the technologist(s); the product of technological education that supervises the execution of the
design with the technicians, product of technical education as the foot soldiers who carry out the
actual execution under strict supervision of the technologist. Shortly after his election in the year
1999, President Olusegun Obasanjo, who seemed to have recognized that there was a missing link
in the education cycle of development commissioned a Committee on repositioning technical
education in Nigeria; the committee that was headed by Professor Olu Aina came up with a
blueprint, which was a terrific report that would have been a springboard for the realization of
technical education in the country; unfortunately, like several other reports, it languished on the
shelf for a very long time until sometimes in year 2003 when the Education Trust Fund dusted the
report for possible implementation. The substance of the attempt has not been translated into
tangible development; it hoped that efforts will transform to visible result in the nearest future.
Seminar on repositioning of education: Driven by the hue and cry about decadence in
education in the country, stakeholders in education were making contributions in their own ways;
one of such stakeholders is the National Assembly; about three years ago, the National Assembly
organized a seminar with the aim to reposition education where notable stakeholders in technical
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and technological education presented papers and the import of technical education was brought
to the fore as a prerequisite to Nigeria’s pursuit of developmental goals and consequent attainment
of vision 20:2020. If action could match words from such fora then Nigeria’s hope of achieving the
much touted Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) will come alive. Nevertheless, no visible action
succeeded the seminar except further disintegration that had further aggravated the state of
education in Nigeria. For instance, the epileptic power supply that had crippled the manufacturing
sector in the country had not been traced successfully to inadequate power generation but there is
clear evidence that the technical insufficiency of the staffers of technical departments of PHCN
contributed to the systemic malaise of the organization. And the fact that corruption in PHCN
matches that of the Nigerian Police, according to Transparency international, is a product of
technical incompetence. Competent staff has integrity. The reason why the members of the three
arms of the military namely; the Nigerian Air Force, the Nigerian Army and the Nigerian Navy have
not found dignity in massive corruption as opposed to their counterpart in the Nigerian Police is
attributable to discipline born out of competence. An engineer in training without input from
vibrant set of technicians is a disaster. An engineering design without proper implementation by
unlettered labourer results in underdevelopment.
Giant stride by State Government: The present government of Osun state is fascinated
about skill development especially for the youth and she is prepared to facilitate the process of
achieving a hundred percent skill acquisition for her teaming youth in a scheme tagged “Life Skill”,
Aina (2011). To this end, the administration of Governor Aregbesola had refurbished the state
government owned technical college in Osogbo and he is willing to replicate the action in all other
such institutions in the state. Nevertheless, the situation will remain unchanged if competent staffs
are not sourced to provide the necessary impetus needed to achieve the desired goal. In addition,
there must be an enduring policy to back the actions taken today to procure the future for the
effort.
Lagos State is one state that is striving to live up to its slogan, “Centre of Excellence” by
aggressively embarking upon reconstruction of her educational structures in general, replacing
dilapidated building by mega-structures, introducing functional cancelling departments in all
secondary schools to mention but a few. However, very little has been done in the area of technical
education in the state.
The 6-3-3-4 System of Education: According to Professor Olu Aina the 6-3-3-4 system of
education did not succeed but it did not fail completely. The system fell short of the level of
expectation of the planners due to the following factors:

Lack of political will

Improper planning, and

Inadequacy of data
He opined that, within a few years of the commencement of the programme, there was an
explosion in school population far in excess of expectation and what was planned for. For instance,
classroom that was built for 20 was housing 50, so there were 30 children who could not find seats
thus reducing the contacts between pupils and teachers from 30 to 1, to 50 to 1. Other problems
that robbed the system of success include “poor planning”. For example, there was no provision for
the laboratories/workshop to provide shelter for the multimillion equipments the government
supplied to various secondary schools at the commencement of the programme. I was privileged to
serve in a secondary school in Ikere-Ekiti on the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) scheme. In the
school where I serve, all the equipment supplied to the school for the implementation of the Junior
Secondary School (JSS) scheme had rotten for lack of shelter. There was not a single technician of
technologist on the staff list of the school which translate to lack of manpower to operate and
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maintain the equipment in case the systems were to be put to use. It became clear that the
progenitors of 6-3-3-4 system of education may not be sincere with the programme after all.
Conclusion
South Korea was at a time at the same level of development with Nigeria and India but they are far
ahead of Nigeria now because they paid attention to technical education. The advanced nations of
today were Neolithic communities of yesterday. Nigeria is not an underdeveloped state since it has
surpassed the Neolithic stage; just that it is still a toddler at 50. Rather than dissipating all its energy
on political zoning formula the ruling class should summon the political will required to foster rapid
development of purposeful engineering technological education with credible impetus garnished
with dedication, determination and devotion.
Recommendations
Nigeria is a nation of oddity where the unconventional is the convention. Nevertheless, it is
recommended that:

In the scheme of development, the role of the three tiers of engineering education namely;
technical education for technician, technological/polytechnic education for technologist
and university education for engineers should be clearly defined so that whatever the
background of the technocrats in charge of technical education at any point in time, the
substance of the project will not be altered.

The current trend where emphasis is placed on paper certificate has eroded the ethic of
commensurate reward for hard work. The university certificate is fast become of less
quality to the secondary school certificate of the 70s because people who seek degree do
so as an end and not as a means to an end. Those who do have business being in the
university are seeking to graduate with a first class. Someone whose destiny is contented
with technician certificate will definitely be a failure with First class in Electrical engineering.

In line with the mind of the government of the USA, it is recommended that the document
policy on engineering technology education as summarized in this paper be adopted
wholly with amendments to accommodation our peculiar situation. However, the
peculiarity should not be accommodative of corruption and other vices that share the
peculiarities of corruption.

The federal government should stop the award of licence to corrupt official and
organizations under any guise to establish universities whose products cannot compete
with technicians from India. They should rather concentrate on the technician cadre
development for now so that the ratio of technician/technologist to engineer can be
improved upon.

Existing federal universities should be audited and well funded. Programme rationalization
should encourage in line with strength of existing institutions and the peculiarities of
geographical areas.

Establishment of new polytechnics and universities should be stopped forthwith to pave
allowance for adequate planning and funding of existing ones. The current where
government just establish an institution of higher learning to satisfy geographical
distribution is not profitable in anyway.

After all the aforementioned are properly implemented, the federal government should
design a viable blueprint that will serve as a springboard for national development.
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References
Aina, O. (2011): India, South Korea ahead of Nigeria because of quality technical education. Saturday Punch, Vol.
7085, No. 1575, pp. 18-19.
Ajibola, O.O.E. (2011): An expository analysis of problems and prospects of engineering education in Nigeria.
International Conference on Innovations in Engineering and Technology, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba,
Lagos, Nigeria. PP. 842-850.
Alabe M.O (2009). “Engineering Education in Nigeria”. pg. 1
Dike, V.E. (2009); technical and vocational education: key to Nigeria’s development. Nigeria Villa. Pp. 1-15.
http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/index.php?view=article &catid.
Engineering Technology Education (1985); Engineering education and practice in the United States: Foundations
of
Our
Techno-Economic
Future.
Washington
D.C.
National
Academy
Press.
http://www.nap.cdu/openbook0309036321/html/22.html. copyright 1985.
Falade, F. (2004), ‘Focal Point in Engineering Education: Research, Development and Transfer of Technology – The
Nigeria Experience, Proc 2nd African Regional Conference on Engineering Education, University of Lagos,
Nigeria 20th – 22nd September, 2004, pp 151 – 160.
Falade, F. (2010): Engineering education: bedrock of industrialization. COREN Workshop on Teaching and
Learning Tools, 5 – 7, October 2010, Abuja, Nigeria.
Wikipedia (2011); Reward system. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward System.
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Secondary School Students’ Attitude Towards
Environmental Issues in Karachi Pakistan
*Anisa Yousuf and **Sadia.Bhutta
*Fedral Government Girls High School Gilgit, Pakistan
**Aga Khan University Institute for Educational Development, Karachi-Pakistan
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p155
Abstract
This paper examined high school students’ attitudes toward the environmental issues (pollution of air and
water, overuse of resources, global changes of the climate etc.) with respect to school system. The
questionnaire-based Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) Project was used to collect data from 10th
grade 312 students. Data was analyzed using (SPSS) the non- parametric equivalent of the independent ttest. The results of the study indicate that there were significant difference between government and
private schooling systems students’ attitudes. Private schools students reported to have a significantly high
degree of positive attitude towards environmental issues as compared to their government counterparts.
The results of the study provide significant insights into students’ attitude towards environmental issues
towards discipline in both government and private secondary schools. Based on the results of the study,
some recommendations have been put forward for policy and practice. Furthermore, the results of the
study can be used as a base line for further studies. The authors offer suggestions, based on the results, for
further research to identify reasons for differences between government and private school, so as to
improve environmental education in Pakistani schools.
Key words: Environmental attitude, Environmental education, Secondary school, gender, school systems
Introduction
Environmental degradation has emerged as a serious issue in the world today. Human factor is the
largest contributor to the environmental degradation (Makki, Abd-El-Khalick, & Boujaoude, 2003)
which might pose serious threats to sustain life on earth (Gore, 1993). Therefore, there is a dire need
to pay serious attention towards protecting life on earth. As teacher and teacher educator, it is our
prime responsibility to take measures to overcome this problem. UNESCO1 (2005) emphasizes the
role of education in shaping attitudes, values, and behavior, while developing the capacities, skills,
and commitments needed for building a sustainable future.
Dunlap, Gallup, & Gallup (1993) conducted an international survey on environmental values. In
this survey, twenty four countries all over the world including developed and developing nations
had participated. From each country, around one thousands sample selected. The survey's results
showed that citizens of many developing nations were highly concerned about the state of the
environment.
Studies generally tend to examine students’ environment attitudes in relation to
environmental knowledge, interest, behavior as well as socio-economic variables (e.g., Huang &
1United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
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Yore, 2003; Makki, Abd-El-Khalick, & Boujaoude, 2003; Negev, Sagy, Garb, Salzeberg & Tal, 2008)
have been carried out all around the world in developed as well as developing countries. Lavonen
and Meisalo (2004) examined the Finnish students’ environmental attitudes across gender. They
found overall positive attitude towards environment across gender. In a comparative study by
Huang and Yore (2004), they reported that both Canadian and Taiwanese 5th grade students held
positive behaviour and attitudes towards the environment. Moreover, they expressed a high
emotional disposition toward the environment and high concern about environmental problems
and issues as well as a moderate level of environmental knowledge.
Makki, Abd-El-Khalick, and Boujaoude’s (2003) study showed that Lebanese high school
students held positive environmental attitudes but had inadequate environment knowledge. Young
students’ environmental attitudes were also investigated by many Turkish researchers (e.g., Alp,
Ertepinar, Tekkaya, & Yilmaz, 2007; Taskin, 2009; Tuncer, Ertepinar, Tekkaya & Sungur, 2005). In one
of these studies, Cavas, Cavas, Tekkaya, Cakiroglu, Kesercioglu, (2009) found that Turkish students
generally have favorable attitudes and interest toward environmental issues. They seemed to be
eager to find solutions to environmental problems and show optimistic trends about the future.
In ROSE (Relevance of Science Education) study Sjoberg & Camilla (2004) conducted survey in
forty countries of the world. As part of ROSE study, the researcher examined how students relate
environmental challenges. They found that students did not seem to be pessimistic about the
global future. They put trust in themselves that they personally could influence what happens with
the environment. However, the study showed no significant gender differences regarding
environmental issues. Results of the study revealed that in general students have positive attitude
towards environmental protection.
In summary, research studies which are carried out all over the world showed that students
have positive attitude towards protection of environment. They are eager to find solutions of
environmental issues.
Furthermore, school may play some role in the formation of students’ views on the
environment (Tuncer, Ertepinar, Tekkaya and Sungur, 2009).
Kuhlemeier, Bergh, and
Lagerweij(1999) also seems to agree by saying that , the student population (family background or
prior achievement); the enthusiasm, experience and competence of the team of teachers; the
curricular offering; the quality of instruction; and the social climate (Gamoran and Nystrand, 1994)
may all play a part to develop attitude of students.
In Pakistan, government and private schooling systems are following the same curriculum
(National curriculum, 2009). However, there is difference in teaching methodologies and resources
in both the systems.. This study aims to explore students’ attitude with respect to school system to
know the environmental attitude of students. However, there is dearth of research studies which
have been carried out to explore differences in students’/teachers’ attitude towards environment
across school systems. However, only a couple of studies have been carried out to address this issue
all-around the world. A study was carried out by Tuncer, et al (2009) in Turkey to explore
environmental attitudes of young people across school system. Results showed that students from
the private school scored higher than their government counterparts. Another study was carried out
by Shobeiri, Omidvar & Prahallada (2006) to know the environmental attitude of teachers of Iran
and India across school system. Result showed that overall there is no significant difference in
public and private school teacher environmental attitude.
In Pakistan, few studies have been carried out to explore students’ learning out comes in
various subject including science (Mirza, Munawer and Hameed, 1994, Das, Pandey, and Zajonc,
2006, LEAPS 2007, p.31). These studies have found that private children at private school have
performed better as compare to their government counter parts in science and other subjects. As
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science is closely related to environmental education, it was important to find out whether this
difference in achievement translates in children attitude as well. These were the main reasons to
select the variable (i.e. school system) to explore further through the study. Having said that, I am
cognizant of the fact that there are number of other factors (Scio economic status, class room
practice, Media) which contribute to environmental attitude. However, keeping in mind the scope of
this study, one variable was selected.
State of Environmental Education in Pakistan
Some researchers argue that formal environmental education helps students to develop more
favorable attitudes towards environment (e. g Lee, 2008). Therefore, it is reasonable to look at the
environmental education context in Pakistan within this study. The Environmental Education (EE) in
Pakistan is in its very beginning stages. There is not a well-established environmental education
policy for Pakistan. It is important to note that in Pakistan, EE is not taught as a separate subject.
However, EE concepts like energy, greenhouse effect, pollution; microorganism, recycling, and
ecosystem have been incorporated in the science curriculum of the primary and secondary classes.
Moreover, textbooks of Urdu, English, Social Studies and Islamic Studies at primary and secondary
levels also carry some environmental education concepts, which are presented as part of content in
various chapters. There is very little attempt to make connections between concepts, especially
between science and environment and vice versa. Furthermore, the textbooks lack guidelines for
teachers to teach these concepts not only to create awareness and develop attitudes, interests and
skills among students but also to equip students with strategies to take action in order to preserve
the earth’s natural resources and to deal with environmental issues.
An overview of the discussion presented above appear to indicate that although there is no
separate environmental education course in the secondary education in Pakistan, environment
related ideas are intended to provide to all students from both the science and non-science groups
through different subject areas. However, curriculum review revealed that most of the topics related
to environment failed to portray adequately the relationship between human activity and the
quality of environment in the presentation of content. Furthermore, National Education Policy
(2009) has not given attention to the area of environmental education. Rabia (2010) argues that by
keeping in view the importance of EE, environmental education should be given proper attention.
For example, it is important to relate EE with daily life as this strategy would help to develop
positive attitude towards environmental issues.
Purpose
The study aimed to investigate secondary school students’ attitude towards environmental issues
across school system.
Research Question
What is the difference in environmental attitude of secondary school students of government and
private system in Karachi, Pakistan?
Methodology
Cross-Sectional Survey
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The purpose of my study was to investigate the attitude of Grade Ten students towards
environment. Accordingly, I opted for quantitative approach ,which seemed to be most appropriate
as it aims to identify what a situation is like and the direction in which it is going (Punch,2005).
There was no manipulation of variables required in the study and it only aims in describing the
current attitude and differences across existing variables (i.e. school system and gender. An
additional advantage of this design, according to Fraenkel & Wallen (2006) is that “it is quicker to
conduct and cheaper to administer” (p.397). It produces a “snapshot” of a population at a particular
point in time. (Cohen, Manion& Morrison, 2000)
This cross-sectional survey, involving the questionnaire proved to be an effective way of
assessing environmental knowledge and attitude from large group as surveys can directly collect
information from people about their ideas, feelings, and social and educational background (Fink &
Kosecoff, 1998, p.1)
Furthermore, attitude is a positive or negative thinking about a person, object or issue (Abell
and Lederman, 2007). Therefore, asking directly from individuals through an attitudinal survey
research method was the most logical method for gathering information on attitude. (May, 2003).
Description of the Questionnaire
The questionnaire consists of 23 items divided into two parts. Part A, in which participants were
asked to provide information about name, gender, age, and class and school system. In Part B,
relevant section of ROSE2 questionnaire was used. It is a Likert-type scale which includes ten
sections (A to I). I chose section D which contains 18 items that focuses on students’ attitude
towards environmental issues column ranging from disagree to agree.
Sample
The ROSE questionnaire was translated from English to Urdu by five researchers working in the
fields of Science Education, Urdu language and English language. Pilot study carried out for
reliability. For drawing a representative, Multi stage cluster sampling sample of grade ten students
from private and government schools of Karachi, I encountered two major constrains:

Geographical spread of the target population

Partially or complete unavailability of listing of schools
Keeping in mind the above constrains, from the eighteen towns, those towns were selected,
which are half an hour’s traveling distance from AKU-IED3. Of the eighteen towns, seven towns
fulfilled this criterion. Of the seven selected towns, two towns were randomly selected in the first
stage of sampling. In the second stage, 10 schools were selected from two towns through random
sampling using SPSS. In the third stage, grade ten students were selected from each school by
setting the criteria that the whole class will be included if the class size is thirty or more than thirty.
Application of the questionnaires in the classroom took forty minutes. The sample of the study
consist 312 students (154 girls and 158boys) who were enrolled in the 10th grade. A direct
administration procedure was used for the survey.
2
3
http://www.ils.uio.no/forskning/rose/
Aga Khan University, Institute for Educational Development
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Data Analysis
Data was analyzed by using SPSS. Inferential analysis was used for comparing the mean scores of
students’ environmental attitude across systems. Group comparison (Mann-Whitney) was used to
find out differences across school systems. This analysis was carried out in two steps: (i) overall
comparison; (ii) item-wise comparison. Before, comparing group analysis was carried out on overall
score to explore general trends across all items.
Results
This section begins with a subsection of overall attitude of students followed by presentation of
results at two levels to answer the two main research questions.
Over All Attitude Of Students Towards Environmental Issues
Table 3 shows the overall attitude of students at secondary level in Karachi, Pakistan. An
examination of table shows that students hold moderately positive attitude in most of the items of
ROSE questionnaire (section D “Me and environmental challenges”). The participants responses
were distributed among the five options (i.e. strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly
agree).The findings revealed that Pakistani students generally have moderately favourable attitudes
towards environmental issues. They seemed to be eager to find solutions to environmental
problems and showed optimistic trends about the future.
TABLE 1: Overall Attitudes of Students
Items
Mean
Threats to the environment are not my business (-)
Environmental problems make the future of the world look bleak
Environmental problems are exaggerated (-)
Science and technology can solve all environmental problems
I am willing to have environmental problems solve even if this means
sacrificing many goods
I can personally influence what happened with the environment
We can still find solutions to our environmental problems
People worry too much about environmental problems (-)
Environmental problems can be solved without big changes in our
way of living (-)
People should care more about protection of the environment
It is the responsibility of the rich countries to solve the environmental
problems of the world
I think each of us can make a significant contribution to environmental
protection
Environmental problems should be left to the expert (-)
I am optimistic about the future
Animals should have the same right to life as people
It is right to use animals in medical experiments if this can save human
lives
Almost all human activity is damaging for environment
The natural world is sacred and should be left in peace
2.50
3.74
3.17
3.29
3.79
Standard
Deviation
1.44
1.29
1.26
1.20
1.00
3.59
4.26
3.14
2.56
0.95
0.92
1.32
1.29
4.24
2.67
1.04
1.34
4.13
1.05
2.30
3.70
3.91
3.46
1.17
1.12
1.14
1.21
3.27
3.69
1.29
1.30
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What follows is detailed analysis at item level.
The students scored highest in item 7 which is about the vision for future. It is worth
mentioning that the students scored (M = 4.26). Students’ images of the future affect actions in the
present, they try to adapt what they imagine and acts that they wish for future. Future images are
influenced by the background, experiences, knowledge. By knowing the youth's images of the
future; we can better understand their present motivation, choices and actions. The images
students’ hold of the future will make the future of country. Showing positive attitude regarding
finding solutions to environmental problems suggest that students seem more concerned about the
environmental problems. They own the problems and are enthusiastic to solve them. It is interesting
to note that the youth of Pakistan is ready to take action for their better future.
It is quite surprising to note that students scored relatively higher (M =4.24) in item 10, which
is about protection of environment. They think that it is important for the society that
environmental problems should be solved. Students showed their concern for environmental issues
and they want to protect the environment by their personal contribution. This attitude shows their
determination towards protection of environment.
For item 12, which deals with the feeling of influence environmental problem, students have
demonstrated an overall positive attitude (M= 4.13). Interestingly, students seem to be more
motivated towards taking action instead of depending on other sources to solve environmental
issues. They think that each of them can make significant contribution to environmental protection.
They have demonstrated more positive attitude in terms of understanding their own responsibility
to solve environmental problems. The average low score on the negatively worded item
(environmental problems should be left to expert) indicates that in general students have shown their
sense of responsibility to participate in solving environmental problems. It is heartening to observe
that in general students have demonstrated more positive outlook for influencing the development.
Responding to the item 15, which is about whether animals should have the same rights to
live as people, students showed positive attitude (M =3.91). This item is related to the bio centric
value. The positive attitude of student shows that they recognize the pleasures and pains of nonhuman subjects to be considered. They might be of the view that at least some of what counts in
ethics is common to our kinship with animals, not just specific to our species. Common sense first
and science later teaches that we humans have many similarities with animals. For survival on planet
earth, all members of ecosystem are equally important. Positive attitude towards same right of life
of animals is encouraging in the sense that students love and care for animals.
On the other hand, in three items (4, 11, 17) students showed their less positive attitude. It is
interesting to see that both items 4 and 11, which focus on external sources (i.e. technology and
rich countries) to solve problems, have scored relatively lower. It is encouraging to observe that in
general participant students have demonstrated their sense of responsibility and relatively less
reliance on external sources. Item 17 (almost all-human activity is damaging for environment) is
regarding the protection of nature. Relatively low scores show that the students believe that not allhuman activity is damaging for environment. By doing environmental friendly activities, they can
protect their environment.
Overall results reveal that in general students have moderately favourable attitude towards
environmental issues. They seem to be eager to find the solutions to environmental problems and
show optimistic trends about the future.
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Comparison Between Types Of Schools
This section presents the results of a comparative analysis between government and private school
students’ attitude towards environmental issues at the secondary level.
FIGURE 1: Comparative Overview of Students’ Attitude across School
Figure 2 presents a comparative overview of overall attitude of students across school system.
The results shows that on average, students from private schools have demonstrated more
positive attitude (M= 3.71; SD= 0.28) as compared to government school students (M=3.40;
SD=0.43). The difference was found to be significant [U= 7024.000; p<0.01]. Interestingly, the three
outliers at the lower end shown in the visual graphics were all boys. Further analysis was carried out
to explore detailed patterns at item level.
Item-wise analysis
The table 4 presents a detailed analysis at item level by comparing the mean scores and the
standard deviation of government and private schools students’ attitude towards environment.
Items
TABLE 2: Comparison across System of Schools – Item-Wise Analysis
Government
Private
Difference
M(SD)
M(SD)
Threats to the environment are not my
business (-)
3.1(1.5)
1.9(1.1)
U= 6.712; p<0.001
Environmental problems make the future
of the world look bleak
3.4(1.4)
4(1.0)
U=9.544; p <0.001
Environmental problems are exaggerated
(-)
Science and technology can solve all
environmental problems
2.9(1.1)
3.5(1.3)
U=8.500; p<0.01
3.0(1.3)
3.5(1.0)
U=9.514; p<0.001
I am willing to have environmental
problems solve even if this means
sacrificing many goods
3.9(1.1)
3.6(0.8)
U=8.634; p<0.001
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I can personally influence what happened
with the environment
3.6(1.1)
3.6(0.8)
U=1.120; p>0.05 (ns4)
We can still find solutions to our
environmental problems
4.2(1.1)
4.3(0.6)
U=1.155; p>0.05 (ns)
People worry too much about
environmental problems (-)
3.3(1.3)
2.9(1.2)
U=9.800; p<0.01
Environmental problems can be solved
without big changes in our way of living ()
2.6(1.3)
2.6(1.2)
U=1.187; p>0.05 (ns)
People should care more about
protection of the environment
4.0(1.2)
4.4(0.8)
U=9.819; p<0.01
It is the responsibility of the rich
countries to solve the environmental
problems of the world
2.4(1.2)
2.9(1.3)
U=8.980; p<0.001
I think each of us can make a significant
contribution to environmental protection
3.9(1.3)
4.3(0.8)
U=1.088; p>0.05 (ns)
Environmental problems should be left
to the expert (-)
2.5(1.2)
2.2(1.1)
U= 1.044; p<0.05
I am optimistic about the future
3.6(1.3)
3.7(0.9)
U=1.134; p>0.05 (ns)
Animals should have the same right to
life as people
4.0(1.3)
3.8(1.0)
U= 1.027; p<0.05
It is right to use animals in medical
experiments if this can save human lives
3.4(1.4)
3.5(1.0)
U=1.191; p>0.05 (ns)
Almost all human activity is damaging for
environment
The natural world is sacred and should be
left in peace
2.8(1.4)
3.8(1.0)
U=6.923; p<0.001
3.3(1.5)
4.0(1.0)
U=9.113; p<0.001
The results depict that there are significant difference among government and private school
students’ attitudes regarding environment. Private school students scored higher than their
government counterparts on most of the items. However, it was surprising to observe that
government schools’ students had an edge over their private counterparts on two positively stated
items (i.e. 5 and 15). It is argued that private school students seem more willing to solve
environmental problem; however, when it comes to sacrificing goods to solve these issues
government schools have clearly exhibited more positive attitude. Similarly, government school
students have shown more concern about animals’ right to life.
It is important to note that the difference between the two school systems was not significant
on six items including statement number 6, 7, 9, 12, 14 and 16. Interestingly, both the groups have
exhibited an optimistic outlook for finding solutions of environmental problems (“we can still find
solutions to our environmental problems” and “I am optimistic about the future”). Similarly, both
groups are confident that environmental problems can be solved through “personal influence” and
“significant contribution to environmental protection”. As far as the “level of changes required to
4
ns: not significant
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solve environmental problems” is concerned both groups have equally shown a positive attitude
towards this. In other words, sample students in both groups seem to have realised that they have
to make drastic changes in their life style to ‘fix’ environmental problem – the first step is realizing
and taking steps towards solving environmental problems. Students’ from both systems are inclined
towards ‘saving human life’ even if that means ‘sacrificing animal life’. However, it would be unfair
discussing results on item 16 without referring to students’ views on item 15. Comparing an overall
score on the two items indicates that on average students from both groups have shown relatively
more positive attitude towards (government M = 4.0; private M= 3.8) equality of human and animal
right to life (item, 15). However, when it comes to sacrificing animal life for saving human life, the
score of both groups (item 16) have gone down (government M= 3.4; Private M= 3.5).
Based on results of overall comparisons, it was expected that private school would show
positive attitude on majority of the items. As expected, private school students have shown more
positive attitude on item 1[-], 2, 4, 8[-], 10, 11, 13[-], 17 and 18. Of these nine items, the first five
focuses more on students’ attitude towards environment in terms of their sense of responsibility
(e.g. people should care more about protection of the environment) and possible strategies to solve
environmental issues (e.g. science and technology can solve all environmental problems). On the
other hand, the last two emphasizes more on students’ environmental attitude through their biocentric values (e.g. the natural world is sacred and should be left in peace). It is also interesting to
note, that the students seemed to value their own contribution in solving environmental issues
instead of putting this important responsibility on others. Relatively lowest score (from both groups)
on item 11 (it is the responsibility of rich countries to solve the environmental problem of the world)
is a manifestation of their sense of responsibility.
Discussion
This section discusses the results in light of literature. Discussion is organised in two sections
according to the research questions: (i) Comparison across school system; (ii) comparison across
gender.
Comparison across School System
Comparison across school systems revealed that private school students claimed a more positive
attitude towards environment than students from government schools.
This result is in contrast to the study of average environmental attitudes in government and
private, state-dependent schools in 12 European countries (Avram and Dronkers, 2011).A majority
of those studies found that there is no difference in environmental attitude of private and
government schools system. There are only two exceptions to this general pattern. In particular,
students in private government-dependent schools in Portugal have, on average, higher scores on
the environment attitudes scale compared to their peers in public schools. Whereas the results are
in align with the results of the study of Tuncer et al (2005), in which they found that in Turkey
students’ attending private schools were more aware of environmental problems, individual
responsibility and national environmental problems, and had more positive attitudes toward solving
the problems.
Item wise detailed analysis showed that private school students have shown a more positive
behaviour about their personal contribution in environment protection (item 12). However, they
seemed reluctant in sacrificing many goods (item 5) to solve environmental problems. This pattern
indicates a lack of concern towards environmental problem on part of private school students. How
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to interpret these findings? Blake’s (1999) model may help to see barriers between environmental
concerns and actions. He identifies three barriers to action: individuality, responsibility, and
practicality. According to him, individual barriers are the ones that reside within the person, having
to do with attitude and temperament. He claims that barriers are especially influential in people
who do not have a strong environmental concern. Environmental concern is therefore outweighing
by other conflicting attitudes. This seems to be the case with private education system students as
well. They showed positive attitude for contributing to the protection of environment, however
when the time comes for sacrificing goods, they seem reluctant to do so.
Although the evidence from the data reported that young people are not overwhelmingly
optimistic about the future, environmental issues are clearly a matter of concern for them. Such
issues deserve explicit curriculum attention. However, there are significantly different views of
private and government education systems students’ about a range of environment-related
matters, including how to respond to the challenges related to the environment. It is thus important
in any programme of environmental education to address directly some of the issues that divide
students in their responses to the 18 statements (e.g., the extent to which individual action and/or
sacrifice can bring environmental benefits) so that they can appreciate that, there are different ways
of thinking about environmental challenges and responding to them. Underlying such thinking will
be an understanding of different ways of explaining the origins of the present difficulties faced by
the environment, whether in terms of risk society theory or not (Beck, 1992). The need is for
diversity, sensitivity, and experimentation in planning and teaching programs of environmental
education and encouraging students to ask appropriate questions and search for answers rather
than simply acquiring a body of environmental knowledge. The goal should be to enable students
to engage in an informed conversation with expertise about the environment and help them
develop the confidence and skill to add to it and, when appropriate, to challenge it.
It would be important to dig these differences across system further. In Pakistan, government
and private schools are following the same curriculum that is the National Curriculum of Pakistan.
One possible explanation of this difference could be that, in most of the statements, private
students positive attitude shows that they may have more exposure to environmental issues as
compared to government schools through environmental project works and different teaching
strategies. Teachers, working in private schools may have better awareness as compared to
government schoolteachers (Larijani, 2010). Another reason could be that in private schools, the
recent developments might be emphasized more, encouraged to participate in various programs on
environment related issues, which is not so prominent in government schools. Even, Dinakara (2000)
reported significant difference in environmental awareness between government and private school
teachers. However, Sabhlok (1995) reported that government teachers were found to be well aware
as compared to the private school teachers.
Given that many environmental problems and their solutions are science related, there is
clearly a role for school science education in such an engagement. However, environmental
education is not simply a matter for science educators. To the extent that such education requires
the accommodation of the personal, social, and economic with the science as an integral whole, it
constitutes a challenge to a conventional subject-based curriculum and pedagogy.
To protect and conserve the Environment, emphasis should be given to EE in both
government and private system of education. In any of these education systems, teachers play a
very significant role in developing a greater awareness about environment among students. This
calls for a radical change in the way we think, live and work. Hence, it is clear that sustainable
development calls for a paradigm shift in our educational systems right from the school level up to
the university level. In fact, a sustainable way of life cannot be achieved without an appropriate
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education system designed to internalize the principles of sustainability in the life and work of our
youth.
Since, it is a government initiative to make EE an integral part of formal education through its
national curriculum framework, considerable work is being done in the direction of integrating
environmental concepts into the existing curriculum, developing new strategies, preparing
instructional material for effective implementation of EE in the both systems. However, there is a
dire need of training teachers in both the education systems of Pakistan, so that students of both
the systems can develop their critical thinking skills to act positively towards environment in future
as citizen of Pakistan.
Recommendations
For policy, it is recommended that teacher-training institutes should include environmental issues in
their curriculum. Mere inclusion of topic would not work therefore, it is important to train teachers
in pedagogical strategies to orient them as how to teach environmental education to students for
critical thinking, problem solving, and action. For practice it is suggested that teachers both in
government and private schools must re-examine traditional teaching strategies such as chalk-and
– talk method that mostly do not match the learning styles of students. Teachers need to use variety
of innovative teaching strategies such as cooperative learning strategies, while delivering their
lessons. Besides that teacher should use problem solving teaching methods, so that critical thinking
in students could be developed. Student should be encouraged to take positive actions in daily life
so that they could be able to act positively in their practical life in future. In other words, action
oriented pedagogy could be considered a first necessary step towards realizing and solving
environmental problem. The heart of teaching lies in interaction and discussion with students. In the
light of the results of the study, it is suggested that teachers must appreciate and encourage
interactions and discussions in the classroom so that students can express and justify themselves.
Conclusion
The results of the study give us the overall impression of moderate attitude of students towards
environmental issues. However, for positive changing of the prevailing level of attitude and hope
among youth, there is a need of bringing change in different levels. For example, some rethinking
need to be done regarding curriculum content and structure, teaching methods, teacher education
and in-service training, and development of suitable resources. It is my hope that these efforts will
make youth of Pakistan environmentally informed and friendly citizen.
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Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Role of Physics Education for Technological Development for
Employment and Self Productivity in Nigeria
Sani Abubakar
Department of Physics
Federal College of Education, Katsina-Nigeria
Doi:10.5901/jesr.2012.v2n10p167
Abstract
Physics is one of core science subject being offered in Nigerian schools and it forms the basis for the
nation’s technological advancement and human resource development. This paper discusses the
contribution of Physics in the technological development as well as the job opportunities for Physicist and
highlights some of the problems facing Physics education in our schools along with the recommendations.
Keywords: Education, Physics, Employment, Technology, Productivity
Introduction
The education in Nigeria most always be oriented towards achieving a better future.The
contribution of science education in the society of today’s economy cannot be over emphasized.
Jibril (1986) science is most powerful tool for man’s development. It has been identified as an
instrument per excellence in solving socio-economic problems of good health facilities, agriculture,
employment, poverty and many other problems betting development in underdeveloped nation
like Nigeria. Aliyu (2011) science and technology also makes enormous impact on shaping the
society of today. The values of science in spike of the positive material impact help individuals
acquire desirable skills and attitudes which enable them to adapt to the life of the modern days.
Holbrook and Rannikmae (1997) science has develop the ability to creatively utilize sound
science knowledge in everyday life or in a career, to solve problems, make decisions and hence
improve the quality of life.
Physics is a branch of science that deals with energy and matter and their interactions. It is
sometimes referred to as the science of measurement and its knowledge has contributed greatly to
the production of instruments and devices of tremendous benefits to the human race. The study of
Physics can leads to several scientific fields and professions such as engineering, manufacturing,
mining and construction industries. Apart from this the knowledge of Physics plays a very significant
role in the development of any nation.
Contribution of Physics to the Society
The importance of Physics cannot be over emphasized as it forms the basics for technological
advancement of any nation.
Physics plays a vital role in the development of any society in many ways, for examples; in
electronics for developing transistors, diodes and integrated circuit(ICs) which allowed the
development of radio transmitters and receivers, televisions, radio tapes players and also modern
machines for health services machines like X-rays were developed from the knowledge of Physics
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for used in taking images of the internal structure of patients and treatment of cancer and
ultrasound to scan human body for diagnosis in hospitals and other health centers services.
Solar energy is developed from the knowledge of Physics applied in the preservation, storage
and utilization of sun light for preservation and processing of food and generating of electricity
e.t.c. The knowledge of nuclear Physics plays a role in the preparation and processing of fuel for
utilization of nuclear power, development of nuclear weapons e.t.c.
In industries mechanics brings about new kind industries which depend on human skills and
brains. Machinery also developed from mechanics helps in the development of industries.
Electricity and electronics developed from the knowledge of Physics is used for the
development of telephones, optics cable, phonograph fibre and also internet that brings all parts of
the world together.
In transportation, cars, motorcycle, bicycle, ships, trains as well as aero planes are all
development from the knowledge of Physics, this is because they all used electric motors and
principles of moments in their various part.
Computers and satellite were also developed from the Physics in taking and receiving
messages from different part of the world.
The contributions of Physics toward making the world worth living and boosting the prestige
of several nations are too numerous to mention.
Job Opportunity for Physicists
A Physicist can work in the ministry of education and the ministry of science and technology as
educator, educationist, scientific adviser and planner. Construction and engineering industries
require the knowledge of Physicist for planning and developing enterprises. There is also
opportunity in the aviation industry and military. Physicist can work in libraries and publishing
houses as editor of scientific works and also Physicist can be valuable in research in ophthalmology
and radiology therefore can find satisfaction in jobs in medical and health institutions. Physicist can
be adopted in radar control at airports also as computer operator in the banks and Physicist can be
fit as costumer service officer, production officer, senior technical staff, banking officer, marketing
officer and programming officer to mention just a few in private sector (oil industry, banking,
telecommunication and manufacturing industries) after sitting for aptitude test conducted by sector
since the private sector is not only concerned about the area of specialization of applicants bur also
their quality.
Opportunity for Self Employed
A good certificate or degree in Physics education can make one self-employed. A financially
buoyant individual can establish a school since he or she already has a background in education.
One may also venture into the establishment of allied school, these includes: special class in Physics
and mathematics, consultancy outfit (home services) as home tutors to teach Physics and
mathematics. If well organized one can employ teachers and organize them into the various homes,
thereby becoming an employer of labour.
There are some aspects of Physics education curriculum that are vocation-related. For
instance, electronics and circuit network are concept that has direct bearing with electrical,
electronics and computer jobs. A Physics education graduate can go for further training through
apprenticeship to learn the acts of repairing radio, television, handsets, generators, computers, and
other electronic and mechanical devices. Physics education has provided the pre requisite
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knowledge of the mechanics of these devices. Electronics course offered are enough to provide the
theoretical backgrounds for these gadgets. Electrical and circuit network also provide all theoretical
knowledge of computer and electric works. Physics education graduates veered into computer
engineering and internet networking as self-employed individuals. Also the balance education
provided by the institutions will help in proper organization and coordination of business.
Problems Facing Physics Education In The Society
Some of the problems that Physics education is facing in our society today are as follows:

Lack of competent teachers to the profession
One of the greatest problems faced by Physics teachers in our society today is that of
recruitment and retention of competent people into the teaching profession (Adeyinka,
2010). The future of any nation lies in the hand of effectively trained and professional
teachers. But now teaching is considered as the last hope of the hopeless that is profession
of these that doesn’t have any other thing better to do (Aliyu, 2011).

Inadequate laboratory facilities
Laboratories in our schools are not well equipped also there is inadequate furniture in the
laboratories and experimental materials as well as the competent laboratory
technicians/technology.

Poor student’s motivation
The enrolment figures of most of student in our schools are in socials sciences and
humanities which surpasses that of the student of Physics and other core science courses.

Lack of teaching aids
The use of teaching aids which is necessary for better assimilation of the course is also
lacking in most of our institution (Aminu, 2006).

Poor/ un committed students
According to wasagu(2005) students are now a days lazy or not serious in their studies,
secondary school certificate result seems to be no longer yards stick for admission, for a
candidate with A-grade in Physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics will prefer to study
Hausa/Social studies or arts related courses. How was he/she able to score such excellent
grades but could not continue to pursue his/her science oriented courses is a matter of
concern. The managed ones are committed to the task due to economic crunch and other
domestic duties (Aliyu, 2011).

Lack of indigenous textbooks
Most of the Physics textbook or almost all books used in our tertiary institution are
irrelevant to our culture or beyond conception of the pupils or student. Inadequate science
education authors to write textbooks using examples with local materials around us is a
problem facing science learning (Titilade, 2006).

Curriculum
As the world is being reduced to global village, national curriculum would give the way to
international curriculum. Learning would become a universal system. Nationalistic or
regional curriculum orientation would be replaced by global focused curriculum (Jada,
2004).
This indicates the need to review our present curriculum especially in the field of sciences
(Physics inclusive) to meet our present advancement.
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Vol. 2 (10) November 2012
Lack of proper orientation to the students
There is no orientation given to the student in the career choice. Students are not well
guided to the course of choice for the future development.
Recommendations
For the problem stated following steps should be consider to ensure sustainable development of
the nation and also the empowerment of the society.
 Recruitment of Physics teachers should be base on merit, a set of both written and verbal
interviews should be conducted by all screened applicants so as to reduce impersonation.
For a Physics teacher to effectively teach in a way that will lead to the development of
desirable level of techno-scientific literacy he/she must be well groomed, be of sound
knowledge in Physics and he/she must obtain in the relevant professional teaching
qualifications along with specialized knowledge of instruction.
 Modern laboratories equipment that cannot be improvised should be imported to equip
laboratories in the various schools. Well trained laboratory technicians/technology should
be employed in the Physics laboratories.
 Government should provide good textbooks to the schools and the books should in an
understandable language for the student to understand the context very well. This means
there is a need for the government to provide the students with e-library so that they can
be able to access the books of their choice.
 Government also should review the curriculum of the Physics education so that it will meet
the present advancement
 Students should be counsel and guide property in the career choice also should encourage
to study Physics by telling them the important of Physics in the development of the
society. Proper measures should be taken to ensure that the student from the younger age
to have the knowledge of Physics, therefore the government and stakeholders should find
a room of organizing orientation/lectures from primary school level to higher school level.
 Political deception should be avoided in education sector by all types of government.
Proper funding should be given priority attention to cater for infrastructure, learning
materials, laboratory equipments e.t.c.
 Physics teachers and science teachers should be motivated by given incentives, such as a
special salary scale for science teachers so as to keep them comfortable in the classroom.
Attractive scholarship base on merit (performance of the students) not political scholarship
scheme should be formed and made available for science students in teachers training
institutions.
Conclusion
The paper discussed the important of Physics education in the society for empowerment and
development of the society also looked into the job opportunity both in private sector, public sector
and as self-reliance for a Physicists in the society. A problem facing Physics education in our schools
and how they can be overcome has also been discussed.
Looking into the discussion above a Physicist has a great role to play in almost every aspect of
entire life in general.
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