Pitasi 1
The Greatest Happiness
Antonia Pitasi
Introduction to Historical Research
9 December 2013
Professor Mark Molesky
Pitasi 2
Cesare Beccaria’s ideas in his most notable work, the treatise, On Crimes and
Punishments, were very much so ahead of his time. In 1764 when he published, On Crimes and
Punishments, it was the first written condemnation of capital punishment in history. At this time,
revenge and retribution were the reasoning behind the cruel punishment of execution in Italy. He
has since been coined the title, “father of modern criminology”. 1 Beccaria wrote in an effort to
encourage legal reform of Italian legislative system, not knowing his work would ultimately
impact the Western world in its entirety during this era of enlightenment. He based his
conclusions about crime and criminals on reason and free will because he believed that free will
allowed for people to make good decisions. He chose to place some focus on society as a whole
instead of an individual criminal. He did not believe in harboring revenge against the criminal as
a way to punish or prevent crime, but rather to have the criminal fear a suitable punishment
Beccaria wanted the aggressor to be entirely aware of the consequence before committing a
crime.2 Various translations were read and implemented in Italy, France, Russia England and
even America. Cesare Beccaria’s work, On Crimes and Punishments, has maintained an
interminable and extensive impact on the criminal and legal reform of the Western world of the
eighteenth century during the Enlightenment.
Beccaria was born to aristocratic parents and received a Jesuit education. He studied
mathematics and economics in the University of Pavia, where he also graduated. Beccaria’s
writing career only began when he partnered with the Verri brothers, Alessandro and Pietro, two
well-known economists in Northern Italy. The Verri brothers were interested in beginning a
cultural reform movement as it was the period of enlightenment around the world. Together, the
1
Criminology. Chapter 6 Explaining Crime (Theories) Cahaba School, n.d. Web. 5 December 2013.
<http://cahabaschool.org/Criminology.htm>
2
Anne T. Romano, Italian Americans in Law Enforcement (Lexington: Xilbris Corp, 2010), page 22.
Pitasi 3
three men formed a literary society in which they named, L’Accademia dei pugni, the Academy
of the Fists, because they were a trio of elite academics that would be sharing bold ideas within
society. They started a journal within their group, Il Caffè, which encouraged cultural reform in
Milan.3 Beccaria’s first written contribution to the academic journal was in 1762 where he took
on the problems surrounding Milan’s monetary system and his theories on resolving the issues
with the state’s currency; he wrote on what he knew best and felt most comfortable with,
mathematics and economics. 4 Until his first publication, he was not known by society and he
was also shy and said to have been lazy. His publication of, On Crimes and Punishments, which
was finished in 1764, was aided by the Verri brothers. The Verri brothers provided Beccaria with
the information and data regarding the legal system and Beccaria utilized the information
alongside his distaste for the Italian legal system to record his own theories on it. Once written,
the Verri brothers arranged the written work into a structured order before publishing it as a book
made up of compiled chapters.
Beccaria’s treatise is broken into 47 chapters, each chapter focusing on a specific topic
affecting society or theory. Beccaria stated in Chapter 4 as he discussed the right to punish, that
it is only fair that the, “punishments are just in proportion, as the liberty, preserved by the
sovereign” and this concept is the rationale behind his idea of selection of the proper punishment
per crime.5 Having the punishment be proportional to the crime was a focus of Beccaria’s
treatise; he dedicates a chapter to the issue. Beccaria encourages the government to implement a
fixed system made up of various levels of extremes that would proportionate the allotted
punishments. In the chapter regarding the proportionality of punishment, he shares his idea of
3
Imogene Moyer, Criminological Theories: Traditional and Non-Traditional Voices and Themes (Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications, Inc., 2001), page 15.
4
Robert A. Silverman, Crime and Justice at the Millennium (Boston:Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002), page 392
5
Of Crimes and Punishments. Cesare Beccaria. Constitution.org, n.d. Web. 15 November 2013.
<http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun02.htm>
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forming a mathematical political equation that would equate the various extremes of punishment
for specific crimes. He then ends the chapter by expressing his opposition to the consequence of
such harsh and cruel punishments for small offenses stating, “If an equal punishment be ordained
for two crimes that injure society in different degrees, there is nothing to deter men from
committing the greater as often as it is attended with greater advantage”. 6 His writing is
persuasive as he is explaining his theories by using prevalent examples and rationalization that
can be easily understood with reason and logic. Beccaria not only represents the aggressor, but
also the victim within his ideas, presenting both sides of a criminal act in an effort to resolve the
issue in its totality. He urged for punishment to be established quickly in order to make
punishment an inevitable consequence for crime; he wanted the constituents to be entirely aware
of what the punishment would be as they are about to commit a crime, in hopes that that
knowledge will stop them before they commit the illegal act. Beccaria wrote the treatise with a
straight forward tone in order for citizens of both the highest and lowest class to comprehend and
then apply his ideas into the daily workings of society. The clear and concise structure of the
treatise allows for the simple understanding of such strong and new ideas during this period of
renowned philosophy. As he criticized the Italian legal system, he wanted to convince the readers
that capital punishment could not work as deterrence in the post-barbaric society.
Beccaria also included in his treatise, what he felt to be, the most essential belief for
society to have in mind at all times in order for society to function in its best form. He believed
the, “basic principle for society [to be] - ‘the greatest happiness shared by the greatest
number’”.7 Not only did Beccaria write on the necessity for society to focus more on the
6
Of Crimes and Punishments. Cesare Beccaria. Constitution.org, n.d. Web. 15 November 2013.
<http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun06.htm>
7
Imogene, page 15.
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prevention of crime rather than the punishing of crime, he came up with formed steps that
society needed to take to prevent crime and minimize the number of illegal acts committed. He
listed the nine steps that society would have to take in chapter 41 as he reached the end of the
book after listing the problems, he was now introducing what he believed to be solutions; some
of the steps included, making the laws very clear and well known, enforcing the same laws for
each class, improving the education system and encouraging society to concentrate more on
respecting and fulfilling the laws.8 Through this chapter, he was taking a component of the blame
off of the aggressor and placing that blame on the legislative system, the Italian government.
Beccaria wanted to prove that preventing crime should be made the government’s first priority as
he claimed it to be, “the fundamental principle of good legislation”, again making a notion that
the current legislation needed to be improved.9
In Beccaria’s motherland of Italy, his treatise was both accepted and criticized. He was in
direct opposition of Italy’s legal system and made it clear that he believed the system to be
antiquated and barbaric for the time. However, despite any of the criticism that the treatise did
receive from the public, it was because of On Crimes and Punishments that Grand Duke Leopold
of Tuscany abolished the death penalty in 1786. Although the abolishment did not happen for
about two decades after the treatise was published, Tuscany was the first, as a civil state, in
Europe to adopt such a radical change during this time. Leopold also went ahead and reformed
the penal and civil system in Tuscany, looking to Beccaria’s ideas for incentive.10 The
abolishment was a huge success in terms of Italy’s advancement during the Enlightenment.. His
treatise was said to have been, “galvanizing public opinion against torture and leading to its
8
Of Crimes and Punishments. Cesare Beccaria. Constitution.org, n.d. Web. 15 November 2013.
<http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun41.htm>
9
Ibid, < http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun41.htm>
10
John Hostettler, Cesare Beccaria: The Genius of "On Crimes and Punishments (Hampshire: Waterside Press,
2011), page 58.
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abolition throughout enlightened Europe”; it gave citizens a new concept to think about and
become knowledgeable about the government over them and what it could be.11 The treatise was
a written document that could be read by government officials and the public constituents
allowing for the most application of its information With knowledge comes liberties and that is
what the treatise was giving the public as they read Beccaria’s opposition to the legal system that
they were living under. It marked the start of the newly enlightened ideas spreading to and in
Italy. After writing the treatise and gaining notoriety, Beccaria did become part of the elite
society of Italy and was appointed to several economic boards in his later life. There is also a
piazza in Milan named after him, Piazza Cesare Beccaria, which houses a statue of him as well;
there are several statues of Beccaria placed around Northern Italy. 12
It is not common to learn about Beccaria’s impact, nonetheless his name, in regard to
American history. Surprisingly, Beccaria did have a significant influence on the founding fathers
of the United States including Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. His treatise was published and
gained popularity exactly at the time when the founding fathers were working to form a brand
new government separate from the powerful, Great Britain. The founding fathers prided
themselves on freedom and natural rights, and Beccaria encouraged that in more ways than one,
including the abolition of the death penalty and his support of citizens’ rights to bear arms. His
ideas are thoroughly infused into the criminology aspect of America, of the past and of the
present. Because it is known that Jefferson and Adams were key constituents to working for
freedom from the British and for constructing crucial documents for America such as the
Declaration of Independence, it is noteworthy to know that they too were looking to Beccaria’s
treatise for reference and inspiration at this time of creation.
11
12
Julie A Carlson, Speaking About Torture (Bronx: Fordham University Press, 2012), page 225.
Hostettler, page 33
Pitasi 7
John Adams quoted directly from On Crimes and Punishments during his closing
statement in trial as he defended Captain Preston, a British soldier, following the Boston
Massacre in 1770; Adams was thoroughly criticized in a negative manner by the public for
defending the British during this time of revolt but he was solely doing his job as a lawyer. 13 For
a trial that was so controversial at the time, it is a compliment that Adams looked to Beccaria as a
thriving criminologist, utilizing his words in his closing argument and ideas throughout a
significant trial. Adams began his opening speech in trial by stating that, “in the words of
[Cesare] Marquis Beccaria: ‘If I can but be the instrument of preserving one life, his blessings
and tears of transport, shall be a sufficient consolation to me, for the contempt of all mankind’”
as he knew the ethical position he was in defending the British. 14 By crediting Beccaria in the
first statement of his speech, Adams is directly spreading Beccaria’s knowledge and successful
work. Because Beccaria’s essay focused quite a bit on the concept of punishment as being a tool
to prevent future crimes rather than harboring on the sole concept of retribution towards the
aggressor, Adams was able to implement Beccaria’s ideas into his defense. Beccaria strongly
believed in and enforced the phrase “innocent until proven guilty” and in Adams’ situation, the
British soldiers were looked down upon and viewed as guilty by the American society, and
judiciary system, from the beginning because they were a part of the opposing side; however,
even with Adams’ defense the soldiers ultimately were convicted of manslaughter. Adams also
did leave his copy of Beccaria’s work in high esteem, alongside his own comments and notes
written directly on the document, to his son in his will. 15
13
Adolph Caso, We, the People--: Formative Documents of America's Democracy (Boston: Branden Publishing
Company Inc., 1995), page 269-272.
14
The Adams Papers: Digital Editions. Legal Papers of John Adams. Massachusetts Historical Society, n.d. Web. 10
November 2013. <http://64.61.44.187/publications/apde/browseVol.php?series=lja&vol=3>.
15
Caso, page 51
Pitasi 8
Jefferson is branded in history for fighting on behalf of the separation of church and state.
He also supported the movement of the minimization of capital punishment. Jefferson was
inspired by the logic and reason of Beccaria illustrated in On Crimes and Punishments. Jefferson
focused on the rationale that Beccaria presented that punishment should simply meet the crime,
rather than being entirely opposed to capital punishment as a whole as Beccaria was. Jefferson
also was an avid enthusiast of citizens’ rights to bear arms, just as Beccaria was; he claimed it to
be the citizens’ natural right and Jefferson used these ideas as support while he was working to
form a republic in the United States of America as a founding father.
There is also various indications of Beccaria’s influence woven into the Declaration of
Independence. One of the infamous aspects of the monumental document being the right to,
“life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”, yet it is sometimes forgotten that it originally, in the
first draft, was “life, liberty and property”; this change in diction can be directly traced back to
Beccaria in that he had said that within a society, “the single most important goal of any
government is to assure ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’”.16 Because the
Declaration of Independence was written at the time of forming a new government during the
eighteenth century, not having to do with the British, it is not surprising to believe that Jefferson
looked to other academics and philosophers of the Enlightenment era for inspiration. If it was not
enough to believe that Jefferson was so inspired by Beccaria’s diction that he included it into a
document of vast importance such as the Declaration of Independence, there is record that
Jefferson quoted Beccaria about or more than twenty-six times.17 Just alone in Commonplace
Book, there are twenty-six individual articles that are verbatim of On Crimes and Punishments in
support of the right to bear arms. In the Jefferson Bible, it also states, “capital punishment which
16
17
Ibid, page 54
Ibid, page 54
Pitasi 9
exterminates instead of reforming should be the last melancholy resource”, one of the many parts
inspired by Beccaria’s opposition to the death penalty.18 The Jefferson Bible is a part of
American history that is still viewed with high esteem by government officials and it truly shows
the intelligence and relevance that Beccaria’s work contained for nations outside of Europe. Up
until the 1950’s the Jefferson Bible was given to newly elected Senators, therefore, they too were
still reading the ideas and words of Beccaria from two centuries before them. Beccaria
thoroughly enforced the concept of a fast and public trial and argued for that change. He wanted
accusations to be made publicly and the consequence public, an effort to make the concept of
crime and serious consequence an inevitable scenario of society. Due to his thoughts on the trial
process, there is also a presence of Beccaria’s ideas in the Sixth Amendment of the Bill of Rights
in that, as he referenced Montesquieu in his treatise, Beccaria says, “Public accusations, says
Montesquieu, are more conformable to the nature of a republic”.19 He goes on to say that, “trial
should be conducted with all possible expedition”, two ideas that are within the United States
Bill of Rights.20 Another aspect of trials that Beccaria believed in was the idea that the defendant
deserves a new trial when new evidence arises in a given time period which can connect to the
Fifth Amendment as it protects against any authoritative abuse by the judicial government.
Although Beccaria began and ended his career as an economist, he was ahead of his time and had
a sophisticated mindset as a criminologist.
Beccaria’s influence in France was one that consisted of success and failure. His treatise
grabbed the attention of many in France resulting in Beccaria being invited to France by the
French Encyclopaedists, seemingly a positive venture for his career. Previous to this invitation,
18
Jefferson Monticello. Laws that forbid the carrying of arms. Monticello.org, n.d. Web. 19 November 2013.
<http://www.monticello.org/site/jefferson/laws-forbid-carrying-armsquotation>
19
Cesare Beccaria, “Of Crimes and Punishments” n.d. Web. 9 November 2013.
<http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun.txt>
20
Ibid, < http://www.constitution.org/cb/crim_pun.txt>
Pitasi 10
Andre Morellet, a French economist writer, was highly encouraged to translate Dei delitti e dette
pene into French and he did so. He also rearranged some of the chapters to what he felt was more
concise and made more sense; he completed the translation in 1766, two years after its original
publication. It was at this point that Morellet, along with Voltaire and Diderot, invited Beccaria
to France proclaiming that it is essential he travel to France and, “receive the thanks and the
marks of esteem which you [he] have deserved”.21 Voltaire was said to have read the treatise in
1765, which would have meant that he read the Italian version; he was a fan of Beccaria, also
reading his first publication on the problems surrounding the Milan currency. The invitation also
stated that the treatise success is universal, of which might have been a surprise to Beccaria
initially who feared the reactions to the piece. Beccaria had originally published the treatise
anonymously fearing any animosity or backlash towards it, never thinking the treatise, nor
himself, would receive such high esteem. The French translation received a large amount of
attention by philosophes, even more than the original Italian translation had. The treatise was
read and studied by the French philosophes including Voltaire and, Diderot, whom were
mentioned in the invitation to Beccaria from France. The French philosophes were impressed
with the conciseness and simplicity of the work. 22 For Beccaria, a man maintained a shy
personality and who never had intentions of being a prominent figure in society for his opinions,
this forum would cause to be too overwhelming, ultimately.
However, as noted, Beccaria was extremely shy and soft spoken, characteristics that were
not expected from the author of such a bold piece of work during this time period of enlightened
ideas. During his work with the Verri brothers, they willingly put themselves into the public
while Beccaria remained in the background, simply recording his opinions on the state of the
21
22
Ian Davidson, A Life: Voltaire (New York: Pegasus Books LLC, 2010), page 353.
Ibid, page 352-353.
Pitasi 11
society. He was unlike the intelligent elite whom he would be interacting with in Paris. Beccaria
had studied math and economics, not the philosophical subjects to be discussed amongst the elite
French philosophes. However, it was not Beccaria’s persona that got him invited to France, it
was his treatise; the treatise spoke for itself up until the trip. The Frenchmen were very educated
and outspoken when dealing with the thoughts and ideas of Beccaria and other philosophes
during the time of the Enlightenment in Europe. Due to Beccaria’s timid and lazy personality, he
was unable to fit in in Paris amongst the educated elite who had extended the invitation to him.
Beccaria missed his home and wife in Milan and it affected him mentally and emotionally and he
was unable to stay in Paris and finish his trip. It is not certain how long the trip initially meant to
last or how low he stayed, but it is known that he left Paris as soon as he could on account of
falling into a depression. Beccaria had minimal contact at that point with the French whom had
invited him and did not get to speak on behalf of his thoughts and his work. Based upon his lack
of interaction, the trip was fruitless towards bettering his career, it ultimately marked the end of
the well-known career. It was also after this Paris trip that it is believed he and the Verri brothers
distanced themselves from Beccaria; they were unhappy that he had not given them the credit for
the treatise that they believed they deserved. 23 In the early stages of their partnership, it was the
Verri brothers who encouraged Beccaria to write on legal reform and helped him by giving him
all of the information and then sorting out his recorded words. The tumultuous shift amongst
Beccaria and the Verri brothers exemplifies Beccaria’s unwillingness and negative attitude
towards the recognition that he was receiving as a result of working with the Verri brothers.
Whereas the Verri brothers were craving more fame and attention, juxtaposing Beccaria’s
distaste for the acknowledgement; a disagreement amongst the trio was inevitable.
23
Graeme R. Newman, On Crimes and Punishments 5th edition (New Brunswick: Transaction Publication, 2009)
page lxviii.
Pitasi 12
However fruitless the trip was to his career, the French philosophes were still able to take
away a great amount from Beccaria’s written work in On Crimes and Punishments. If Beccaria
was not going to aid the French in hopes to better understand and discuss his thoughts, the elite
would take it upon themselves to take his work and analyze it, and possibly put his ideas into
action within their own legal system. The infamous Voltaire, being a philosophe of France whom
was well-known for his writings and intelligence during this time period, decided to write his
own Commentaire based upon the treatise of Beccaria. He published it anonymously, again to
shield himself from any public backlash, but because of the finessed writing style, it became
known very early on that Voltaire was behind the commentary. In comparison to Beccaria’s
writing, which was structured and succinct, Voltaire, as in the past, included in his piece,
anecdotes, personal emotions and passion. He did not try very hard to hide his identity through
his writing style; unlike Beccaria, he was notoriously outspoken and did not fear the government
to a high level. 24 Where Beccaria was wholly against any form of torture or execution, Voltaire
believed that execution should be stopped and replaced with forced labor; not exactly what
Beccaria had written. Voltaire was not as radical as Beccaria was in terms of his opposition to
the legal system. The topic of Voltaire’s ideas most likely would have been topic of the forum
had Beccaria attended and stayed in Paris. Furthermore, Voltaire was strong in his defense
against the French judiciary in the commentary, discrediting some of their procedures towards
criminal activity as he states in writing that, “with us, everything takes place in secret” rather
than the questioning and witness statements being heard amongst everyone involved as the
Romans had done. 25 Beccaria also mentioned numerous times that secrets amongst the public
and government were detrimental to society. In terms of addressing capital punishment, he states
24
Davidson, page 353-354.
Of Crimes and Punishments. Cesare Beccaria. Constitution.org, n.d. Web. 15 November 2013.
<http://www.constitution.org/volt/cmt_beccaria.htm >
25
Pitasi 13
in his work that, “The sword of justice is in our hands; but we ought to blunt it more often than
sharpen it”, again discouraging the utilization of the death penalty for minimal criminal offenses.
26
He compares the cruel acts of the Romans to society in the present time as being too similar
and wanting to, similarly like Beccaria, move away from such a barbaric and unnecessarily harsh
punishment system.
During this time period, Voltaire had already been in the process of writing a more
concise version of the Encyclopedie that was to question the morality of their society with its
regards to Christianity. Throughout Voltaire’s work on his own pieces and through the
commentary, his stance on capital punishment was never as strong as Beccaria but his opposing
views were heightened after reading, Dei delitti e delle penne’s solid and philosophical
arguments against it. Voltaire held an elite status in France and his work was read by the most
influential members of society, furthermore spreading the original ideas of Beccaria in France in
its entirety. Much of On Crimes and Punishments. popularity resonated from France due to the
influential voice that Voltaire held over society. The commentary became well accepted
throughout Italy, France, England and Germany, and resulted in its inclusion alongside the
treatise in future publishing of Beccaria’s treatise.27
Beccaria’s influence left Europe numerous times, Russia included. Catherine the Great is
recognized as being a leader who wanted to appear as a great ruler to the public and as if she
made every decision based on her own genuine ideas and beliefs; however, sometimes unknown,
Catherine the Great received a great deal of inspiration from Beccaria and his treatise. Solely in
her work, Nakaz or Instruction, 104 of 108 of the articles in the longest chapter of the work, are
26
Of Crimes and Punishments. Cesare Beccaria. Constitution.org, n.d. Web. 15 November 2013.
<http://www.constitution.org/volt/cmt_beccaria.htm>
27
Davidson, page 353-354.
Pitasi 14
directly taken from the treatise. Catherine the Great quoted and referenced Beccaria as support,
“to declare that in normal times to deprive a citizen of life must be unnecessary” which Beccaria
did wholly believe in; unless the state of the nation was in jeopardy, he saw capital punishment
as being fruitless. 28 She did publicly endorse the treatise and credit the work for her research of
writing Nakaz. Several sources say that she once invited Beccaria to Russia to assist her in
writing for legal reform, but he rejected the invitation. 29 It is possible to assume that the
invitation from Catherine the Great succeeded Beccaria’s trip to Paris when he returned home
not to venture out of his hometown of Milan again. Beccaria was undoubtedly still receiving
praise for his work even after a failed trip to Paris, of which he did not particularly crave or
desire. The impact in Russia was the continuance of, “widespread law reforms being instituted”
due to the ardent success of On Crimes and Punishments.30
Aside from the ventures of the treatise’s influence outside of the European boundaries,
there was also an impact in England. It was because of Jeremy Bentham that Beccaria’s work
was able to be utilized into the criminal and legal reform of England during the age of
enlightenment ideas. Bentham placed Beccaria on a high pedestal, exclaiming that Beccaria was,
“the father of Censorial Jurisprudence”; giving Beccaria the notoriety of the being the first
thinker to focus in on the problems with the issues within the legal system and then process new
ways to improve the system. 31 His ideas were praised in England and then transpired into the
Reform Act of 1832, directly affecting the penal legislation and more liberal views. As time went
on after the bill was passed, less offenses were punishable with the death penalty until only
28
W. F. Reddaway, Documents of Catherine the Great (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931) page 25.
Inna Gorbatov, Catherine the Great and the French Philosophers of the Enlightenment (Bethesda: Academia Pr.
LLC, 2006) page 29.
30
Cesare Beccaria: The Genius of "On Crimes and Punishments" By John Hostettler page 15.
31
John Hostettler, page 64.
29
Pitasi 15
murder and treason were punishable by the death penalty in 1837. 32 The large gap between the
publication of the treatise and that drastic improvement demonstrates the longevity of the
treatise; it could have become irrelevant after a period of time, however it clearly did not if a
century later, the effects of the ideas in the treatise are being implemented in new forms.
Bentham was personally inspired by Beccaria in his own writings of the subject, UTILITY. He
was able to study and analyze his theory of punishment and relate it to his own ideas of UTILIY.
He was directing his work towards the legislation claiming that it was necessary to observe and
understand what cruel punishment was doing to the aggressor and to society as a whole. 33
Bentham admired Beccaria’s original and innovative ideas that he brought forth in On Crimes
and Punishments and regarded it as something suitable to look to for stimulation. Bentham’s
utilitarianism, “assumed the greatest happiness for the greatest number”, comparable to what
Beccaria strived for through his own work. 34 It is essential to recall the century that separated
Beccaria and Bentham in order to properly acknowledge and comprehend the long lasting effects
and impact that On Crimes and Punishments had.
It is extremely unfortunate that Beccaria’s name and reputation are not learned about in
today’s society; he has become one of the most influential figures that no one knows about. His
impact not only remained in Europe, but traveled across seas into concepts and ideas that people
live under daily, yet have no knowledge that Beccaria is the intelligence behind a large portion of
it. It was after the Paris trip that Beccaria never left Milan again. He remained in his hometown
for the remainder of his life and did not write anymore. He continued to be an academic;
however, Beccaria did not work anymore writing on the criminology and penal field.
32
James Anson Farrer, Crimes and Punishments, (London: Chatto & Windus,1880) page 67.
Utilitarian Philosophy. Jeremy Bentham. Hortese Geninet, n.d. Web. 15 November 2013.
<http://utilitarianphilosophy.com/jeremybentham.eng.html>
34
Criminology. Chapter 6 Explaining Crime (Theories) Cahaba School, n.d. Web. 5 December 2013
<http://cahabaschool.org/Criminology.htm>
33
Pitasi 16
Nevertheless, he was appointed to several economic and legal boards where he utilized his
knowledge of economics, his original study and his newfound study. Specifically, in 1771 he
was appointed to supreme economic council. He was then appointed to a board whom worked
for legal reform of the judiciary and here his ideas of the legal system were able to be discussed.
Although he was able to contribute the both Italy’s economic and legal matters through the
various boards, he did not leave Milan. Beccaria kept to himself and lived his life as a regular
citizen attending to his civil duties in Milan until his death, never, himself, adding to his career or
reputation again as a writer. He was a critical component of Italy’s age of enlightenment
especially because the movement in Italy is seemingly minimal. Even though Beccaria’s
personality did not allow him to personally be praised and admired, it was his work that spoke
for itself and for the high praise it ultimately receives. Regardless of the fact that Beccaria did
not enjoy the notoriety he was receiving, that does not diminish the accomplishment of On
Crimes and On Punishments. Thankfully, Beccaria was able to successfully complete the treatise
in a well manner because whether he was ever fully aware of it, as we are in today’s society, it
did have a widespread influence in the study of penology and legal reform.
Pitasi 17
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