Understanding Ethics in Public Relations:
Essentials for a Graduating Public Relations Major
By Caitlyn Sincerbeaux
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for a Degree in Writing
Public Relations Option
Thesis Advisor: Professor Briggs
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Thesis Abstract
This thesis project is a collection of public relations research and materials
focused on guiding recently graduated public relations majors through some of the
ethical dilemmas of the public relations career. A hypothetical scenario depicting a
client and public relations practitioner in conflict encourages the readers to place
themselves in a public relations dilemma. Knowing what one should do does not
always determine what one actually does. The thesis explores The Public Relations
Code of Ethics as it applies to agency public relation professionals. Public relations
methods are presented to give graduates a better understanding of options in their
decision-making and advising process. The advice comes from interviews with public
relations professionals and cases studies of well-known public relations challenges
such as; Tylenol, Pepsi, Toyota, Union Carbide and BP. The case studies show the
numerous options for handling a crisis.
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Introduction:
When college students graduate, they take their first step towards bettering
their lives. Many enter into the “real world” with hesitations, anxieties and selfconcerns. There has always been a right and wrong. However, differentiating between
the two in actual situations can sometimes be confusing.
This thesis is designed to help guide recently graduated public relations
majors through the difficult process of ethical decision-making. This thesis is to help
public relations graduates understand what public relations ethics are. It is to guide
them through the underlining of the rights and wrongs of the profession in uncertain
cases.
Information and skills that are valuable to a public relations practitioner will
be discussed, as well as helpful models, methods and theories that can help to guide
public relations professionals throughout their careers.
The public relations field has evolved immensely, especially over the past
twenty years. Public relations practitioners have to learn not to crumble under the
pressure of keeping their jobs and to hold onto the footings of their personal moral
foundation.
Several public relations case studies will be examined: Tylenol, Pepsi, Toyota,
Union Carbide and BP crises. The decisions that were made in each of these cases
will be discussed in order to paint a clearer picture of the challenges that a public
relations professional may face in her career.
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First, let’s consider a scenario to think about while reading the information in
this thesis. Later, we will come back to this hypothetical with a better understanding
for the workings of the public relations industry.
Scenario:
Hypothetically, let’s say you become employed by a progressive public
relations agency. You are placed in a group with other public relations professionals,
all bringing different views and opinions to the table. Your group has a new client, an
up and coming children’s toy company. Your agency is now a retainer for the Toy
Company, holding a contract with them for a 6-month period. They are a small
company, employing just around fifty people, consisting of mainly their marketing
and research departments. They have chosen to use outsourcing for both their
manufacturing and public relations divisions.
The Company, Pippo Toys, is known but not as well known as they would
like to be. In their attempt to outshine the larger well-known toy companies, your
client, Pippo Toys, has recently launched a testing distribution of their new toy. The
toy, Safi, is a small, hand-held elephant made to look and feel just like a miniature
real elephant. Safi is designed to make noise and even shoot water out from its trunk.
Over the course of several weeks, Pippo Toys’ new toy, Safi, is now one of
the most sought after items on the test market. However, during a consultation
between your agency and Pippo Toys, your agency is informed by Pippo Toys that
there is an issue with the manufacturing of Safi. Pippo Toys informs your team that
the safety and health results on Safi have come back with failing results.
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Pippo Toys discloses to your agency that they were under contact with an
overseas company in efforts to try and boost both their company and the
manufacturer’s profits. They admit that they did not use the best judgment when
making their contact/agreement and that they are now aware that it was not the
appropriate and most wise decision for their company to make.
Pippo Toys’ now knows that their manufacturer made the new toys with
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. PVC is generally considered to be the most
hazardous of plastics because it contains additives like phthalates; which can have
serious adverse health impact on the development of young children (Washington
Toxin Coalation).
Pippo Toys is now looking to your agency for assistance and guidance in the
matter. You need to take into account that it is your team that now represents your
agency. Your team’s goal is to find the best path for Pippo Toys before the matter
turns into an irreversible crisis.
You have to ask yourself and your team, does your team advise Pippo Toys to
inform the public of any hazardous materials used in the manufacturing of their
products? Do you suggest that a recall of the toy be done before any further harm can
be caused to the public? Does your team advise Pippo Toys to cut ties with their
inexpensive manufacturer? Or, should your team suggest to Pippo Toys that it is the
manufacturers’ fault, and focus on placing the blame and attention on the
manufacturer?
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You have to balance out your opinions with those involved in your team,
coming to an agreement that all team members feel is the right decision for the
agency and Pippo Toys.
Understanding the Codes of Ethics:
Since you are now part of the public relations industry it is important that you
fully understand its ethical foundation. Public relations ethics focuses on the ethical
implications of the strategies and tactics that are applied to solve the public relations
and communications problems of organizations (Parsons).
The Public Relations Society of America first introduced their Code of Ethics
in December 1950. Codes of Ethics were created to provide public relations
practitioners with guidance, guidance towards the goal of “emphasizing on serving
the public interest, avoiding misrepresentation to clients, employers and others; and to
the continuing development of public relations practitioners” (Fitzpatrick).
“We often look to professional codes of ethics to help us begin our search for
answers to ethical dilemmas, recognizing that whereas we might find a direction, we
do not expect to find the final answer” (Parsons). The PRSA Code of Ethics can only
be enforced to a certain extent. “Without punitive measures, code enforcement falls
upon the shoulders of individual practitioners who operate using ethical selfstandards” (Wright).
The Public Relations Codes of Ethics, as set down by professional
associations such as the Chartered Institute of Public Relations, are really nothing
more than conventions for behavior in applying moral standards to practical
dilemmas (Parsons). These codes direct us to what the public relations world sees as
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important. “Public relations helps our complex, pluralistic society to reach decisions
and functions more effectively by contributing to mutual understanding among
groups and institutions. It serves to bring private and public policies into harmony”
(PRSA).
By viewing the important aspects of the field, we are able to form a
connection with what we see as our own ethical responsibilities. By referring back to
the Public Relations Code of Ethics you can continuously test your knowledge of it.
Force the information into your head, layering information on top of information.
Different Segments of Public Relations:
Practitioners of public relations come in four flavors; agency, corporate, solo
practitioner and government. These divisions are created to better understand the
goals of each practice.
Agency Practitioner—An employee of a public relations organization, serving
multiple corporate clients (your public relations agency representing Pippo
Toys in the hypothetical scenario).
Corporate—An employee of a corporation -- serving them alone, as in the
dedicated professionals in the employ of Tylenol, Pepsi, BP (British
Petroleum), Union Carbide and Toyota Companies.
Solo practitioner/consultant—Considered to be a “hired gun,” serving
corporate clients on demand. (these are private practitioners, small
individualized consultants.)
Government/ public affairs—An employee of an institution, serving the public
(practitioners working for State Representatives, University Affairs, etc.)
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Examples of Public Relations Crisis History
In order to get a better understanding for public relations, let’s review some
well-known public relation case studies. Keep in mind how you as a public relations
practitioner would actually handle each case differently (Baker).
Remember that during the first 1 to 2 hours of a crisis, the team needs to
assemble and gain an initial read of the facts, causes and possible responses (Gilman).
Dave Hogan, and APR / Abilene Biz contributor stated, “A cardinal rule in
crisis management is to get out in front of the problem promptly.”
Tylenol
“Johnson and Johnson’s handling of the Tylenol poisoning in 1982 is
considered the best-in-class response of modern crisis management…” (Gilman).
In 1982, the company of Johnson and Johnson was faced with an epic crisis that
will forever be embedded into public relations history. The company’s widely known
aspirin –Tylenol, had been tainted with cyanide, causing numerous deaths due to
cyanide poisoning.
When asked his personal opinion on what is the best example of ethical public
relations, Interim Associate Vice President for Institutional Advancement at Western
Connecticut State University’s Paul Steinmentz said; “Tylenol, they could have said it
was a madman, but they supported the victims and accepted the responsibility, saving
the company.” Tylenol’s objectives were to maintain credible commitment to product
quality and public safety and to minimize financial and reputational damage to
Johnson & Johnson (Simpson).
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Johnson & Johnson recalled and destroyed 31 million capsules at a cost of
$100 million. The affable CEO, James Burke, appeared in television ads and news
conferences informing consumers of the company's actions. Tamper-resistant
packaging was rapidly introduced, and Tylenol sales swiftly bounced back to near
pre-crisis levels (Crisis Management).
Then when another bottle of tainted Tylenol was discovered in a store, it took
only a matter of minutes for the manufacturer to issue a nationwide warning that
people should not use the medication in its capsule form (Crisis Management).
By Johnson and Johnson’s CEO and public relations department addressing
the crisis from the start, Tylenol took the necessary steps needed to save the
company’s reputation. They informed the public with all the information they had
obtained, keeping the communication open and truthful at all times.
BP- British Petroleum
BP’s handling of the well explosion and subsequent oil spill in the Gulf of
Mexico is going to go down as a classic case of horrible corporate public relations
(Simpson).
When asked what the worst example of ethical public relations was,
Steinmentz said, “BP. They didn’t save any money by avoiding responsibility, they
were looking for a scapegoat, and not until they were forced by the government did
they take responsibility. If that was me (the CEO of BP) I would be in a shack down
by the water till it (the oil) was all taken care of.”
Shortly after the incident a statement was released by BP stating, “This was a
tragic accident that resulted in the loss of 11 lives and impacted the communities and
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the environment along the Gulf Coast region. We deeply regret this event. We have
sought throughout to step up to our responsibilities. We are determined to learn the
lessons for the future and we will be undertaking a broad-scale review to further
improve the safety of our operations. We will invest whatever it takes to achieve that.
It will be incumbent on everyone at BP to embrace and implement the changes
necessary to ensure that a tragedy like this can never happen again” (BP Releases).
In this case, BP did not make the correct choice in their efforts to recover from
the crisis. Their efforts of taking responsibility were not at the level that they needed
to be. Rather than stepping up and admitting to the public their faults in the matter,
BP’s attention was spent finding a scapegoat for the accident. Their focus was not on
their public or safety, but rather on the alternative of delaying the truth behind the
crisis.
BP’s outgoing chief executive Tony Hayward said: “The investigation report
provides critical new information on the causes of this terrible accident. It is evident
that a series of complex events, rather than a single mistake or failure, led to the
tragedy. Multiple parties, including BP, Halliburton and Transocean, were involved”
(BP Releases).
The cost of the response to September 17 amounts to approximately $9.5
billion, including the cost of the spill response, containment, relief well drilling, static
kill and cementing, grants to the Gulf states, claims paid and federal costs. On June
16, 2010, BP announced an agreed package of measures, including the creation of a
$20 billion escrow account to satisfy certain obligations arising from the oil and gas
spill (BP Confirms).
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Their approach was to wait and see what would occur next, which is not a
course of action for a public relations practitioner to advise during a crisis of this
level. Much as Exxon Mobil never completely out-ran the legacy of the Valdez oil
spill, it’s likely that BP will always be stained by how it handled this accident
(Simpson).
Toyota
Toyota had long been regarded as an example of quality in both
manufacturing and customer service. Yet, when reports first began to emerge that
there was a problem with a sticky accelerator in some models, the company basically
stonewalled. After excuses, including blaming the floor mats, Toyota ultimately
acknowledged a problem and launched a recall. But, in waiting so long to take
dramatic action Toyota lost its gold-plated reputation as being a better kind of Car
Company (Simpson).
On January 21, 2010, Toyota announced its intention to recall approximately
2.3 million select Toyota Division vehicles equipped with a specific pedal assembly
and suspended sales of the eight models involved in the recall on January
26 (Automotive Advertising Network).
Jim Lentz, president and Chief Operating Officer, TMS stated in a press
release, “We deeply regret the concern that our recalls have caused for our customers
and we are doing everything we can – as fast as we can – to make things
right. Stopping production is never an easy decision, but we are 100 percent
confident it was the right decision. We know what’s causing the sticking accelerator
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pedals, and we know what we have to do to fix it. We also know it is most important
to fix this problem in the cars on the road.”
In addition, Toyota developed an effective solution for vehicles in
production. Parts to reinforce the pedals were shipped for use by dealers, and dealer
training was enforced. Many Toyota dealers worked extended hours to complete the
recall campaign as quickly and conveniently as possible, some even stayed open 24
hours a day. The company also took the unprecedented action of stopping production
of affected vehicles for the week of February 1, 2010 (Automotive Advertising
Network).
“We are focused on making this recall as simple and trouble-free as possible,
and will work day and night with our dealers to fix recalled vehicles quickly. We
want to demonstrate that our commitment to safety is as high as ever and that our
commitment to our customers is unwavering,” stated Lentz (Automotive Advertising
Network).
The efforts of Toyota were there, but the timing was not as precise as it should
have been. Toyota should have taken immediate action in their attempt to defend their
company’s reputation. Toyota’s public relations department suggested the recall in a
last attempt to save the reputation of Toyota from being completely tarnished by their
hesitant actions. Since taking responsibility for their mistakes, Toyota has regained its
reputation with the public.
Union Carbide
In the early hours of December 3, 1984, methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas leaked
from the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) plant in Bhopal, India. According to
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the state government of Madhya Pradesh, approximately 3,800 people died and
several thousand other individuals experienced permanent or partial disabilities
(Bhopal “The Incident”).
The first report of the disaster reached Union Carbide executives in the United
States more than 12 hours after the incident. By 6 a.m. in the U.S., executives were
gathering with technical, legal, and communications staff at the company's Danbury,
Connecticut, headquarters. Information was sparse but, as casualty estimates quickly
climbed, the matter was soon recognized as a massive industrial disaster (Browning).
“The entire organization panicked and tight controls were placed over the
response. It was a classic non-response in the hopes that the problem would
eventually go away or media interest would subside,” stated a former worker from
Union Carbide, who wished to be unidentified.
“The first press conference was relatively short. We acknowledged that the
disaster had occurred at a plant owned by Union Carbide India Limited, in which we
had a 50.9 percent share. We explained that we were sending medical and technical
experts to aid the people of Bhopal, to help dispose of the remaining methyl
isocyanate at the plant and to investigate the cause of the tragedy. We announced our
plans to halt production at our only other methyl isocyanate plant in Institute, West
Virginia, and to convert existing supplies into less volatile compounds. We explained
that methyl isocyanate was not a common chemical and was not contained in
products generally available to the public. We also pledged to share information with
users of the chemical as we received it,” announced Jackson B. Browning, Retired
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Vice President, Health, Safety, and Environmental Programs Union Carbide
Corporation.
Shortly after the gas release, Union Carbide launched an intensive effort to
identify the cause. An initial investigation by Carbide experts showed that a large
volume of water had apparently been introduced into the MIC tank and caused a
chemical reaction that forced the chemical release valve to open and allowed the gas
to leak (Browning).
In the wake of the release, Union Carbide Corporation provided immediate and
continuing aid to the victims and set up a process to resolve their claims.
In the days, months and years following the disaster, Union Carbide took the
following actions to provide continuing aid:

Immediately provided approximately $2 million in aid to the Prime Minister’s Relief
Fund.

Immediately and continuously provided medical equipment and supplies.

Sent an international team of medical experts to Bhopal to provide expertise and
assistance.

Openly shared all its information on methyl isocyanate (MIC) with the Government
of India, including all published and unpublished toxicity studies available at the
time.

Dispatched a team of technical MIC experts to Bhopal on the day after the tragedy,
which carried MIC studies that were widely shared with medical and scientific
personnel in Bhopal.
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
Funded the attendance by Indian medical experts at special meetings on research and
treatment for victims.

Provided a $2.2 million grant to Arizona State University to establish a vocationaltechnical center in Bhopal, which was constructed and opened, but was later closed
and leveled by the government.

Offered an initial $10 million to build a hospital in Bhopal; the offer was declined.

Provided an additional $5 million to the Indian Red Cross.

Established an independent charitable trust for a Bhopal hospital and provided initial
funding of approximately $20 million.

Upon the sale of its interest in UCIL, and pursuant to a court order, provided
approximately $90 million to the charitable trust for the hospital.
(Bhopal “The Incident”)
The confidential source notes that, “The Company was so weakened by
Bhopal, layoffs, poor performance, a weak stock price and the exodus of top talent
that it needed to sell off the crown jewels in the portfolio to pay off the settlement and
debt. Many of the acquisitions were not particularly well thought out and had little to
do with the company's base chemical business. So at one point, management decided
a return to its core would be better for everyone concerned. Many of the units that left
the mother ship performed better on their own or as part of other companies.”
The source added, “Their efforts to extradite Carbide's chairman repeatedly
failed. There was a lot of ego to go around everywhere in this situation. A lot of lives
were lost, Carbide's reputation never recovered and today what's left of it is part of
Dow, a company that has as good a reputation as Carbide did when it was the class of
the chemical industry and the Dow.”
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“At the time of Bhopal, the company was rated among those manufacturers
with the best worker safety records. To a degree, they were smug about our record.
The Bhopal crisis put an end to that attitude. It spurred new cycles of process
monitoring and a fresh look at risk management. In the months and years after
Bhopal, Union Carbide focused a microscope on every operation. There was an
unprecedented search for every risk, any risk. They discovered that there was still
more that we could accomplish in maintaining safer operations. And money and staff
were committed to those objectives” (Browning).
Pepsi
In 1993, the now well-known Pepsi Corporation dealt with a crisis that could
have very well tainted the name of the company. June 10, 1993, the company
received a complaint that a syringe was found in a can of Diet-Pepsi.
Once the company became aware of the crisis at hand, Craig Weatherup,
President and CEO of the Pepsi Corporation, as well as the crisis management for the
Pepsi Corporation acted immediately in efforts to investigate the cause of the syringe.
After investigation, Weatherup and his management team noticed that the two cans of
Diet-Pepsi involved were made from two different plants and months apart, flagging
more concern.
Over a period of time, a total of 55 complaints were received, placing more
pressure to fix the situation onto the Pepsi Corporation. The company simultaneously
publicly worked with the FDA during the crisis. The corporation was completely
open with the public throughout, and every employee of Pepsi was kept aware of the
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details (Crisis Management). This made public communications effective throughout
the crisis.
The public relations department had to convince the external public of the
investigation proceeding on a daily basis. This is to ensure to the public that the
problem is under control (The Diet-Pepsi Crisis).
Pepsi urged stores not to remove the product from shelves while it had the
cans and the situation investigated. The public relations department advised the
Corporation to use what is called an offensive method. By releasing the video footage
of the can tampering for public view, the Corporation placed the evidence right in
front of the public’s faces. By showing the production process to the public, it proved
that such tampering was impossible within the factories. Then, a second video was
released, of a man being arrested, followed by a third video which showed the
surveillance footage from a convenience store where a woman was caught replicating
the tampering incident (The Diet-Pepsi Crisis).
After the crisis had been resolved, the corporation ran a series of special
campaigns designed to thank the public for standing by the corporation, along with
coupons for further compensation. This case served as a design for how to handle
other crisis situations (Crisis Management).
It was because the company acted so quickly and forcefully that the Pepsi
Corporation’s name was saved and that the Pepsi Corporation still remains a wellknown and flourishing Corporation.
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Necessary and Valued Skills of a Public Relations Practitioner
Public relations is not just about involvement with the public; other skills are
required and valued within the industry.
I asked Communications Executive, Mark Misercola, what skills he feels are
necessary to use on a daily basis while working in the public relations world. He
responded, “Strong writing and problem solving skills. In fact, being able to solve
problems with communications strategies and techniques would be the top skill.”
Through communication and problem solving, issues at hand, even ethical ones, can
be easier to manage.
Misercola continued, “The profession (public relations) offers very little longterm stability now, and to navigate the cyclical peaks and valleys graduates will need
to not only do their jobs really well, they must become especially astute at marketing
themselves and their skills. Staying employed will become as important as actually
being employed, so the ability to network and hunt for your next job will be crucial.”
When asked what he personally believes makes a successful public relations
practitioner, Misercola said, “The most successful public relations practitioners I’ve
worked with have been those who can do many things well (internally and
externally), are very politically astute and know how to positively influence those
around them. They know how to constantly reinvent themselves and actually stay one
step ahead of technology, and they have a sixth sense for finding the next job
opportunity.”
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Writing Proficiency
Anne Witkavitch, Principal of Anne W. Associates, a consulting practice
specializing in communications and change management, as well as a published
author and speaker, commented, “You need to not only write well but you need to be
a master at words and understanding the power and influence of their meaning.”
As a practitioner you need the ability to articulate what you want to through
words. Make your voice heard and understood so that the information you give out is
as complete as it can be, Witkavitch continued.
Misercola believes, “Writing is critical to public relations and
communications roles. The more styles you master the more valuable you will
become.”
Communication
Keep your public just as informed as you are. This allows for a flow of
communication.
Paul Steinmentz Interim Associate Vice President for Institutional
Advancement and University Relations at Western Connecticut State University says,
the key to success is, “communicating in all ways, being able to speak intelligently,
speaking loud. When I came here (Western Connecticut State University) I found
deans, directors, whoever I could find and would offer my help to them. This way my
name was known, and whenever they needed something, they would come find me.”
You need to be able to interview well and make connections. Learn how to
pitch and keep perfecting it throughout your career. Gain experience in crisis
communication, stated Anne Witkavitch.
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Your involvement in Morals and Ethics:
“Good character is more to be praised than outstanding talent. Most talents are, to
some extent, a gift. Good character, by contrast, is not given to us. We have to build it
piece by piece—by thought, choice, courage and determination”
John Luther, American Lawyer.
Think About It
This is a list of questions that you should be asking yourself?
Questions for creating your personal code:
1) What kind of values did your parents try to install into you as a child? Your church?
School? Individual teachers? Mentors?
2) Which ones stuck with you?
3) What experience in your childhood altered the way you value things in your life?
4) What experiences as an adult (both personal and professional) have had an impact on
what you value?
5) To whom are you loyal? (Consider yourself, your employers/clients, your family, your
profession, and society for starters.)
6) What kind of ethical style do you have? Virtuous? Intuitive? Empathetic? Darwinian or
Machiavellian?
7) What have you done in your past when faced with ethical dilemmas?
(Parsons)
Moral development
It is important, especially when dealing with public relations to take into
account one’s own moral development. Moral development refers to the way in
which we as individuals formulate a sense of morality as we develop as human beings
(Parsons).
“If you don’t have a strong moral base, you will probably make mistakes that
will destroy you,” says Steinmentz.
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While many scholars have contributed to the theory of moral development, it
is Harvard psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development that
are most widely used (Coleman).
(1) Obedience and punishment- we all begin our lives at this stage, by obeying those in
authority, or, more precisely, to those with the power to punish.
(2) Individualism and reciprocity- right or wrong decisions are made on the basis of what is
best for the person making the decision, though some negotiation with others may be
necessary to attain what I want.
(3) Interpersonal conformity- right or wrong is determined by what others close to us expect
of us. The expectations of others are our guidelines.
(4) Social system/ Law-and -order- an individual has a part to play in a society, which is to
do one's duty and to obey the rules and laws. There are fixed rules and duties that one
must honor.
(5) Social contract- the utilitarian appeal of "greatest good for the greatest number" often is
invoked in this stage. Thus, one believes that there are moral values/rights that may be
independent of society's laws.
(6) Universal ethical principle- Concerns such as respect for the dignity of each person, basic
equality for all, and treating people as ends not means are prevalent concepts in this
stage.
(Kohlberg)
Today, Kohlberg’s original six stages were divided into three broad
categories—Preconventional, Conventional and Postconventional, which correspond
to the new model of three schemas, but with slightly different names (Coleman).
Understanding these stages can allow you to better understand your own moral
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development. By understanding yourself, you can better understand the individuals
that will be surrounding you.
Three primary levels of Moral Development:
Preconventional Stage- now known as the Personal Interest schema is defined by
rules that are delivered by authority and are inviolable. Breaking rules result in
punishment, and adherence to rules is either to avoid punishment or gain rewards
(Coleman).
This level or moral development is defined by simple, self-interested
obedience to the rules—following rules primarily when it is in one’s own interest
to do so (Coleman).
Applying the Preconventional Stage to the hypothetical:
If it were found that Pippo Toys was aware of the hazardous PVC toxicants in
its toys and continued distribution, your agency would be inclined to notify higher
authorities of such actions. By your agency doing so, they are refusing to take part in
any criminal actions.
Conventional Stage- now referred to as the Maintaining Norms schema, this stage
is where rules begin to be respected for their own sake and are eventually seen as
serving society. Rules are necessary for maintaining social order and can be
changed if all agree (Coleman).
At this level, one’s moral reasoning is dominated by “doing one’s duty” and
maintaining social order for its own sake. Thinking at this stage acknowledges the
role of duty (Coleman).
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Applying the Conventional Stage to the hypothetical:
By suggesting a recall, your agency and Pippo Toys would be sending a “We
Care” message to the public.
Postconventional Stage- still called Postconventional in the schema model. In the
Postconventional stage or schema, laws and rules are respected only so far as they
appeal to universal ethical principles. Rules are the result of intellectual reasoning
and they should achieve full reciprocity. That is, the rules themselves should not
favor one group over another. Right and wrong, and the value of rules and laws,
are determined by their appeal to mutuality and universality (Coleman).
Applying the Postconventional Stage to the hypothetical:
At this stage as a public relations practitioner, you should be aware of all
parties involved. The practitioner should not place Pippo Toys’ interest as a priority
over the publics’ interest.
Moral Behavior
Models are designed to assist practitioners of advocacy to arrive at decisions
about morally appropriate and justifiable courses of action. Sometimes, however,
knowing what one should do does not always determine what one actually does
(Baker).
Moral psychologist James Rest has proposed a theory of the determinants of
moral behavior. He writes that there are four psychological components that must be
in place for people to behave ethically. Review these models, testing yourself and
your knowledge of your own moral behavior.
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One must have enough moral sensitivity to recognize an ethical issue when
it presents itself, such as a situation or communication that could cause harm to
others.
(1) Moral Sensitivity- awareness of possible lines of action, and of how our
actions might affect other people.
An example referring to the Hypothetical:
By choosing to defend Pippo Toys’ name and their decision to take the toy off
the market, think about the effect you will have on the public.
(2) Moral Judgment- the ability to use moral reasoning to determine what
behaviors are morally justifiable. One must also have the moral judgment or
moral reasoning skills to be able to decide the right thing to do.
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
Pippo Toys has the option to remove the product, product recall, mitigating a
crisis and taking responsibility. Advise Pippo Toys to change manufacturers to
prevent any harmful reoccurrences and redistribute the toy at a later time.
(3) Moral Motivation- the desire to prioritize moral values over competing values.
One must have the motivation to prioritize and act on moral values, even when
those values come into conflict with other cherished values and priorities such
as economic gain or career success.
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Company’s profit vs. public’s well being, which holds a stronger meaning to
your personal views? Does keeping your client satisfied out weigh the public’s
safety?
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
Pippo Toys has the ability to “call out” their manufacturer for cutting corners
during the manufacturing process of their toy, therefore, placing blame onto their
manufacturer.
(4) Moral Character- having the courage and ego strength to do the right thing,
despite the costs and difficulties in doing so. One must also have enough “ego
strength, perseverance, backbone, toughness, strength of conviction, and
courage” under pressure to do the right thing (Baker).
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
If your agency believes Pippo Toys should recall their product, and Pippo
Toys does not agree to do the recall, do you have the capability to disregard the
public’s well being?
Ethical Responsibility
Potter Stewart, Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court states
that, “Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have a right to do and what
is right to do.”
Respecting others is fundamental to our ability to make good ethical
decisions, so that means that if we are able to be somewhat modest, although not in a
false way, we can develop a kind of dignity that respects both ourselves and others.
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From that respect comes trust and trustworthiness. What kind of person would you
like to be and, perhaps even more telling, what kind of person would you prefer to
work with? (Parsons)
“Beliefs about ethics and ethical problems or situations are formed by
values. Ethics themselves are founded upon moral principles. When you are
measuring your public’s view of your ethics, you are asking if they think you
deserve to exist” (Newsom, Scott and Vanslyke).
Ethical Dilemmas:
The three most important aspects of the realities of ethics are recognizing,
facing and dealing with ethical dilemmas in our everyday practice of public relations
and corporate communications (Parsons).
Ethical dilemmas have good and right arguments to commend them on all
sides of the situation. They require careful moral reasoning to arrive at the most
appropriate action. Right-versus-wrong issues, on the other hand, are moral
temptations. They do not require deep philosophical or ethical analysis because they
are simply wrong from the outset (Baker).
Applying this to the hypothetical:
Keeping the recent information about the hazardous toxicants contained in the
toys between your agency and Pippo Toys would obviously be a poor decision. It
may prevent any immediate possible loss of profit for Pippo Toys, but the overall
outcome could be catastrophic to Pippo Toys and the public.
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Assuming that a genuine ethical dilemma (not a moral temptation) has presented
itself, Kidder writes that there are four value sets that are so fundamental to the rightversus-right choices all of us face that they can be called dilemma paradigms.
These four paradigms are (1) truth versus loyalty (2) individual verses community
(3) short-term versus long-term and (4) justice versus mercy. Kidder says these are
the classic tensions in most ethical dilemmas (Baker).
(1) Truth versus Loyalty -- sets honesty in opposition with allegiance, fidelity,
and promise keeping.
The public is skeptical of the truth of what is communicated to them and we
really don’t have a right to clog up the channels of public communication with
more untruths or half-truths (Parsons).
Hypothetical: Truth to the public regarding whose actions caused the toxins vs. the
loyalty to your client, Pippo Toys, if they wish not to disclose that information.
(2) Individual versus Community -- pits “self” or “us” against “them” or “others”.
Hypothetical: Your agency’s or Pippo Toys’ reputation vs. the manufacturer’s
reputation.
(3) Short-term versus Long-term-- short-term is concerned with immediate needs
and desires (the now) as opposed to long-term which is concerned with future
goals or prospects (the then).
Hypothetical: For short-term, the agency could advise Pippo Toys to do a product
recall and only take a short loss. Or for the long-term, place blame on the
manufacturer for the products faults and face the possibility of embarrassment, loss of
their reputation, along with any other future conflicts.
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(4) Justice versus Mercy- justice is concerned with fairness and equity, which
sometimes comes into opposition with compassion and empathy (Baker).
Hypothetical: Having Pippo Toys’ manufacturer take responsibility and proper
action vs. Pippo Toys wanting to solve the issue before it turns into a crisis.
In the practice of public relations, for example, the truth versus loyalty dilemma
spills over into the “us” versus “them” dilemma. Should practitioners and decision
makers engage in partial truths in their own self-interest (an emphasis on “us”), or
should their concerns be with receivers of their persuasive messages (an emphasis on
“them”) in providing others with the truthful information they need to make rational
decisions about an issue? Similarly, with regard to short-term versus long-term
considerations, is long-term interest served best by truth or by loyalty, by emphasis
on us or on them? (Baker)
It is up to the individual or corporation to decide which should take
precedence in any given situation, and to be able to justify their decision (Baker) .
Kidder acknowledges that neither side of the dilemma invariably is right.
Nevertheless, he argues that all things being equal (when both sides of the argument
have equal weight or good arguments to support them), he would choose truth over
loyalty, community or individual, long-term over short-term, and mercy over justice
(Baker).
Methods, Models, Practices and Principles
Throughout your experience in the public relations industry, there may be
times in which you are unsure of which actions to take, for example, the hypothetical
presented in the beginning. These methods, models, practices and principles are here
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to offer you a type of outline for your focuses and concerns along the way. By
understanding and learning them you can make better decisions that best suit each
situation and each client’s needs.
Press Agentry/ Publicity Model
This exemplifies the first historical stage of public relations in which the aim
is to “publicize the organization, its products, and its services in any way possible.”
This model is involved only in a one-way communication, dedicated to “help the
organization control the publics that affect it” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
Your concerns would lie within Pippo Toys and their decisions. You would
simply aid them in whatever they wanted to do.
Social Responsibility Model
This model instructs the public relations practitioner to enact public relations
campaigns while serving a broader public interest and communal good (Baker).
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
Your focus would be on the interest of the public and their safety. Making
them aware of the hazardous toxicants presented in the toy.
Social responsibility provides a kind of ethical framework for achieving
organizational goals. Planning for public relations programming requires both an
understanding and an appreciation of the concept (Parsons).
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Public Information Model
This model is used primarily by government agencies, nonprofits and
associations. This model, “seeks to disseminate information to the public as
truthfully and accurately as possible” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
Take notice that there is a problem at hand and work with Pippo Toys in an
effort to inform the public of the issue(s), including revealing that there are harmful
toxicants in the toy.
Persuasion Models:
The Reputation Protection Model
RPM is the lens that impacts all aspects of crisis preparation and responses. It
adds a lens that views crisis preparation as an investment in an organization’s longterm reputation in the eyes of its most important stakeholders.
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
By advising Pippo Toys, it will show your agency’s dedication to their client’s
long-term interest. By representing your client, Pippo Toys, your agency becomes the
voice and informer to the public. Through taking the time to view Pippo Toys’
reputation as a priority, your agency focuses on the long-term as well as the shortterm outcomes for your client, Pippo Toys.
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The Mirror Principle
This states that an organization must hold up the looking glass to its own
issues and culture. This simple test of an ethical solution comes down to something
very simple and very personal. Look in the mirror and ask yourself: what kind of
person do you want to see? (Parsons)
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
As a representative of your agency, how do you want to be perceived by the
client, Pippo Toys? And, as your agency advises Pippo Toys, how will the public
view the information in which your agency is providing them with? Is the advice and
written communication that your agency is providing Pippo Toys with correct, or do
you hold a different opinion from your agency? If so, is that opinion strong enough to
make known to your agency or Pippo Toys? Are you willing to take any
consequences that may come along with presenting your own opinion on the matter?
If not, will you be able to handle the pressure of keeping your opinions to yourself?
TARES Test
Created by Sherry Baker and David Martinson, TARES, outlines the ethical
expectations for the public relations practitioner to consider while enacting a
persuasive communication campaign. TARES is an acronym designed around the five
interconnected factors of ethical consideration; Truthfulness, Authenticity, Respect,
Equality and Social responsibility.
A sincere and well- intentioned consideration of all elements and principles of
the TARES Test should lead practitioners of advocacy and persuasion to morally
justifiable decisions (Baker). By adopting the TARES method, or any of the other
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models, methods, practices or principles public relations practitioners can better
prepare themselves for multiple circumstances.
Truthfulness- The truth should be properly presented to the public, allowing them as
the audience to receive enough information to make their own informed decision on
the issue being presented.
Is the message factually accurate and also truthful? Does it deceive overtly or
covertly? Does it lead people to believe what I myself do not believe? Does it satisfy
the listener’s information requirements? (Baker)
Authenticity- It is important to clarify the authenticity of the persuader. The agency
and practitioners should question the motives behind the communication message to
make sure that all parties involved are not being misrepresented and that the message
communicates what the client wishes.
By questioning the motives, the public relations practitioners must then ask
themselves if the message they are representing will benefit someone other than their
client, such as the public.
Am I acting with integrity? Do I endorse this message? Would I take personal
responsibility for it? Would I persuade those I care about to do this? Do I believe that
people will benefit from this? (Baker)
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
If Pippo Toys voices their concerns about their manufacturer with your
agency, and still chooses to keep that manufacturer, think about the hidden motives, if
any, that your agency should be concerned with.
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Respect- There needs to be a respect for the persuadee and communicators should
perceive their targeted audience as “human beings.” The message(s) being
communicated should be shaped or transmitted with appropriate respect towards that
audience.
Have I respected the interests of others? Have I given them substantially
complete information so they can make good decisions? Have I made them aware of
the source of this message? (Baker)
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
By having your client, Pippo Toys release a press statement with a toy recall,
both your agency and your client, Pippo Toys demonstrate respect to the public.
Equality- There is a responsibility that the public relations practitioner has to her
audience. It is the public relations practitioner responsibility to avoid communication
that is directed towards taking advantage of certain vulnerabilities, i.e. the trust that
the public holds for your agency, the faith that your client, Pippo Toys has in your
agency, etc.
Is this campaign fair? Does it take unfair advantage of the message that is
received? Is it fair to targeted or vulnerable audiences? Have I made the
communication understandable to those to whom it is directed? Have I fairly
communicated the benefits, risks, costs, and harms? (Baker)
Applying this to the Hypothetical:
If Pippo Toys and your agency inform the public of the toxicants in the toy,
how much information is disclosed?
33
Social Responsibility- Public relation practitioners have a social responsibility
towards the common good.
Think about whether or not the cause I am promoting will result in benefiting
or harming individuals or society? Is this cause responsible to the best interests of the
public? (Baker)
Applying to the Hypothetical:
Advise your client, Pippo Toys to tell the public what the agency feels is
appropriate -informing the public of the use of any hazardous materials used in the
making of the toy. Do that and the social responsibility of the agency is fulfilled.
Understanding Crisis:
“A crisis is an event that is a game changer. It’s the emergency that escalates
to a business disruption, a fatal or serious injury from a product, employee deception
or fraud, a factory that explodes. Most often an emergency becomes a crisis through
public exposure via the traditional media and/or social media” (Gilman).
Communicating During a Crisis
“In developing a communication plan, remember that employees are going to
talk to neighbors and to casual acquaintances whether authorized to do so or not. As a
result, you need to be sure that your communication plan includes strong internal as
well as external communication” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).
34
“Consider all the options and then discuss it with those around you who are in
a position to know or advise, before making a decision. The key is to not act alone,”
says Misercola.
In planning for a crisis, you need to be able to anticipate the communication
climate by predicting how management is likely to act and react as the drama of a
crisis unfolds. According to Robert L. Dilenschneider, president of Hill & Knowlton,
Inc., an organization in crisis needs to go public in the first three to six hours after the
news breaks or you’re dead” (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).
“When severity ramps up, involve more people, drop everything and work on
this, the problem,” says Steinmentz.
Three key elements that communicating in a crisis depend upon are (1) the
existence of a communication plan with the overall crisis plan (2) the ability to
assemble a crisis team when a crisis occurs (3) the use of a single spokesperson
during the crisis (Newsom, Scott, and Vanslyke).
The following are six steps towards positive crisis resolution:
1) Preparation is key
2) Make sure you have all the facts
3) Take immediate action to minimize danger to human life
4) Tell the truth
5) Show you care and be sincere
6) Never outlook the power of common sense
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(Serphos)
While no one can predict a crisis, appropriate foresight and thought can mean
the difference between maintaining a stellar corporate reputation and the dreadful
alternative (Serphos).
Revisiting the Scenario:
Now that you have read the materials that I have provided for you, look back
at the scenario from the beginning.
Remember the issue at hand. Pippo Toys’ has informed your agency that there
is a problem with the manufacturing of their new toy, Safi. Their manufacture has
made their new toys with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic. They have told your team
that Safi failed the safety and health tests. Your agency now has to help with
assistance, guidance and an overall resolution.
After reading about ethics, necessary skills, values, stages and methods and
models, what courses of action is in the best interest for your final resolution?
If you paid attention to the information collected, you would choose to focus
on the following:
o Communicate with the Pippo Toys on a professional and informative level, help
Pippo Toys involve many parties.
o Remember that your agency represents your client, Pippo Toys and guiding them
towards an effective resolution will secure your reputation as a reliable public
relations agency.
36
o Advise your client, Pippo Toys to do an immediate product recall. By doing so
will make Pippo Toys a more credible company and be seen as acting in the
public’s best interest.
o Suggest to your client, Pippo Toys, that a product recall will allow the public to
become aware of the hazards of the toy and Pippo Toys may only take a shortterm loss rather than a long-term loss.
o Work with your client, Pippo Toys to keep the public informed at all times of the
product recall. Inform them of information updates, provide hotlines, etc. You
will gain a more effective reputation.
o Advise your client, Pippo Toys, to cut ties with their manufacturer. By making
that step, Pippo Toys can show the public that they no longer have a relationship
with the manufacturer, preventing any future conflicts.
o If your agency does decide to advise your client, Pippo Toys that blame should
be placed onto the manufacturer, your agency and client need to be fully
prepared for the amount of attention that will be received from both the public
and the media.
o Advise Pippo Toys that they should not try to shift the blame. However, they will
be most reliable if they accept the major share of the responsibility themselves.
Future for Public Relations Practitioners
“Future challenges for United States practitioners include what may seem
obvious: exploiting the potential of constantly changing technology, especially
communication technology; hiring bright, well-educated practitioners (and educators)
37
who embrace professional norms and can take the place of the aging leadership of this
field…” (Grunig, Grunig).
Misercola was asked his thoughts on the job outlook for upcoming public
relations majors, he commented; “Job situations will remain tenuous for all public
relations professionals until the economy improves and the cycle is far enough along
that company’s feel confident enough to add support staff (so it’s going to be a
while). That being said, there’s always room for the cream of the crop and new grads
have one thing going for them—they cost less to employ than experienced
professionals.”
Most importantly, Misercola adds, “Public relations should be important
regardless of the health of the economy. Given how many public relations
professionals have lost their jobs in this economy you could make a case that business
does not value public relations as much as it should in a down economy, and public
relations’ ability to play a vital role in enhancing society’s morals.”
“Industry has become much rougher, security has gone from little to none,
and in the current environment new jobs are very hard to come by,” Misercola added.
We are at some midpoint in the United States—well beyond our rudimentary
beginnings yet well short of our goal of truly global, truly professional, truly strategic,
truly empowered, truly responsible, truly ethical, and truly effective public relations
practice” (Grunig, Grunig).
You owe it to yourself, to your employers and clients, to your profession and
to society to be competent to act in the capacity of a public relations practitioner
(Parsons).
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