Beer
"In both cultures [Egypt and Mesopotamia], beer was a staple foodstuff without which no meal was
complete. It was consumed by everyone, rich and poor, men and women, adults and children, from
the top of the social pyramid to the bottom. It was truly the defining drink of these first great
civilizations." (30) The history of beer is used to present the story of the domestication of cereal
grains, the development of farming, early migrations, and the development of river valley societies in
Egypt and Mesopotamia. Beer was a discovery rather than an invention. It was first used alternately
as a social drink with a shared vessel, as a form of edible money, and as a religious offering. As
urban water supplies became contaminated, beer also became a safer drink. Beer became equated
with civilization and was the beverage of choice from cradle to the grave.
“Since the Fertile Crescent had the best climatic conditions for grain cultivation, that was where
farming began, where the earliest civilizations arose, where writing first emerged, and where beer
was most abundant.” (p. 39) Even today, beer serves a specific purpose. “Whether in stone age
villages, Mesopotamian banqueting halls, or modern pubs and bars, beer has brought people
together since the dawn of civilization.” (p. 39)
Human Geography Connections: origins of domestication and the processes by which
domesticates spread; distinct regional patterns of diet, energy use, and emergence of agrarian
technologies; geographies of interdependence in the global economy; location and origins of urban
settlements; major agricultural production regions.
Wine
Thucydides: "the peoples of the Mediterranean began to emerge from barbarism when they learned
to cultivate the olive and the vine." (52-53)
Wine is used to examine early Greek and Roman economies and society. It was initially associated
with social class, an exotic and scarce commodity because it was expensive to transport without
breakage. Wine conveyed power, prestige, and privilege. The masses drank beer. Wine came to
embody Greek culture and became more widely available. It was used not only in the Symposium,
the Greek drinking parties, but also medicinally to clean wounds and as a safer drink than water.
Roman farmers, under the influence of Greek culture, adapted their agricultural practices to take up
viticulture, growing grapes instead of grain which they imported instead from colonies in North Africa.
Where wine came from became a symbol of social differentiation and a form of conspicuous
consumption. After the fall of the Roman Empire, wine continued to be associated with Christianity
and the Mediterranean. The patterns persist today—wine is consumed in greater quantities in
southern Europe, beer in northern Europe. Wine is consumed with food while beer is usually not.
Wine, following Greek ideals, is usually drunk in moderation; beer is often not. Geography, naturally,
plays a role in this. The Islamic prohibition against drinking focused on wine (Wine and games of
chance are abominations devised by Satan, wrote Mohammad) because wine represented the
Mediterranean world which Muslims resented.
Human Geography Connections: distinct regional patterns of diet, energy use, and emergence of
agrarian technologies; explanations for the location of agricultural activities; geographies of
interdependence in the global economy; major agricultural production regions; diffusion; ways culture
shapes human-environment relationships.
Spirits
"Rum was the liquid embodiment of both the triumph and the oppression of the first era of globalization." (111)
The process of distillation, originated in Cordoba by Arabs around 900, had a profound effect on the New World
and early development of the World System. “Distilled drinks became economic goods of such significance that
their taxation and control became matters of great political importance and helped to determine the course of
history.” (p.97) This invention diffused via the new printing press in the 15th century, leading to the development of
whiskey (distilled beer) and, later, brandy (distilled wine). The spirits-slaves-sugar connection led to rum being used
as a currency for slave payment. British sailors drank grog (rum infused with lemon or lime juice), which helped to
alleviate scurvy. Rum became the first globalized drink of oppression. “Unlike beer, which was usually produced
and consumed locally, and wine, which was usually made and traded within a specific region, rum was the result of
the convergence of materials, people, and technologies from around the world.” Its popularity in the colonies, where
there were few other alcoholic beverage choices, led to distilling in New England. This began the trade wars which
resulted in the Molasses Act, the Sugar Act, the boycotts of imports, and a refusal to pay taxes without
representation. It is proposed that it was rum rather than tea that started the
American Revolution. Geography played a role in this: grain crops used to make beer were a challenge to grow in
the colonies, particularly in New England. Wine made from local grapes was not drinkable. Hence, colonists in
Virginia, for example, decided to raise and export tobacco and to import malt barley for beer making.
Migration westward meant it was harder to obtain rum so settlers switched to whiskey, easily distilled from
fermented grains which grew better in the interior of the country. Whiskey became a portable form of wealth, easier
to transport than the grain that was used to make it and more valuable. The Whiskey Rebellion was the result of
taxes placed on whiskey. As settlers moved farther west they used the native crop of corn to make whiskey, called
bourbon.
Spirits were used to conquer the Americas The French fur traders' use of brandy, the British use of rum, and the
Spanish use of pulque all had a devastating effect on native peoples. Spirits became associated not only with
slavery, but also with the exploitation and subjugation of indigenous peoples on five continents as colonies and
mercantilist relationships were formed.
Human Geography Connections: distinct regional patterns of diet, energy use, and emergence of agrarian
technologies; explanations for the location of agricultural activities; geographies of interdependence in the global
economy; major agricultural production regions; how places and regions acquire comparative advantages for
development; diffusion
Coffee
"Europe's coffeehouses functioned as information exchanges for scientists, businessmen, writers
and politicians. Like modern web sites.." (152)
Coffee has its origins in the Arab world around the late 1400s and diffused to Europe in the 17
century. As a new and safe alternative to alcoholic drinks and water, some argued that it promoted
rational enquiry and had medicinal qualities. “Those who drank coffee instead of alcohol began the
day alert and stimulated, rather than relaxed and mildly inebriated, and the quality and quantity of
their work improved.” (p. 135) Coffee was the ideal drink for the Europe of the Enlightenment and
coffeehouses were places where men (and women in France) gathered to exchange news and
where social differences were left at the door. Some establishments specialized in particular topics
such as the exchange of scientific and commercial ideas.
Governments tried to suppress these institutions, since coffeehouses promoted freedom of speech
and an open atmosphere for discussion amongst different classes of people something many
governments found threatening. Coffeehouses also played a role in the development of global
financial networks, functioning as stock exchanges. Whole empires were built on coffee.
The Arabs had a monopoly on beans, while the Dutch were middlepersons in the trade and then set
up coffee plantations in Java and Suriname. The French began plantations in the West Indies and
Haiti. “Coffee’s association with innovation, reason, and networking—plus a dash of revolutionary
fervor—has a long pedigree.” (p.172)
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Human Geography Connections: distinct regional patterns of diet, energy use, and emergence of
agrarian technologies; explanations for the location of agricultural activities; geographies of
interdependence in the global economy; major agricultural production regions; how places and
regions acquire comparative advantages for development; diffusion
Tea
"The story of tea is the story of imperialism, industrialization and world domination one cup at a time."
(177)
Tea was important in China initially as a medicinal good and then as a trade item along the Silk
Routes with the spread of Buddhism. It became a national drink during the Tang dynasty, reflecting the
prosperity of the time. Easy to prepare, was known known to kill bacteria that cause cholera, typhoid, and
dysentery. Though it fell from favor during Mongol rule, it had already spread to Japan, where the tea
ceremony evolved as a sign of status and culture. Tea diffused to Europe before coffee but was more
expensive, initially denoted as a luxury, and used mainly as a medicinal drink. The innovation was
“glocalized” by Europeans who drank it with sugar and milk, not plain as in Asia. By the18th century, Britain
was won over by tea thanks in part to the role played by the British East India Trading Company; France
and the Netherlands preferred coffee and chocolate. Power plays in India and China as opium was traded
for tea increased the economic might of the British Empire. India proved to be an intervening opportunity
and by 1900 was the chief supplier of tea for Britain. “The rise of India’s tea industry had a devastating
impact on China’s tea farmers and further contributed to the instability of the country which descended into
a chaotic period of rebellions, revolutions, and wars during the first half of the 20th century.” (p. 219) Tea
shops for women, tea parties, afternoon tea, and tea gardens all evolved as part of high culture. And yet,
tea also showed up among the working class and played a role in factory production through the
introduction of tea breaks. “Tea was not just a drink; it eventually became an entirely new afternoon meal.”
(p. 193)
Tea also played a role in reducing waterborne diseases since the water had to be boiled first.
This directly increased infant survival rates, and thus increased the available labor pool for the
Industrial Revolution, precipitating movement in the Demographic Transition. Tea drinking in nations of the
former British Empire continues to this day.
Human Geography Connections: distinct regional patterns of diet, energy use, and emergence of
agrarian technologies; explanations for the location of agricultural activities; geographies of
interdependence in the global economy; major agricultural production regions; how places and regions
acquire comparative advantages for development; diffusion; population change; geographic elements of
industrialization and development
Coke
"To my mind, I am in this damn mess as much to help keep the custom of drinking Cokes as I am to help
preserve the million other benefits our country blesses its citizens with . . ." (253)
“The rise of America, and the globalization of war, politics, trade, and communications during the 20 th
century, are mirrored by the rise of Coca-Cola.” (p. 225) Similar to the other drinks discussed, Coca-Cola
was initially a medicinal beverage. Soda water could be found in the soda fountains in apothecaries as early
as 1820. John Pemberton, Atlanta, Georgia in 1886, developed a medicinal concoction using French wine,
coca (diffused from the Incas), and kola extract.
However, he needed a non-alcoholic version because of the temperance movement, and thus
Coca-Cola was born. Thanks to advertising and marketing using testimonials, a distinctive logo, and free
samples, the syrup became profitable when added to existing soda fountains. By1895 it was a national
drink. “Since Atlanta was a major hub on the nation’s railway network, distribution was not a problem.” (p.
241) Legal controversy forced it to let go of medicinal claims and left it as "delicious and refreshing." Further
challenges to the drink included the end of
Prohibition, the Great Depression, and the rise of Pepsi. With World War II, America ended isolationism and
sent out 16 million servicemen with Coke in their hands. Coke sought to increase soldier morale by
supplying a familiar drink to them abroad. To cut down on shipping costs, only the syrup was shipped, and
bottling plants were set up wherever American servicemen went. Quickly, Coke became synonymous with
patriotism. After the war, there were attacks of Coca-colonization by French Communists in the midst of the
Cold War. The company responded by arguing that "coca cola was the essence of capitalism" representing
a symbol of freedom since Pepsi had managed to get behind the "iron curtain." Ideological divides
continued as Coca Cola was marketed in Israel and the Arab world became dominated by Pepsi.
Coca Cola, and its cousin Pepsi, represents the acceleration of globalization in the past century and
highlights global processes of industrialization, mass transportation, mass consumerism, global capitalism,
conflict, the Cold War, and ideological battles. “An analysis by The Economist magazine in 1997 found that
consumption of Coca-Cola in different countries—a good proxy for those countries’ degree of
globalization—correlated closely with greater wealth, quality of life
(measured using a scale devised by the United Nations), and social and political freedom.” (p. 265)
Human Geography Connections: geographies of interdependence in the global economy; how places and
regions acquire comparative advantages for development; diffusion; geographic elements of
industrialization and development; variations in levels of development