ASPECTS OF NOUN PHRASE IN
KURAMA LANGUAGE
OGUNDARE, Bola Felicia
MATRIC NO: 07/15CBO71
A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF
ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, KWARA STATE, IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS.)
IN LINGUISTICS
MAY, 2011
i
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the requirements of the
Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
________________________
Mr. J. O. Friday-Otun
PROJECT SUPERVISOR
_____________________
DATE
_________________________
PROF. A. S. ABDULSALAM
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
____________________
DATE
_________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
____________________
DATE
ii
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty God who has been a source of
assistance to me throughout my academic pursuit.
Also to my wonderful parents Mr. Samuel Ogundare and Mrs. Agnes
Ogundare.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My unreserved appreciation goes first of all, to Almighty God who has been
behind me in my endeavours, most especially during the course of my study. I give
you all the glory and adoration.
The bulk of my appreciation goes to my ever competent supervisor and
lecturer, in person of Mr. J.O. Friday-Otun, who helped in the conception of this
research topic by making me do a real research work (not a pirated). He took time,
out of no time, to supervise thoroughly and diligently to make sure that this project
work is well packaged with necessary ‘ingredient’. May God be with you and your
family.
My appreciation also goes to my entire lecturers in the Department of
Linguistics and Nigerian Languages; your academic contribution has scaled me
through my educational career in the university. .
To my parents, Mr. Samuel Ogundare and Mrs. Agnes Ogundare, you have
done me a great deed by believing in me all through. I appreciate your efforts, May
God grant both you of you long lives to eat the fruit of your labour.
iv
I can never forget the financial material rendered by my dear sister, Mrs.
Mojisola Adedayo (Mama Mishael). May God bless you and your family.
To my brother, sibling and cousin who believed in me and never left me to
suffer, I will ever live to remember you. They are Mrs Funmi Jimoh, Mrs Toyin
Oset, Mr.Gbenga Ogundare and his fiancée (Yewande), Mrs. Moji Adedayo, Janet,
Gloria and Busayo.
To all my friends and course mates: Tolu Oyeniyi, Mary Samuel, Success,
Lekan, Alfred, Tope, Omolola, Damilola, Haykay, Mayowa, Dikko and Others
who are too numerous to mention. I love you all.
On the final note, also worthy of mention is my fiancée Demilade Isaac
Ayanda, who contributed tremendously to my success. I will always love you.
v
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Adj
Adjective
Agr
Agreement
Cp
Complementizer Phrase
Det
Determiner
[ei]
Empty Category
FP
Focus Phrase
GB
Government and Binding
Infl
Inflection
IP
Inflectional Phrase
NP
Noun Phrase
P
P reposition
PP
Prepositional Phrase
S
Sentence
Spec
Specifier
Tns
Tense
V
Verb
VP
Verb Phrase
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
vi
Table of Contents
vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1
1.0
General Background
1
1.1
Historical Background
1
1.2
Geographical and Socio-Cultural Profile
2
1.2.1 Social Groupings and Emblems
3
1.2.2 Culture and Tradition
4
1.2.3 Marriage
5
1.2.4 Religion
5
1.2.5 Mode of Dressing
6
1.2.6 Political System
6
vii
1.2.7 Socio-Linguistic Profile
7
1.3
Genetic Classification
7
1.4
Scope of Study
8
1.5
Organization of Study
8
1.6
Theoretical Frame Work
9
1.7
Data Collection
9
1.8
Data Analysis
11
1.9
Brief Review of the Chosen Framework
11
1.9.1 X-Bar Theory
12
1.9.2 Theta Theory
16
1.9.3 Binding Theory
21
1.9.4 Control Theory
23
1.9.5 Government Theory
24
1.9.6 Case Theory
27
1.9.7 Bounding Theory
30
CHAPTER TWO: BASIC PHONOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC
CONCEPTS
2.0
Introduction
32
viii
2.1
The Sound System of Kurama Language
32
2.1.1 Vowels
32
2.1.2 The Classification, Description and Place of the Vowel Sound
33
2.1.3 Consonants
40
2.2
Tonal Inventory of Kurama Language
50
2.3
Basic Syntactic Concepts
52
2.3.1 Phrase Structure Rules
53
2.3.2 Lexical Categories
56
2.3.2.1
Noun Phrase
62
2.3.2.2
Verb Phrase
63
2.3.2.3
Prepositional Phrase
65
2.3.2.4
Adjectival Phrase
66
2.3.2.5
Pronouns
67
2.3.2.5.1
Personal Pronouns
68
2.3.2.5.2
Possessive Pronouns
69
2.3.2.5.3
Reflexive Pronouns
69
2.3.2.5.4
Relative Pronouns
69
2.3.2.5.4
Interrogative Pronouns
70
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2.4
Basic Word Order
70
2.5
Sentence Types
71
2.5.1
Simple Sentence
72
2.5.2
Compound Sentence
74
2.5.3
Complex Sentence
75
CHAPTER THREE: NOUN PHRASE OF KURAMA LANGUAGE
3.0
Introduction
77
3.1
Satellite of the Noun
78
3.2
Noun Phrases in Kurama
85
3. 2.1 Position of Noun within the NP
85
3.2.2 Modification of NP by Adjective
86
3.2.3 Modification of NP by Determiner
88
3.2.4 Modification of NP by Preposition
90
3.3
91
Functions of Noun Phrase
3.3.1 Noun Phrase as the Subject of the Sentence
92
3.3.2 Noun Phrase as Direct Object of the Sentence
95
3.3.3 Noun Phrase as an Indirect Object
98
3.3.4 Noun Phrase as a Compliment of Preposition
99
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CHAPTER FOUR: TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
4.0
Introduction
103
4.1
Focus Construction
105
4.1.1 Subject – NP Focusing
106
4.1.2 Direct object – NP Focusing
108
4.2
110
Relativization
4.2.1 Subject – NP Relativization
111
4.2.2 Object – NP Relativization
114
4.2.3 Indirect Object – NP Relativization
115
4.3
118
Reflexivization
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0
Introduction
124
5.1
Summary
124
5.2
Conclusion
124
5.3
Recommendation
126
REFERENCES
127
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
xi
1.0
GENERAL BACKGROUND
This is a long essay on the noun phrase of kurama language. It is aimed at
describing the structure of noun phrase of the language under Government and
Binding syntax. Kurama language is a language spoken in Lere local government
Area of Kaduna State. The tribe known generally as the Kurama, but who
themselves the Akurmi (Sing. Bukurmi), or forest people, are situated to the north
and north-west of the Katab in the Zaria province. They number between 11,000
and 12,000 persons and are administered by the Emir of Zaria.
The study opens with an introduction and focuses on the Historical
background of Kurama, its social grouping and emblems, its socio-cultural profile,
geographical location and genetic classification. It also covers the scope and
organization of study, theoretical frame work, data collection, procedures data
analysis and the brief review of the chosen framework.
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
According to Meek (1931), the kurama speakers claim a traditional
connection with Kano, and in proof of this claim assert that the Kurmi market at
Kano derived its name from them (viz. the Akurmi). The more learned among
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them, i.e. those most influenced by contact with Muslims, profess to be able to
trace the wandering on the tribe back to the time when they dwell at Medina.
In later days, they were subject to ancient kingdom of Zaria, and during the
days when Zaria fell under the influence of Kebbi and Songhai, the Kurama
suffered at the hands of the Kebbawa who raided the district annually for slaves.
They are also raided frequently by the Ningi in the nineteenth century. The
Kurama are “playmates” with the people of Kano, and with the Kanuri, but
whether this is due to any close association in the past cannot now be determined.
What is certain is that the Kurama belong linguistically to the classifying group of
The Sudanic division i.e. to the so-called Semi Bantu speaking group of the
Nigerian middle belt zone.
1.2
GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL PROFILE
The Kurama people or speakers are found in Lere local government area of
Kaduna State of Nigeria. The kurama people are located at the Garu-Kurama
district. The line is Southeastern part of Kaduna state, North of Damakasuwa and
South from Kumana.
According to Crozier (1976), Kurama language belong to Benue Congo,
eastern Kainji and Northern Jos. 220(NAT 1949), 2,000 (STL 1973).
xiii
Kurama is along Kaduna/Jos road. From Jos, it is 140 km and from Kaduna,
it is 250 km.
1.2.1 SOCIAL GROUPINGS AND EMBLEMS
According to oral history, the Kurama consist of a number of exogenous
divisions wholly or partially localized. Thus the small clan of the Kamau is wholly
localized at the village – area of Guru, whereas sections of the Abisi clan are to be
found at a number of different village areas. Viz Garu, Srubu, Damakasua, and
Kudaru. It appeared that in some instances a number of exogamous units share a
common title and a common emblem, but that intermarriage between the units is
permissible.
The Har Asre, for example consist of the following sub-divisions, all of
which respect the crocodile
(1) Koranga
(2) Kipiri
(3) Tamto
(4) Tasabo
(5) Gama
(6) Tigena
(7) Tungzu
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(8) Bundi
A Koranga man may not marry a Koranga woman, but he may marry a
woman of any of the other subdivisions with the exception of Kipiri, the koranga
and kipiri consider themselves to be related through a common forefather, a
relationship which cannot now be demonstrated genealogically. It would seem,
therefore, that the Asare at one time constituted a single exogamous clan, but that
with the increase or spread of the clan exogamy was replaced by a local exogamy.
There are numerous other kurama clans (e.g. the Asa, Asana, Bisawa, Awai,
Akurgi, Nargi, Gurya, etc)
1.2.2 Culture and Tradition
The Kurama people are largely enriched with traditional practices, which are
often reflected in their various exogamous groups.
Firstly, the Arerus appear to respect the cock (Bugwara). It was stated
according to my informant that, if the husband of an Areru woman had a cock
cooked in the compound, he had subsequently to purify the place where it had been
cooked by sweeping it with the leaves of the locust bean and shea trees.
xv
Secondly, an Asare can play fearlessly with a crocodile; it is regarded as a
relative to the Asare. If an Asare man sees the corpse of a crocodile he must dig a
grave for it and bury it reverently, pushing the corpse into the grave with sticks.
1.2.3 MARRIAGE
The normal mode of obtaining a wife was, and is, by agricultural service
plus cash and other payment to the girl’s parents or guardians. The scale of
payment of service of obtaining a wife was as follows:
1) An initial services extending over ten years, equal to the amount of work
performable by three men for three days each year on the farm of the girl’s
father, and for one day on that of the girl’s mother.
2) A bride-price of 40,000 – 60,000 cowries.
3) 2,000 cowries, one basket of rice, guinea corn, one goat, four chickens and
one pot of honey. These gifts were given during the concluding rites.
1.2.4 RELIGION
Few inquiries were made on the subject of religion. Muhammadanism is
spreading, and those who have not embraced it practice a lackadaisical form of
ancestor worship in which as so often among the semi-Bantu speaking tribes, the
bull roerer (Makili) plays a prominent part. Noteworthy points are that, although
xvi
women never resort to the ancestral graves, men perform their rites at the graves of
female ancestors as well as of male.
1.2.5 Mode of Dressing
According to oral history, the Kurama people dress like the Hausa people. In
the olden days, wools were woven to make strapless tops for the men who cover
their private parts with animal skin. Wools are also woven for the women to make
a long but not wide piece to cover their breasts. The females also cover with leaves
from a tree, which looks like palm trees.
1.2.6 POLITICAL SYSTEM
Governance of Kurama
They practice traditional system of governance, where there is an
exogamous and social group which is recognized as the chieftain whose duties are
religious and social rather than political (the political chieftainship being purely a
local matter), it is his business to settle individual and family disputes and allay illfeeling within the kindred or clan. In addition to the clan or extended families who
exercise a social authority not merely over their own households but over those of
all younger brothers, cousins, and children.
xvii
1.2.7 SOCIO-LINGUISTIC PROFILE
Olaoye (2002: 98) defines socio-linguistic as “the study of various social,
political, cultural and linguistic situations within a given speech community that
give how language choice and use reveal the values, cultural beliefs and practices
of the community”. This shows that cultural beliefs, way of life etc cannot be
separated from language. In other words, language and culture are inseparable
bound.
Most Kurama speakers including the younger generation are bilingual. The
older generations are not quite fluent in Hausa as the younger generation who
through education hold position in administration and public services including the
police. Through education, the younger generations speak two or more languages
i.e. Kurama, Hausa and English language making them bilingual.
1.3
GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF KURAMA LANGUAGE
According to Comrie (1990), genetic classification is a sub-grouping of all
relevant languages into genetic nodes. Kurama is under the Benue-Congo language
family.
xviii
AFRICA
Afro Asiatic
Niger Kordofonian
Nilo Sahara
Niger Congo
Niger Kordofonian
Mande
Gur
Isam
Kumana
1.4
Khoisan
Kwa
Benue-Congo
Biron
Adamawa
Eastern
Junkun
West
Atlantic
Kurama
SCOPE OF STUDY
This particular work focuses its attention on the formation of noun phrase in
the Kurama language. The description will also delve on some of the peculiar
features of the language. This research is expected to add to the linguistic finding
on Kurama language.
1.5
ORGANISATION OF STUDY
This research work has five chapters. Chapter one is the introduction
covering the historical background, socio-cultural and socio-linguistic profile of
xix
Kurama language and its speakers as well as the genetic classification, scope and
organization of study, including theoretical framework, data collection, data
analysis and a brief review of the chosen framework. Chapter two focuses on the
basic syntactic concepts which include phrase structure rules, lexical categories
basic word order and the sentences Types. Chapter three focuses on the aspect of
noun phrase in Kurama language, chapter centers on the transformational processes
of the language. Chapter five concludes the research work.
1.6
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework adapted in this research work is the theory of
Government and Binding.
1.7
DATA COLLECTION
The data for this research were collected using the language informant to
elicit the data. The Ibadan word list of (400) four hundred basic items is used for
the collection.
The data were collected through direct interviews with the informants or
xx
language helper with the use of Ibadan wordlist which contains items that are
illuminating and capable of making linguistically significant generalizations.
Information concerning the informant used for this research is given below.
INFORMANT 1
NAME:
Mr. Benjamin Gwa
AGE:
41 years
LANGUAGE SPOKEN:
Kurama, Hausa, English
RELIGION:
Christianity
YEARS LIVED IN GARU
Forty-one years
OCCUPATION:
Civil Servant
MARITAL STATUS:
Married
INFORMANT 2
NAME:
Mr. Kenneth
AGE:
69 years
LANGUAGE SPOKEN:
Kurama, Hausa, English
RELIGION:
Christianity
YEARS LIVED IN GARU
Sixty years
xxi
OCCUPATION:
Historian
MARITAL STATUS:
Married
1.8
ANALYSIS OF DATA TYPE
With the use of the Ibadan wordlist, we were able to collect two hundred and
forty-nine (249) nouns, one hundred and twenty nine (129) verbal and twenty-two
(22) adjectives. With the help of the native speaker, one hundred and twenty (120)
sentences were collected, which include thirty (30) noun phrases, twenty two (22)
verb phrases, three (3) examples in subject Noun phrase focusing, three (3)
examples on subject noun phrase relativization, three examples on object noun
phrase relativization, three (3) examples on simple sentences, four examples on
compound sentences and three examples on complex sentences.
1.9
BRIEF REVIEW OF THE CHOSEN FRAMEWORK
The Government and Binding theory (GB) was proposed by Noam Chomsky
(an American Linguist) and the work was published in 1981. The modules are
derived from theory of Universal Grammar, which posit multiple levels of
representation related by the transformational rule (Move ∝) Cook (1988:28).
xxii
Some parts of these syntactic models have been modified by Chomsky
(1986), and a host of other linguists like Cook (1988), Heageman (1991).
Government and binding theories is an interlocking arrangement of sub-theories,
which interact in many different ways that no party of the theory can be isolated
from the rest. The sub-theories are:
(i)
X-bar theory
(ii)
Theta theory
(iii)
Case theory
(iv)
Binding theory
(v)
Bounding theory
(vi)
Control theory
(vii) Government theory
̅ – THEORY )
1.9.1 THE X-BAR THEORY (𝑿
The X-Bar theory defines possible phrase structure configurations in
language generally. It provides principles for the projection of phrasal categories
from lexical categories and imposes conditions on the mechanical organization of
xxiii
categories in the form of general schemata. Crucially, it makes explicit the notion
‘head of a phrase’.
The central notion is that each of the major lexical categories (noun, verb,
preposition, adjectives) is the head of a structure dominated by a phrasal node of
the category e.g. noun, noun phrase verb, verb phrase. Cook (1988: 32).
According to Rutledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (1972), “The
term X-bar arises from the notion where one or more bars are placed above the
constituents X to represent the level of complexity.
Generative linguists like Welberhuth ( 1995), consider ‘X-bar’ theories as
occupying the central posit in syntactic theory. This is due to the fact that all other
theories under GB draw in the basic structure that the X-bar makes available.
Chomsky (1986: 12) in the analysis says that, the convention requires that
every maximal projection has a specifier of as XP position, with the intermediate
bar projection serving as the XP’s core. The core consists of the head X o and
complement (which can be a maximal projection itself). Then, we can say that the
maximal projection (X-bar) is another full name for full phrasal category
xxiv
associated with a particular lexical category as the lead of that phrase. This theory
is represented by this phrase structure rule.
X11
X11 set to introduce the
categories as X11 seeks to
explain and these are the
lexical intermediate and
phrasal categories.
X1
Spec
X
Xo
Adjunct
Complement
Under transformational generative grammar (TG) the phrase structure rule
was:
S → NP AUX VP
Under GB, the phrase structure rule is as follows: 𝑋̅ → theory
CP → SPEC C1
C1 → C1 IP
IP → SPEC I1
xxv
I1 → I VP
I → Tns Agr
VP → spec V1
V1 → V (NP) (PP)
X11 in the schema above is believed to be a variable representing noun, verb,
adjectives or preposition each of which functions as the head of its own phrase.
The head is primary and there is Xo. It is also a lexical category and it can be postmodified by a specifier (spec). The lexical head can project to the intermediate
category (X1) though the addition of a complement. Furthermore, the X (X-Single
bar) in conjunction with the specifier projects further to X11 (X-double). E.g. in a
sentence like, “The publisher of the book” will be phrase marked like this:
xxvi
NP
N1
Spec
Det
The
N
pp
Publisher
P1
P
of
NP
spec
N1
the
N
book.
The head of the phrase is N1 (publisher) and P1 is its compliment. The
compliment defines the head and without the meaning or publisher is incomplete.
1.9.2 THE THETA THEORY (Ѳ-THEORY)
This is a term that mediates thematic roles and their syntactic realization as
xxvii
specific argument of a predicate. This theory says ‘that one argument must
correspond to each thematic role and vise versa that is, an NP must correspond to
each thematic role. (Chomsky, 1986:4)
Argument in this case refers to a noun phrase, which could appear in two
form i.e the subject or object position of a verb. The object is further divided in
two parts, which are the direct and indirect objects, e.g.
Adeoti
újana
újyáu
Jumoke
Adeoti
buy
bag
Jumoke
“Adeoti
bought
a bag
for Jumoke”
‘Adeoti
bought
a bag
for Jumoke’
Subject
Direct object
indirect object
The thematic criterion also assigns roles to argument. The commonly
expressed roles are agent, patient, instrument, locative, goal, source, experiences,
benefactive.
(a) Agent: The investigator of some action e.g.
Ada úwe Tola
Ada kill
Tola
Ada killed Tola
xxviii
‘Ada’ is the investigator of the action.
(b) Patient
Entity undergoing the effect of some action
Bola
údákú
uyàh
Bola
fall
over
Bola
fell
over
‘Bola’ is the one undergoing the effect.
(c) Instrument: means by which something comes about
e.g. Dapo
Úgwíyá
Demi
nú
Àddáh
Dapo wounds
Demi
with cutlass
‘Dapo wounded
Demi
with cutlass’
‘A cutlass’ in this case serves as a means by which Demi was wounded.
(d) Locative: place in which something is situated or takes place e.g.
Bimbo
sagan
takar
Ùrén
úti
Bimbo
hide
book
under
tree
‘Bimbo hide book under tree, “under the tree is the location.
(e) Goal: Entity towards which something moves e.g.
Sogo
úni
újyáu
Sogo
give bag
Funmi
Funmi
xxix
‘Sog
to Funmi’
gave the bag
‘to Funmi is the Goal’
(f) Source: Entity from which something moves
e.g.
Tolu
return
from
Europe
Tolu
mi
avu
Vwavo
Tolu
returned
from
Europe
‘from Europe is the source’.
(g) Experience:
Entity experiencing some psychological state e.g.
Toyin
wang
winu
Toyin
is
die
Toyin
is
dead
‘Toyin is the experiencer.
(h) Benefactor: Entity benefiting from some action
e.g. Moji
ùjaná
ùkyaútà
Biodun
Moji
buy
gift
Biodun
‘Moji
bought
a gift
for Biodun.
Biodun is the benefactor.
xxx
The notation Ѳ is called the semantic properties assigned by head thematic
roles (Ѳ roles). The lexical entry for a verb needs to specify the Ѳ role that goes
with it. In the sentence analyzed below, Ѳ-roles are specified.
Akin ingasa
Ife
Agent
nu
Patient
owata
location
Example in Yoruba language.
Akin
pe
Agent
Ife
ni
Patient
ile
location
Example in English language.
Akin
called
Agent
patient
Ife
at
home
location
It is important to state that the precise formulation of the theta criterion is only
possible by referring to them.
xxxi
1.9.3 BINDING THEORY
According to the Linguistic Encyclopedia (1991: 2), Binding theory is
concerned with the syntactic domain in which NPS can or cannot be related to
another NP by being co-referential in the sentences.
Binding theory is one of the most important constructs in the system. It is
concerned primarily with the condition under which NPs are interpreted as coreferential with other NPs in the same sentence e.g. “Wonder woman projected
herself into the 24th Century”. Herself must be taken as referring to the individual
denoted by wonder woman.
“Binding theory is concerned with the categories that must be bound and
free in defining the domain in which binding takes place” (Horrocks 1987: 2). For
the purpose of binding theory, NPS that act as arguments are assumed to fall into
one of the three categories listed below.
(a) Anaphors
ANAPHORS:
(b) pronouns (c) referential expressions.
these are NPs whose reference is necessarily determined
sentence – internally and which cannot have independent reference. In English,
xxxii
reflexive and reciprocal pronouns fall into this class e.g herself, himself, ourselves
etc.
e.g.
Tope
intaré
ná
na
intaré
ná
Tope
loves
herself
he
loves
himself
PRONOMINALS: pronominals are NPs that lack specific lexical content and have
only the features, persons, number, gender and case, unlike anaphors. They may
either refer to individuals independently or co-refer to individuals already named in
a given sentence e.g. Tope says she is a genius. “she” may refer to the individual
denoted by the name “Tope” or some other individual not mentioned in the
sentence.
REFERENTIAL EXPRESSIONS: This is otherwise known as R-expression as its
name implies are noun phrase with lexical ability to potentially refer to something
co-reference here is excluded. E.g. Big Jim says Tiny Tim should be boiled in oil.
Even where the same name is used twice, the most natural interpretation is one
where two different people are involved.
xxxiii
“Bola says Demilade must be promoted”.
It must however, be admitted that co-referentially is here a possibility, but
the sentence so interpreted is stylistically highly ‘marked’, revealing something of
the speaker’s attitude.
1.9.4 CONTROL THEORY
Control theory is the transformational analysis of sentence with verbs taking
infinitival complements that have null subjects understood as being co-referential
with an NP in the main clause.
Trask (1993: 62) defined control as module of grammar that deals with the
phenomenon of a verb phrase complement that has no overt subject and
consequently interpreted. Semantically as having some determiner phrase (DP)
appearing somewhere within the sentence or an arbitrary (unspecified).
Determiners phrase that function as its “subject” or “controller”. A non-overt
subject DP of the infinitival clause is technically represented within the GB
framework by a distinct ‘empty category’ called – PRO.
xxxiv
According to Riemsdijk and Willams (1983: 132) “the abbreviation PRO has
been devised to stand for a phonetically null pronoun that occupies the subject
position of infinitives in control theory” it can be exemplified with the Kurama
sentence in the following:
(a) Tunde intare wi uma bazeh
Tunde wants that he leave
“Tunde wants that he leave”
(Tunde intare (PRO na uma bazeh)
(Tunde wants 9pro to leave).
(The PRO here is also subject controlled.
1.9.5 GOVERNMENT THEORY
Government theory deals in essence with the relationship between a head
and its complement and it also describes relationship in other sub-theories.
According to Yusuf (1986: 141) “Government is a primitive concept, in that
it is a long fact of grammar that a verb governs its object (where the object could
be NP, PP) and while the pre-post position govern its object also”. This implies
that verbs such as sing, dance, kill, draw, explain etc. govern their (NP) object.
xxxv
Also, where preposition is found often an HP follows giving rise to the statement
that a preposition governs its NP objects.
Chomsky (1986: 17) says of an empty category that “a non-prominal empty
category must be properly governed. This implies that PRO; a prominal category is
exempted from government their for Chomsky defined proper government as: “β’
is properly governed by ‘α’ if it is governed by ‘α’ and a certain kind of connection
holds between ‘α’ and ‘β’. He further said that ‘α’ properly govern ‘β’, if ‘α’
governs ‘β’ or antecedents governs ‘β’. The configuration of government is as
follows:
α
β
y
a
b
In the configurations, ‘α’ governs ‘β’ and ‘y’ are sisters to ‘α’, ‘β’ can C-command
‘y‘ and ‘y’ can C-command ‘β’ i.e they govern each other. Government can be
recognized if they are adjacent. Furthermore, it should be noted from the
xxxvi
explanation above that government is some kind of c-command, that the governor
is not a phrasal category, it is a lexical category in the set of N,V,P,A and I.
Government is distinct from c-command, it is not a cases of mutual relationship.
Also, the domain of government is much in narrower scope than c-command.
It is important to note that adjacency, namely, contiguity, is required for
government and that there must be no blocking categories lexical or phrasal
between the governor and the governee (of case assignment)
In
ùjána
liamtò
Bola
I
buy
pot
for Bola
I
bought
a pot
for Bola
In the sentence above, the verb ‘bought’ governs the NP ‘a pot’ ‘PP governs
the NP Bola’. The verb ‘bought’ could not govern the ‘I’ because there is INFL in
between them assigning a case to the pronoun I and government cannot take place
if there is a blocking category.
The illusion of case government by Sells (1985: 41) is shown below:
xxxvii
VP
VP
V1
XP
V1
XP
V
IP
V
IP
NP
P
I
VP
1.9.6 THE CASE THEORY
According to Kristen (1991: 86) case theory regulates the distribution of
phonetically realized NPs by assigning abstract case to them. “it is assigned by a
set of case assigners to the constituent they govern”. Yusuf (1986: 26) says, “Case
has to do, primarily with the forms that NPs take in different syntactic
environment”. With the definitions above, case provides condition of wellformedness in a given syntactic structure configuration.
xxxviii
In Government and Binding theory, the case are said to be assigned under
Government as:
(a) Nominative case is a assigned by tense ‘INFL’
(b) Accusative case is a assigned by verb.
(c) Oblique case us assigned by preposition e.g.
IP
I1
Spec
NP
Bola
I
Tns
[+past]
VP
V1
Agr Spec
V
NP
PP
Uni a takar P
Give
N
book
to
Bello
oblique
xxxix
Nouns or adjectives do not assign any case. Furthermore, on the assignment
of case, all noun phrases that have phonetic content must have case or else they are
ill formed. This corollary is known as the case filter which is only detachable in the
phonetic form. Case filter states that any NP without a case assigned should not
filter out.
NP
+ Lexical
- case
e.g. ( Infl – A )
a)
Ma
Ujana
mota
Bola
I
buy
car
for Bola
I
bought
a car
for
Noun Accusative
Case case
b) Ma
Bola
oblique
case
ujana
Bola
mota
I
buy
Bola
car
“I
bought
Bola
a car” dative shift
The case filter in this case says, any NP without a case assigned be filtered
out. Finally, the case theory recognizes two case assignment.
xl
(a) Inherent case assignment that is assigned at the deep structure level.
(b) Structural /Abstract: case assignment is at the surface structural level. (Cook,
1988: 87)
1.9.7 BOUNDING THEORY
Bounding theory is concerned with the way movement rule (move α) can be
constructed. In essence, it deals with the limitation to be placed on the
displacement of constituents by the transformational rule ‘Move – α).
Movement rule within the GB theory is assumed to involve:
(i) An extraction site (ii) A landing site (iii) An Intervening gap.
Landing site
Intervening site
Extraction site
The basic idea, according to Cook (1996: 258), to be captured by bounding
theory is that no movement can move an element too far. This requires a principle
of some kind to limit movement in the required way. Chomsky (1973) proposed
xli
the principle of subjacency, which stipulates that no movement can move an
element over more than one bounding node at a time.
xlii
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PHONOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS
2.0
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the phonological analysis like sound inventory (consonant
and vowel sounds of Kurama languages) as well as the tonal inventory will be
described because the language (Kurama) is yet to be committed to writing. Also,
the basic syntactic concepts i.e. phrase structure rules, lexical categories, sentence
types and basic words order of the language will be discussed.
2.1
THE SOUND SYSTEM OF KURAMA LANGUAGE
According to Hyman (1975: 2), phonology is the study of hoe speech sound
functions in a language. Phonology is an aspect of linguistics that deals with the
specific study of the organization of speech sounds and its pattern. Basically,
speech sounds are divided into two major categories. They are the vowels and
consonants.
2.1.1 VOWELS
Vowels are sounds made with no obstruction. In Kurama language, we have
seven oral vowels and six nasal vowels. They are |i|, |e|, |u|, |o|, |ɔ|, |a|, and |ε|. The
vowel chart of Kurama is given thus:
xliii
ORAL VOWEL IN KURAMA LANGUAGE
Front
Center
back
u
I
High
o
e
Mid-high
ε
Mid-Low
Low
Ɔ
a
NASAL VOWELS IN KURAMA LANGUAGE
Front
center
𝑖̃
High
Mid-high
Mid-low
back
𝑢̃
𝑒̃
ͻ̃
𝜀̃
𝑎̃
Low
2.1.2 THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
IN KURAMA
|i|
High front vowel [Unrounded]
Word initial position
xliv
[írúwáh]
–
‘heart’
[àdáh]
–
‘ground’
[ìdáwá]
–
‘guinea corn’
Word medial position
[tìwínah]
–
‘arrow’
[unima]
–
‘animal’
[lìjárɔ́ ]
–
‘calabash’
Word final position
|u|
[íjákí]
–
‘war’
[Bírí]
–
‘rat’
[Burai]
–
‘woman’
High back vowel (rounded)
Word initial position
[uti]
–
‘tree’
[úgóró]
–
‘kolanut’
[únúwé]
–
‘mouth’
Word medial position
[kuwa]
–
‘fish’
xlv
[𝑖̃wuwe]
–
‘salt’
[ágúweh]
–
‘okro’
Word final position
[litau]
–
‘thigh’
[iwawau]
–
‘water’
[ólaimù]
–
‘orange’
|a| low back unrounded vowel
Word initial position
[àjàbà]
–
‘plantain’
[asawa]
–
‘new’
[amala]
–
‘big’
Word medial position
[utara]
–
–
likur𝑖̃
[ùmálú]
–
‘nine’
‘nineteen’
‘heavy’
Word final position
[anuwa]
–
‘good’
[ara]
–
‘bad’
xlvi
[kìlúmú
|ɔ|
–
‘bite’
Mid-low bach rounded vowel
Word medial position
[ívazóh]
–
beans’
́
[bilɔͻ́ m𝜀]
–
‘man’
[lítʃ ìlúbͻ́ n] –
‘person’
Word final position
|e|
[ughasɔ]
–
[strong]
[lìtʃásͻ́ ]
–
‘child’
[lìkͻ́ rͻ́
–
‘corpse’ 𝑖̃
Mid-high front unrounded vowel
Word medial position
[ajeεh]
–
‘teeth’
[ujeh]
–
‘arrive’
[jeh]
–
‘come’
Word final position
[búr𝑖̃ jine]
–
‘hunter’
[bùtjúwé
–
‘thief’
xlvii
[urume]
–
‘tail’
|ε| Mid-low front unrounded vowel
Word medial position
[uzumεh]
–
‘iron’
[ivεza]
–
‘weep’
[tìvavεh
–
‘wine’
Word final position
[𝑖̃ʃargε]
–
‘pour’
[𝑖̃wergε]
–
‘throw’
[𝑖̃tàrε]
–
‘want’
|o| Mid-high back rounded vowel
Word medial position
[úgoró]
–
‘kolanut’
[ínrógo]
–
‘cassava’
[avowá]
–
‘red’
NASAL COWELS IN KURAMA
|ɔ̃|
Mid low back
xlviii
Word final position
[litzilubɔ̃]
–
‘person’
|𝑖̃| High front unrounded vowel
Word initial position
[𝑖̃pattε]
-
‘mud’
[𝑖̃dar𝜀̃]
-
‘bush’
[𝑖̃lan]
-
‘sleep’
Word medial position
𝑖̃r𝑖̃tìm]
-
‘darkness’
[ub𝑖̃da]
-
‘stick’
[bur𝑖̃ jine]
|𝑢̃|
‘hunter’
-
High back rounded vowel
Word initial position
[𝑢̃ima]
-
‘animal’
[𝑢̃azε]
-
‘four’
Word medial position
[uti wum𝑎̃ja] -
‘’oil palm’
[apúw𝑢̃ija]
‘food’
-
xlix
[t𝑢̃nε]
|ε̃|
-
‘soup’
Mid – low unrounded vowel
Word medial position
[𝑖̃darε̃i]
-
‘bush’
Word final position
[dijε̃]
-
‘one’
[bigwεirε̃]
-
‘mosquito’
|𝑎̃| low back unrounded vowel
Word medial position
[ùz𝑎̃k𝜀́]
-
‘donkeyii’
[m𝑎̃de]
-
‘goat’
[uw𝑎̃gu]
-
‘lizard’
Word final position
[𝑖̃l𝑎̃]
-
‘sleep’
[bir𝑎̃]
-
‘rain’
|𝑒̃ | Mid – high front unrounded vowel
Word medial position
[aj𝑒̃ εh]
-
teeth’
l
2.1.3
CONSONANTS
Consonants are sounds that are produced with construction of the airflow
totally or partially at some point in the vocal tracts. Yusuf (1992: 18). There are
twenty –three consonants in Kurama language. The consonants sounds in Kurama
are |p|, |b|, |t|, |d|, |k|, |g|, |kw|, gw|, |f|, |v|, |s|, |z|, |ʃ|, |h|, |t|, |dz|, |m|, |n|, |g|, |r|, |j|, |w|,
and |i|. The chat depicting the consonants is as follows:
Bilabial
Stop
p
Labio Alveolar
Palato -
Velar
Alveolar
b
Fricative
t
d
f v s
z
Labio
Labialised Glottal
Velar
velar
Kw gw
k g
ʃ
Affricative
Nasal
Palatal Velar
h
tʃ dʒ
m
ƞ
n
Trill
r
Approximant
J
Lateral
w
I
The classification and description of consonants in Kurama language
|p| voiceless Bilabial stop
Word initial position
[pàrkárá]
-
‘playing’
li
[polìa]
-
‘eating’
[púra]
-
‘break’
Word medial position
-
‘body’
[ùparkárà] -
‘play’
[ìpíne]
‘spin’
[lìpum]
|b|
-
voiced bilabial stop
Word initial position
[bugau]
-
‘axe’
[bir𝑎̃]
-
‘rain’
[buwa]
-
‘snake’
Word medial position
[𝑖̃pábá]
-
‘burn’
[imbaza]
-
‘tie’
[ti wabεh]
-
‘saliva’
|t| voiceless alveolar stop.
Word initial position
[túnn𝜀́]
-
‘soup’
lii
[tivavεh]
-
‘urine’
[tarreh]
-
‘hand’
Word medial position
|d|
[lìtau]
-
‘thigh’
[útátε]
-
‘stone’
[lítúmà]
-
‘work’
voiced alveolar stop
Word initial position
[dijε̃]
-
‘one’
Word medial position
-
‘pig’
[obindiga] -
‘gun’
[ɔdura]
‘belly’
[bidim]
|gw|
-
voiced vectar
Word initial position
[bùgwama] -
‘chief’
[sùgá]
-
‘friend’
[tigʃ izah]
-
‘vomit’
liii
|k|
voiceless velar stop
Word initial position
[kìlúmá]
-
‘bite’
[kwize]
-
‘take off’
[kànt𝜀́]
-
‘pull’
Word medial position
|kw|
[Indiné nànká]
-
‘cover’
[agwaka]
-
‘full’
[tikara]
-
‘fight’
voiceless labialized vectar stop
Word initial position
[kwize]
-
take off’
[kwa]
-
‘yake’
Word medial position
|gw|
[akwabta]
-
‘shoe’
[ikwama]
-
‘hunger’
voiced labialized vectar stop
liv
Word medial position
-
‘seed’
[mùgwama] -
‘king’
[bugwara]
cock’
[igwargh
|f|
-
voiceless labio-dental fricature
Word medial position
[iƞɔfε]
-
’hear’
[uzafε]
-
‘hot’
[iƞófé kiʃi] |v|
‘thirst’
voiced labio-dental position
Word initial position
[vana]
-
‘son’
[vana bu karfe]
-
‘brother (younger) for man’
Vana biʃija hai]
-
‘daughter ‘
Word medial position
[uvìráh]
-
‘knife’
[uvu]
-
‘wall’
[tìváv𝜀́]
-
‘urinate
lv
|s|
voiceless alveolar fricative
Word initial position
[suwa]
-
‘drink’
[Suga]
-
‘friend’
Word medial position
[ímásarám] -
‘maize’
[ukasúwá] -
‘market’
[úsúndari]
‘seven’
-
|z| voiced alveolar fricative
Word initial position
[Ziza]
-
‘sell’
Word medial position
|ʃ|
[àkúrà]
-
‘forty’
[ùzánk𝜀́]
-
‘donkey’
[Liziya]
-
‘name’
voiceless palate alveolar fricative
Word initial position
[ʃina]
-
‘cook’
lvi
Word medial position
|h|
[biʃi]
-
‘bee’
[Liʃannu]
-
‘cooking
[aʃarah]
-
‘white‘
glottal fricative (voiceless)
Word medial position
[Ahamzah burai] -
‘breast’
[ínhárá]
-
‘divide’
[inhaza]
-
‘tier’
Word final position
|tʃ|
[nlàh]
-
‘sleep’
[Ujeh]
-
‘arrive’
[utɔ̀ h]
-
‘ear’
voiceless palate alveolar affricate
Word initial position
[tʃùgé]
-
‘dwell’
[tʃwana]
-
‘take off’
[tʃùwànà]
-
‘carry’
lvii
Word medial position
|dʒ|
[lítʃíjé]
-
‘head’
[titʃije]
-
‘hair’
[titʃwa]
-
‘grass’
voiced palate – alveolar affricate
Word medial position
|m|
[indʒàgà bu gáná]
-
‘beat (person)’
[indʒaga mu ganga]
-
‘beat (drum)’
[inpura lidzáro]
-
‘break (pot)’
Bilabial nasal stop
[Mándε]
-
‘goat’
[Made bù-lͻ́ m𝜀́
-
‘he-goat]
Masiri
-
‘maize’
Word final position
[inr𝑖̃tìm]
-
‘darkness’
[lilium]
-
‘tongue’
[intʃam]
-
‘jaw’
lviii
|n|
voiced alveolar nasal
Word initial position
[Ninka vara]
-
‘farm’
[nlah]
-
‘sleep’
Word medial position
[únúw𝜀́]
-
‘mouth’
[tiwinah]
-
‘snow’
[inama]
-
meat’
Word final position
|ƞ|
[ullan]
-
‘fine’
[birán]
-
‘rain’
[índár𝜀́n]
-
‘bush’
voiced velar nasal
Word medial position
[iƞjànkazàbɔ́ ]
-
‘greet’
[iƞàbs𝜀́]
-
‘dig’
[iƞwah]
-
‘blood’
Word final position
lix
[uwaiƞ]
-
‘sun’
[iƞeεƞ]
-
‘day’
|l| voiced lateral approximant
Word initial position
[liljam]
-
‘tongue’
[lijizi]
-
‘eye’
[likwázeh]
-
‘penis’
Word medial position
|r|
[útálé uwózóó]
-
‘grinding stone’
[ullan]
-
‘fire’
[útál𝜀́]
-
‘stone’
voiced alveolar liquid
Word medial position
|j|
[anúrúh]
-
‘nail’
[tarrεh]
-
‘hand’
[bitara]
-
‘virgina’
voiced palatal approximant
Word initial position
lx
[jeh]
-
‘come’
Word medial position
|w|
[ùbíj𝜀́]
-
‘moon’
[dij𝜀́]
-
‘one’
[umjána]
-
‘walk’
voiced labio-velar approximant
Word initial position
[Wàsé]
-
‘dog’
[wùrire]
-
‘eight’
[wijarú]
-
‘dry’
Word medial position
2.2
[úwúhre]
-
‘give birth’
[anùwé]
-
‘know’
[úwùlè]
-
‘sing’
TONAL INVENTORY OF KURAMA LANGUAGE
Hawkins (1984: 62) defines tone as a system of pitch change centered
around the nucleus. According to Pike (1948: 3), some languages that have
lxi
lexically significant contrastive but relative pitch on each syllable are said to be
tonal languages.
Kurama is a tonal language with tree tonal patterns which are: (i) high tone
(ii) Mid tone and (ii) low tone i.e. [ / ] hig tone, low tone [ \ ] and mid tone [ - ].
Examples of high tone in Kurama language are:
[súwá]
-
‘drink’
[uzáfé]
-
‘hot (as fire)’
[úrúme]
-
‘tail’
Examples of Mid tone in Kurama language are:
[uwai]
-
‘wing’
[biʃi]
-
‘bee’
[ukuti]
-
‘hawk’
Examples of low tone in Kurama language are:
[ùkàbε]
-
‘toad (frog)’
[àjàbà]
-
‘plantain’
[ànùwe]
-
‘know’
lxii
2.3
BASIC SYNTACTIC CONCEPTS
Syntax is basically concerned with lexical categories, phrase structure rules
and basic word order etc. according to Sanusi (1996: 33) “Syntax is the study of
the patterns of arrangement of words or how words are combined to form phrases,
clauses and sentences’. Syntactically, no human language allows sentences to be
formed by string words together randomly. That is, every human language has
regular patterns in which words must be combined to form phrases, clauses and
sentences.
According to Yusuf (1997), the syntactic level is made up of two subcomponents known as the deep structure (D-structure) and surface structure (sstructure). The deep structure is derived from the base rules, categorical rules, strict
sub-categorization, selection restrictions and phrases structure rules.
Transformation operates on the D-structure t map it on the s-structure. Here
is a graphic schema for the syntactic compound.
lxiii
D – STRUCTURE
LEXICON
CATEGORICAL RULE
STRICT SUB-CATEGORIZATION
SELECTIONAL RESTRICTIONAL
PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
TRANSFORMATION
(MOVE ∝)
S – STRUCTURE
LOGICAL FORM
PHONOLOGICAL FORM
As earlier discussed, syntactic concepts are basically concerned with lexical
categories, phrase structure rules, basic word order, and sentences types.
2.3.1 PHRASE STRUCTURE
Horrocks (1989: 31) states that “phrase structure rules are simply formal
devices for representing the distribution of phrase without a sentence.
lxiv
Phrase structure is a way of capturing the structural relationship of the
sentence through the concept “constituents of”. A phrase A constitutes B and C as
seen in the following tree diagram. These constituents may in turn be made of
others, say B consisting of D and E.
A
B
C
These constituents may be made of others, say C consisting of D and E. This
is represented in the following sketch.
A
B
C
D
E
The phrase structure of the sentence is a hierarchy that proceeds from the
largest constituent in the sentence downwards, each constituent successfully
consisting of other constituents until only single items are left. The “consist of”
relationship can be expressed as re-write rule a formal statement that the
constituent on the right A → BC which means that A has two parts B and C with
lxv
the arrow replacing “consists of” (Cook 1988: 27). The phrase structure of a
sentence is the result of hierarchical ordering of its constituents.
Below is the full representation of the convention of phrase structure rule
under government and Binding.
CP
Spec C1
C’
C IP
IP
Spec I1
I1
I VP
I
Ins Agr
VP
Spec V1
V1
V NP
NP
Spec N1
N’
Det N
CP
C1
Spec
C
IP
I1
Spec
I
Ins
VP
V1
Agre Spec
N
lxvi
NP
2.3.2 LEXICAL CATEGORIES
According to Hagerman (1991: 41), “in the current government and binding
theory, we can distinguish between two types of categories in syntax”, these are
(1) Lexical Categories (ii) Functional Categories.
(1) LEXICAL CATEGORIES: These are the major categories in syntax and
they include;
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Pronoun
Conjunction
Preposition
Exclamation
(2)
FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES:
Functional categories are considered to be very crucial in syntactic analysis
of any language. They include element like, complementizers, Reflection,
Determiners, focus, Tense, Agreement, Negation.
lxvii
NOUNS
According to Yusuf (19920 “A noun is the name of a person, place or
thing”. There are different types of noun in Kurama language. They are:
1. Common noun (2). Proper noun
(3) Collective noun
(4) Abstract noun (5) Concrete noun
COMMON NOUN
They are names given to a class of persons, places, or things. They are either
countable or uncountable. Examples of countable common nouns in Kurama
language are:
[Ubj𝑎̃du]
-
‘basket’
[uvirah]
-
‘knife’
[utagíjé]
-
‘hat/cap’
Example of uncountable nouns in Kurama are:
[títʃíjé]
-
‘hair (head)’
[mini]
-
‘water’
[tívázε’]
-
‘urine’
lxviii
PROPER NOUN
Proper nouns specify people, places or things. They do not take a preceding
determiner or modifying element. They are examples of reference expression. This
is because they are individual (or place or object) in the world of discourse.
Examples of proper noun are:
‘John’
‘Rome’
‘Kaduna’
CONCRETE NOUNS
These are noun that refer to tangible objects which can be discerned with
any of the five senses i.e. They can be seen, heard, smelled, touched, tasted,
observed, and measured. E.g
[útál𝜀́]
-
‘stone’
[úw𝑎̃gú]
-
‘lizard’
ABSTRACT NOUN
They are nouns that cannot be seen but felt.
[[úwág𝜀́]
-
‘fear’
[ikwama]
-
‘hunger’
lxix
[iƞófε kiʃi]
-
‘thirst’
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
They refer to a group of similar object or people in similar circumstances.
They are also called class nouns. Examples in kurama language are:
[ani]
-
‘family’
VERBS
According to Yusuf (1992) “A verb is a doing words”. A verb shows us
what the subject of a verb does. I can be divided into two major kinds. These are
transitive and intransitive verbs. Examples of verbs in kurama language include:
[útʃúm𝜀́]
-
‘run’
[úsall𝜀́]
-
‘jump’
TRANSITIVE VERBS
A transitive verb is one that has an object NP. Examples in kurama language
are:
[shina]
-
‘cook’
[ínsóyà]
-
‘roast’
[ùwé]
-
‘kill’
[injaga bu gana]
‘beat’
lxx
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
They are verbs that have no objects NP. Examples in Kurama language
include:
[ùdàkù]
-
‘fall’
[tìzowà]
-
‘jump’
[tùrá]
-
‘push’
[kànt𝜀́]
-
‘pull’
[ùsall𝜀́]
-
‘laugh’
ADJECTIVES
According to Yusuf (1997: 25), Adjectives are qualifier of nouns or
pronouns. They are words that describe, qualify or tell us more about nouns or
pronouns in a sentence”. We have three types of adjectives attested in Kurama
language. These are:
(i) Possessive adjectives
(ii) Interrogative adjectives
(ii) Quantitative adjectives
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE
They are adjectives that show possession. Examples are:
lxxi
[v𝑎̃na]
-
‘my’
[àwah]
-
‘their’
[hàh]
-
‘they’
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
These are adjective that are used to question. They include the following in
kurama language:
[Àyìnàh]
-
‘What’
[ujáw]
-
‘which’
[ánnèh]
-
‘who’
[ìróg]
-
‘how’
QUANTITATIVE ADJECTIVE
They are adjectives that tells us how many. Examples in kurama are:
[útáró]
-
‘three’
[únázè]
-
‘four’
[[ùtassε]
-
‘six’
PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word used with a noun to show place, time, and position.
Examples in kurama are:
lxxii
[nin]
-
‘to’
[rèn]
-
‘in’
[nu]
-
‘on’
[ùrén]
-
‘under’
[Lìjáh]
-
‘over’
[àkà]
-
‘from’
[rà]
-
‘at’
2.3.2.1
NOUN PHRASE
According to Quirk 91972), the noun phrase is the element in the sentence
which typically functions as subject, object or complement of the sentence. An
example of noun phrase in kurama is as follows:
1. U Takar
‘The book’
NP
Spec
N1
Det
N
U
The
takar
book
‘the book’
lxxiii
2. U Líjyàu
‘The bag‘
NP
Spec
N1
Det
N
U
Líjyàu
The
bag.
‘The bag’
3. U Ubyàndú
‘The basket’
NP
2.3.2.2
Spec
N1
Det
N
U
Líjyàu
VERB PHRASE
A verb phrase is a word that has the verb as the headword. A verb phase
consists either of a main verb or one or more auxiliary verbs together with a main
verb.
Examples of verb phrase in kurama language are:
lxxiv
(i) ùlíyá
polia
Eat
food
‘Eat
the
food’
V
V
NP
Uliya
Eat
N1
N
Polia
food
‘eat the food’
(ii) súwá
mini
Drink
water
‘Drink water’
V
V
NP
súwá
Drink
N’
N
mini
water
“Drink water”
lxxv
2.3.2.3
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
According to Quirk (1972), a prepositional phrase consists of a preposition
followed by a prepositional complement which is characteristically either a noun
phrase or clause. (Wh – clause or v –ing clause) in nominal function.
Examples of prepositional phrase in kurama
1. Nu ùtálé uwózóó
On grinding stone
PP
P1
P
NP
Nu
N1
On
Adj
N
Uwózóó
Ùtálé
stone
“on the grinding stone’
lxxvi
2. Ren inwamaun lípìnda
In
water
pot
PP
P1
P
ren
in
NP
N1
Adj
inwamaun
water
N
lípìnda
“in water pot”
2.3.2.4
ADJECTIVAL PHRASE
According to Yusuf (1997), Adjectives are qualifiers of noun”. They are
words that qualify nouns in the sentence.
Example in kurama language are:
1. Tìchíyé
abutah
Hair
short
‘short hair’
lxxvii
Adj P
Adj
NP
Adj
N
abutah
Short
tìchíyé
hair
‘short hair’
2. ínyaroh ùchárá
Wine
old
‘old wine’
Adj P
Adj
NP
N
Adj
ínyaroh
old
ùchárá
wine
2.3.2.5
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are used in the place of a noun to avoid monotony or repetition of
nouns. Adegbija (1998: 21) defines “pronoun as a word that can be used in place of
lxxviii
a noun” Since pronouns are used in place of noun, they perform the same function
as noun. (Akande 2004: 14).
The various types of pronouns are:
 Personal pronouns
 Possessive pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns
 Interrogative pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns
2.3.2.5.1
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
They are used to refer to the first person (the speaker) (i) Or speakers (we);
the second person (you) for singular and plural); and the third person (singular
“he” for males) (“she” for females and they for all gender).
Mèh
‘I’
Bò
‘you’
Hàró
‘we’
Wóh
‘He/she’
Háh
‘they’
lxxix
2.3.2.5.2
POSSESSIVE PRONOUN
They are used to indicate what belongs to a person. They show possession.
Examples in kurama language are:
Woroh
‘ours’
Nobo
‘yours’
Ham
‘mine’
2.3.2.5.3
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
This is when a verb has identical subject and object. They have an ending
‘self’ in their singular form and the ending “selves” in their plural form in English.
These pronouns reflect another nominal element. Examples in kurama language
include:
Ínwàh
‘myself’
Nehe
‘yourself’
Nàm
‘herself’
Allám
ourselves’
2.3.2.5.4
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
They are used to introduce relative sub ordinate clause. They play dual roles
both as pronouns and as connectives. Examples in kurama languages include:
lxxx
Ánnèh
‘who’
Ujaw
‘which’
2.3.2.5.5
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
They are used in asking questions. They include the following kurama
language:
2.4
Áyìnáh
-
‘what’
Újáro
-
‘which’
Aneh
-
‘who’
BASIC WORD ORDER
Kurama language exhibit subject, verb, object (svo) word order. The
examples below shows the basic word order in kurama language.
1.
2.
S
V
O
Janet
ùlìyá
polia
Janet
eat
food
‘Janet
ate
food’.
S
V
O
Bolu
ìnjágá bu gáná
vana bishíya
Bolu
beat
girl
‘Bolu
beats
the girl’.
lxxxi
3.
S
V
O
Bimbo
íntaré
inama
Bimbo
like
meat
‘Bimbo
likes
meat’.
IP
I1
Spec
NP
N1
I
Ins
[tpst]
VP
V1
Agr Spec
N
Ø
Janet
V
NP
eat Spec
Ø
N1
N
Food
‘Janet eat food’.
2.5
SENTENCE TYPES
Yusuf (19992: 116) states that any sentence is made up of words belonging
to parts of speech or lexical categories. The lexical categories are nouns, verbs,
adjectives, preposition and so on. Sentences are group of words that make a
lxxxii
complete meaning with at least a “finite verb or main verb”. (Pink and Thomas
1970: 81). Examples of sentence in kurama language are:
1. Bayo
bákà
Ashílì
Bayo
worship
God
‘Bayo
worship
God’
údùra
school
Ayo
go
school
Ayo
went
to school
ne
yeh
Ope
will
come
‘Ope
will
come’
2. Ayo
3. Ope
2.5.1 SIMPLE SENTENCE
According to Pink and Thomas (1990: 126), simple sentence is type of
sentence that contains only subject and a predicate. A simple sentence is made of a
noun phrase (NP), subject and a predicate. (Yusuf 1999: 57). Examples of simple
sentence in kurama language are:
1. Bùgwama
Chief
yeh
u
church
come
to
church
lxxxiii
‘The chief comes to the church’
2. Who
She
ùlìyá
polia
eat
food
‘She ate the food.’
3. Búru wátà
shàná
tunne
Mother
cook
soup
‘The mother cooked the soup.’
IP
Spec
I
NP
I
Tns
[tpst]
VP
V1
Agr
N’
V
N
Yeh spec
come
det
Bùgwama
Chief
NP
u
to
‘The Chief come to church’
lxxxiv
N1
N
church
church
2.5.2 COMPOUND SENTENCE
Yusuf (1997: 61) defines compound sentence as a number of simple
sentences co-ordinated by the lexical category known as conjunction e.g. but, and,
since, while and so on.
Examples of compound sentence in kurama language:
Samuel íntaré inama chàsa wóh úwáge ikúwa.
Samuel
likes
meat
but
he
hate
fish.
‘Samuel likes meat but he hates fish’.
IP
IP
Conj
I1
Spec
I
NP
Íns
[tpst]
Chàsa
VP
Agr
but
IP
V1
I
Samuel
NP
NP
íntaré
like
N1
N1
V
N
P
úwáge
hate
inama
Meat
wóh
she
Tns
[tpst]
VP
V
N1
N
I1
Spec
Agr
V1
NP
N1
N
Ikúwa
Fish
‘Samuel likes meat but he hates fish.’
lxxxv
2.5.3 COMPLEX SENTENCES
Yusuf (1997: 63) defines ‘complex sentences as sentences that are
embedded in one or the phrased categories NP or VP. Traditionally, the sentence is
described as a sentence with a main clause and a number of subordinate clauses.
Examples of complex sentence in kurama:
U
vana
ánnèh
ùdanná
u uti
ùghásó
The
boy
who
climb
the tree
strong
‘The boy who climbed the tree is strong’.
lxxxvi
IP
I1
Spec
NP
N
Det
U
vana
I
VP
Tns Agr Spec V1
V
CP
Spec
C1
C
IP
I1
Wh- Spec
ánnèh
I
VP
Ins Agr Spec V1
[+pres]
V
NP
N1
Udana
Climb
N
Adjp
Uti
tree
Adj
Ùgháso
Strong
“The boy who climbs the tree is strong”
lxxxvii
CHAPTER THREE
NOUN PHRASE
3.0
INTRODUCTION
The noun phrase (NP) is the category that codes the participants in the event,
or the state described by the verb. The NP is headed by (N), or pronoun (when it
will not be modified). It is by virtue of this headedness that the phrase is called the
noun phrase. A quick explanation of the construct head is order.
The ‘head’ of a phrase is the single word that can stand for the whole
construction. It is the single lexical item that can replace the whole phrase for
sentence, in the noun phrase like: ‘the big brown bull’ ‘bull’, is the head. I is the
entity that we are talking about and modifying with the attributes big and brown. In
addition, it may also have all the trapping of he NP like number (SINGULAR, or
PLURAL), gender (NOMINAL, ACCUSATIVE,OBLIQUE etc) for languages that
code – these attributes morphologically. The inherent features and the modifying
attributes must agree with the head N.
The NP can be formed in different constituents in the sentence, in the subject
position, in the object position, or as object of the preposition. Let us survey the
sentences below for the occurrence of the noun phrase:
lxxxviii
1. The big idea is the bone of contention. Here, there are three NPs:
a. The big idea
b. The bone
c. Contention
2. a. is the subject;
b. is the object;
c. is the object of the preposition.
Returning to headedness, the NP in (a) is headed by idea, in (b) by bone and
in (c) by the single lexical item contention.
3.1
SATELLITES OF THE NOUN
The noun phrase could have a lot more constituents than the three lexical
categories Adj., Det. and Noun. In sentences like:
“The tailor made a very exact measurement of the shirt”. Our NP is made up
of (as a first approximant):
(a) The tailor
(b) A very exact measurement
(c) The shirt
This construction will force us to amend our P – s rule for the NP as:
lxxxix
NP ------------> DET (ADJP) N.
ADJP---------->DEG (ree) 1 ADJ
We can begin to use the phrase marker (P –M) (alias tree diagram) to
illustrate the structure of our variably analyzed into their lexical constituents as:
(a)
NP
Det
The
Adjp
Adj
N
Big
idea
(b)
NP
DET
N
The
bone
(c)
NP
N
Contention
xc
2(a)
NP
Det
N
The
traitor
(b)
NP
Adjp11
Det
The
Adj
Adjp
Very Adj
N
Exact
(c)
measurement
NP
DET
N
the
shirt
In (1(c) the NP is non-branching as the lexical category contention is
directly d0minated by the phrasal category.
xci
The NP mode may not vary in complexity. The possible complexity of the
phrase can be illustrated by the example in (3) which has the NPs isolated in (4):
(3) I like the light shirt with the brown buttons.
(4) a. I
b. the shirt with brown buttons.
Again, the Nps in (4) will require that we reverse our P –S rules for NPs as:
(5) Np ---
Pron
(DET) N (PP)
The symbol ‘{ }’ called brasses, indicates a paradigmatic relations, i.e. an
alternative choice, meaning that we can expand NP as either a tonal or an optional
determinant, plus N and in optional PP. the different NPs can be marked as in (6)
below where pronoun, like personal names, is non-branching, being exhaustively
dominated by the NP node.
6a.
N
Pron
xcii
NP
DET
ADJ
N
the
light
shirt
PP
P
NP
with DET
the
AdjP
Adj
N
brown
buttons
It is even possible to characterize the structure of the NP as infinite length.
Witness the NPs like:
(7). (The very old shirt which my father gave me when I celebrated my tenth
birthday). Can be given the P – M (9), which is generated by the P – S rule (8):
(8) NP --------- DET ADJP
N𝑆̅
xciii
NP
Det
ADJP
ADJP
N
ADJ
the
S
comp
shirt
very
old
S
my father gave
which
𝑆̅
com
when
I celebrate my
tenth birthday
In the P – M (9), I have introduced three notations: (𝑆̅) pronounced (‘es
bar’), and more commonly written S’) COMP, (for complementizer) and the
triangle symbol. The s’ may be seen as a clause which has some kind of introducer.
On such introducer, we shall have a great deal to say later. The COMP spell out as
the introducer of clauses ---- all clauses with words like who, what, that, for, to,
etc. When the COMP is not lexically as in the matrix clause, it is left out of the P –
M giving a bare sentence. As for the triangle, this is a partial representation, which
xciv
says that we need not bother about the internal structure of the constituent
dominated by the phrasal or clausal or clausal category for now.
It may be added that complexity in the NP can also be as a result of
conjunction as in:
(10) a.
b.
Ade and Olu
The old pastor and members of his church which have a
structure like:
NP
NP
Det
ADJP
CONJ
NP
N
and
the
old
N
pastor
pp
p
NP
members
of Det
his
xcv
N
church
3.2
THE NOUN PHRASE IN KURAMA
INTRODUCTION – In grammatical theory, a noun phrase is abbreviated as (NP).
It is a phrase whose head is a noun or pronoun optimally accompanied by a set of
modifiers.
Yusuf (1997: 8) defines non phrase (NP) as the category that codes the
participants in the event or state described by the verb. The NP is headed by the
noun or pronoun. It is by virtue of this headedness that the phrase is called the
noun phrase.
However, Yusuf (1998: 34) states that noun phrase can contain indefinitely
any number of satellites. Whatever it may contain, it has to have a noun head,
noted technically as No but which as we have repeated will be coded plain N.
Collins (1990: 215) described noun phrase as one of the imported
constituents of grammatical structure based on the multiple function. Noun phrase
is the element of sentence, which can function as subject, object and complement.
3.2.1 POSITION OF NOUN WITHIN THE NP
Structurally, nouns come first in kurama noun phrase and the satellites of the
noun follow the noun in NP. The satellites could be determiners, prepositional
xcvi
phrase and so on. The structural position of NP in kurama may be illustrated as
shown below:
NP---------------------------------Spec N’
N’ --------------------------------- N, Pr, (AP), (PP), Conj), (Det)
The following examples give the structural types of NPs in Kurama
language.
a).
Audu
ne
Bala
Audu
and
Bala
‘Audu and Bala’
b).
Garba
ne
Saliu
Garba
and
Saliu
‘Garba and Saliu’
3.2.2 MODIFICATION OF NP BY ADJECTIVE
`a).
U
búshíyá
The
lady
rìgírá
beautiful
‘The beautiful lady’
b)
U
àkwabta
chìrín
the
shoe
black
‘the black shoe’
xcvii
c).
U
ùkasuwá
àmálá
the
market
big
’the big market’
NP
N1
Spec
N
Det
U
the
AP
A1
N
búshíyá rìgírá
lady
beautiful
‘the beautiful lady’
NP
N1
Spec
N
Det
U
the
AP
N
àkwabta
shoe
A1
chìrín
black.
‘The black shoe’
xcviii
NP
N1
Spec
N
Det
U
the
AP
N
ùkasuwá
market
A1
àmálá
big
‘the big market’
3.2.3 MODIFICATION BY DETERMINER
a).
Búruwátà
vana
mother
my
‘My mother’
b).
Búrukùràh woroh
father
our
‘Our father’
c).
Ùlèmú
útárò
orange
three
‘Three oranges’
xcix
a).
NP
N1
Spec
N
Det
búruwátà
mother
vana
my
‘my mother’
b).
NP
N1
Spec
N
Det
búrukùràh
father
woroh
our
‘Our father’
c).
NP
N1
Spec
N
ùlèmú
orange
Det
útárò
three
‘three oranges’
c
3.2.4 MODIFICATION OF NP BY PROPOSITION
a. Wòní
béndu
Inside
basket
‘inside the basket’
b).
kúrá úwúndà
by
road
‘by the road’
c).
ashíní
tabu
on
table
‘on the table’
a).
PP
P1
Spec
P
NP
Wòní
Inside
béndu
basket
‘inside the basket’
ci
b).
PP
P1
Spec
P
NP
kúrá
by
úwúndà
road
‘by the road’
c).
PP
P1
Spec
P
NP
ashíní
on
N
tabu
table
‘on the table’
3.3
FUNCTION OF NP
In kurama language, the functions of that the noun phrase performs include:
a. Subject of the sentence
b. Direct object of the sentence
c. Indirect object of the sentence
cii
d. Complement of the sentence
3.3.1 NOUN PHRASE AS SUBECT OF THE SENTENCE
This is when a noun functions as the performer of as action in a sentence i.e
the noun phrase plays the role of an agent in a syntactic structure. Ukamaka,
(2010).
a. Ahmadu liyau polia
Ahmadu eat
food
‘Ahmadu ate food’.
b. Ali
Ali
ùtútí
mota
anoh
kodàngmána
dirves
car
his
everyday
‘Ali drives his car everyday’.
c. Godoro
Godoro
puguomo
kaibi
úrená
súgá bùm
leader
kaibi
is
friend my
‘Godoro the leader of kaibi is my friend’
ciii
(a)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[Pros]
VP
Agr
Spec
V1
V
NP
liyau
eat
N
N
Ahmadu
Ahmadu
Polia
food
‘Ahmadu ate food’
civ
(b)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[Pres]
VP
V1
Agr Spec
V
NP
N
ùtútí
drive
Ali
Ali
N
N
N
Det
mota
car
anoh
his
kodàngmána
everyday
‘Ali drives his car everyday’.
cv
(c)
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
Tns Agr Spec
[Pres]
V
N
N
V1
NP
N
urena
is
Det
Det
Godoro
Puguomo
Leader
kaibi
kaibi
‘Godoro the leader of Kaibi is my friend’.
3.3.2
suya
friend
bum
my
NOUN PHRASE AS DIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
Ukamaka (2010), here, the noun phrase plays the role o a receiver of an
action in a sentence. The direct object answers question “what?’ or ‘whom?’
(a) Sola
Sola
ujana
buy
ùtàbá
tobacco
ukasúwá
aka
market
from
‘Sola bought tobacco from the market’
(b) Ade
Ade
unu
lípáré
give hoe
Kemi
inka
Kemi
to
‘Ade gave the hoe to Kemi’
cvi
(c) Búrukùràh
bum
ìmbìyà
ìkùjí
Father
my
pay
money
‘My father pays the money’
(a)
IP
Spec
I
I
NP
Tns
[+past]
N
Sola
Sola
VP
Agr V
NP
ujana N
PP
buy
ùtàbá NP
tobacco
ukasúwá
market
‘Sola bought tobacco from the market’.
cvii
P
aka
from
(b)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[+past]
VP
Agr V
NP
N
N
uni
give
NP
lípáré
hoe
Ade
Ade
PP
P
N
inka
to
Kemi
Kemi
‘Ade gave the hoe to Kemi’
(c)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[pres]
VP
V1
Agr Spec
V
NP
N
Búrukùràh
Father
bum
my
ìmbìyà
pay
ìkùjí
money
‘My father pays the money’
cviii
3.3.3 NOUN PHRASE AS INDIRECT OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE
The indirect object is the person for whom or to whom o the thing for which or to
which, an action is performed. This is determined by asking to whom? or to what?
[a]
Mun
uni
Hazan
na
lijyau
Muna
give Hazan
a
bag
‘Muna gives Hazan a bag’.
[b]
Audu
ínweh
Audu
kill
mánde
uvíráh
nùkù
goat
knife
with
‘Audu killed the goat with a knife’.
[a]
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[+Past]
VP
Agr Spec
V1
V
NP
N
ùni
give
N
Muna
Muna
N
Det
Hazan
Hazan
Na
a
‘Muna gives Hazan a bag’.
cix
lijyau
bag
(a)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[+past]
VP
V1
Agr Spec
V
NP
N
inuweh N
kill
Audu
Audu
PP
N
P
mande
Goat
Uvíráh
Knife
nùkù
with
‘Audu killed the goat with a knife’.
3.3.4 NOUN PHRASE AS A COMPLEMENT OF PREPOSITION
The role a noun phrase plays as complement of the preposition is similar to
the role an object plays as direct object of the preposition. The only difference is
that a complement does a completive work.
a) Suleman
Suleman
ùkyánwá nuku
eat
with
‘Suleman ate with spoon’
cx
kúàshìá
spoon
b). Mairo
shi
polia
nu tabu
Mairo
put
food
on table
‘Mairo put food on the table’
(a)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Ins
[pst]
VP
V1
Agr Spec
V
NP
ukyanwa
eat
P
N
Suleman
Suleman
P
Nuku
with
‘Suleman ate with spoon’.
cxi
N
kúàshìá
spoon
b)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Ins
[pst]
VP
Agr Spec
V1
V
NP
N
shi
put
Mairo
Mairo
N
PP
polia P
food
Nu
On
‘Mairo put food on he table’.
c). Tade
Tade
úhchúgè
sit
nu
uboróh
on
mat
‘Tade sat on mat’.
cxii
N
tabu
table
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[pst]
VP
Agr Spec
V1
V
NP
N
úhchúgè
sit
Mairo
Mairo
V
N
shi P
N
Nu uboróh
on
mat
‘Tade sat on mat’.
cxiii
CHAPTER FOUR
TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
4.0
INTRODUCTION: Transformational processes are ways in which the basic
sentences transform into a surface form. Transformational rules are applied to the
deep structure of a sentence to derive a surface form.
Radford (1988:401) describes transformations as the process where deep
structure of and surface structure are inter-related by a set of movement rules.
Yusuf (1992: 138) defines transformations as the process whereby we relate
some sentence to some other basic sentences, claiming that some sentences types
are formed or derived from the basic. An active sentence can be changed to passive
one or a simple declarative sentence to interrogative through the use of
transformations.
According to Yusuf (1997: 67), the syntactic level is made up of two subcomponents known as the D-structure and S-structure. The D-structure is derived
by the base rule, strict-categorization, selectional restrictions and the phrase
structures rules. He further explains the transformational operates on the Dstructure to map it into the surface structure.
cxiv
Cook (1988: 21) describes the principle of movement as a transformation
that has subsumed many separate rules previously known as transformation.
Movement is a major a syntactic process where an item is moved from its original
site to another site and the transformations that involve movement are focusing,
relativization, question formation, passivization, prominalization, affix-hopping
rules and relexivisation. Yusuf (1992: 138). But this research work shall focus on
transformations like focusing passivization and relativization.
Radford (1989:419) surface structure is generated from the deep structure by
the application of movement transformation called ‘Movement alpha’
Move alpha is applied to the deep structure of a basic sentences to generate
the derived form in the surface structure without changing the meaning of the basic
sentences.
According to Radford (1985: 401) movement in move alpha involves an NP,
INfL, VP, and WH phrases. These types of phrases constitute the type of
movement in Government and Binding theory. Movement theory within the GB
theory involves three things. These are:
i.
Extraction site
ii.
Landing site
cxv
iii.
Intervening gap.
According to Yusuf (1997: 128) extraction site explain the point where a
constituent is moved from NP, VP, NWH, or INFL. Landing site movement could
be either by adjunction or by substitution. Intervening gap, explains the position
that is left empty through the introduction of the co-indexation (ti), co-referential
(ei) items.
4.1
FOCUS CONSTRUCTION
Focus construction is one of he most popular transformational processes that
were attested among many natural languages. What actually makes focusing a
universal syntactic process among human language is the fact that it is a normal for
a speaker of a language to want to emphasize a specific aspect of his message
while communicating with his/her interculator. The speaker does pragmatically
assign prominence to the aspect of importance in his message.
According to Stockwell (1977) “focus sentences are derived from basic
sentences. In focus constructions, a special maker is used to indicate the element in
a sentence”. Focusing is a universal syntactic process among many human
languages, which entails definiteness and emphasis.
cxvi
Focus has a special marker, which it uses in speech being passed across. In
kurama language ‘P’ is the focus marker. Any part of the sentence can be focused
i.e Subject – NP, object – NP, direct and indirect object – NP.
4.1.1 SUBJECT NP – FOCUSSING
1a.
BASIC SENTENCE.
David
újaná
uwata
Búraíbishíya.
David
buy
house
wife
‘David bought a house for his wife’.
1b.
DERIVED SENTENCE
David pi újaná uwata Búraíbishíya
David foc.agr bought house wife.
David is the one who bought a house for his wife”.
BASIC SENTENCE
1.
David újaná ku uwata Búraíbishíya.
David buy house for wife
cxvii
b)
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
Tns
[+past]
VP
V1
Agr
V
NP
N
ujana
buy
Mairo
Mairo
N
PP
uwata
house
P
P
NP
ku
for
N
Búraíbishíya
wife
1b. Derived sentence.
David pi [ei] újaná uwata ku Búraíbishíya.
David foc. Agr [ei] buy house for wife.
cxviii
FP
Spec
F
F
NP
IP
pi
Foc.Agr
I1
Spec
[ei] I
VP
N
Tns
V1
Agr
David
David
V
NP
ujana
buy
N1
N
PP
uwata
house
P1
ku
for
‘David is the one who bought a house for his wife’.
DIRECT OBJECT NP – FOCUSING
4.1.2
1a)
BASIC SENTENCE
David
újaná
uwata kú Búraíbishíya.
David
buy
house
for
wife
‘David bought a house for his wife’
cxix
Búraíbishíya
wife
1b)
DERIVED FORM
Búraíbishíya pi David újaná
Wife focAgr
uwata kú
David buy
house for
“The wife is the one that David bought a house for”
FP
Spec
F
F
NP
pi
Focus
IP
I1
Spec
NP
I
VP
N
Tns
N
Búraíbishíya
wife
[+past
]
David
David
Agr V1
V
NP
uwata
house
PP
P
ku
for
“The wife is the one that David bought a house for”
cxx
4.2
RELATIVISATION
According to Yusuf (1992) relative construction involves the insertion of a
relative clause in front of its NP antecedent in a matrix clause. A clause is
relativized when an NP within it is identical (and therefore changed to a relative
pronoun) with the antecedent NP of the matrix clause. Such relative pronouns are
moved from their original position to “comp’ positions of the relative clause.
According to Stockwell (1977: 421) a relative clause could be a sentence
embedded in the surface structure as modifier of an NP, the embedded sentences
have within it WH-movement replacement for a deep structure.
Relativisation is a syntactic process, which is to show and make a sentence
more meaningful. I prevents unnecessary repetition, which can bring about
confusion, through the introduction of relative markers (who, which, that, etc).
These relative markers have antecedents that are related to NP head.
According to Yusuf (1997) “relative construction is a completed sentence
with some embedded sentence modifying an NP, as added (adjunct) information”.
In kurama, relativization is used. Relativisation might occur in these
positions in the sentence.
- Subject – NP Relativization
cxxi
- Object – NP Relativization
- Indirect NP Relativization
4.2.1 SUBJECT – NP RELATIVIZATION
1a.
BASIC SENTENCES
Micheal yeh.
Michael has come.
1b.
DERIVED SENTENCE
Michael anneh ùdura inka school yeh
Michael Rel.marker go to school come
“Michael who went to school has come”
BASIC SENTENCE
Michael yeh
Michael has come.
cxxii
IP
I1
Spec
I
NP
VP
Tns Agr
[+pres]
N
V1
V
Michael
yeh
come
“Michael has come”
DERIVED SENTENCE
Michael annèh ùdura inka school yeh
Michael Rel.marker go to school come
cxxiii
CP
C1
Spec
C
NP
Spec
Annèh
Who
N
IP
I1
[ei] I
Ins
[past]
VP
Agr
V1
V
PP
ùdura
go
P1
Michael
Michael
P
NP
N1
Inka
to
N
VP
School
V
Yeh
Come
“Michael who went to school has come”
cxxiv
4.2.2 OBJECT – NP RELATIVIZATION
i.
BASIC SENTENCE
1a.
Paul ùdura inka ukasúwá
Paul go
to
market
“Paul went to the market”.
ii.
DERIVED SENTENCE
1a.
ukasúwá umuni Paul
ùdura
Market Rel.marker Paul go
“it was market that [Rel] Paul went”.
cxxv
CP
C1
Spec
C
NP
IP
umuni
that
I1
spec
I
N
VP
NP
Tns Agr
[Past]
V1
N
Ukasúwá
market
Paul
Paul
udura
Go
“It was market that Paul went”
4.2.3 INDIREC OBJECT – NP RELATIVISATION
BASIC SENTENCE
1a.
Tosin ùdura inka ukasúwá ren Ibadan
Tosin go
to
market
in Ibadan
“Tosin go to market in Ibadan”
1b.
DERIVED SENTENCE
Ibadan ana Tosin
ùdura inka ukasúwá
Ibadan Re.marker Tosin go
cxxvi
to
market
“It is Ibadan where Tosin went to market”
IP
I1
Spec
I
Tns
[+past]
VP
V1
Agr
NP
V
PP
N1
ùdura
go
P1
N
P
NP
Inka
to
N1
Tosin
Tosin
N
Ibadan
“Tosin went to the market in Ibadan”.
cxxvii
1b.
DERIVED SENTENCE
CP
C1
Spec
C
NP
ana
where
IP
I1
spec
I
N
VP
NP
Tns
Agr
[+past]
N1
Ibadan
Ibadan
N
Tosin
Tosin
V1
V
VP
ùdura
go
NP
N1
N
Ukasúwá
market
“It is Ibadan where Tosin went to market”.
cxxviii
4.3
REFLEXIVISATION
According to Yusuf 91990), “Reflexivisation is a process of substituting
another type pronoun for plain pronouns. The substitutes are reflexive pronouns.
As their names indicate, they refer to (or reflect) an earlier NP (Noun phrase) in the
same sentence, e.g. (1) Ojo loves Ojo – Ojo loves himself. (2) I laugh at me – I
laugh at myself. (3) The thief killed the thief – he thief killed himself. These
reflexives are never subject of sentences. If they were, they would not have an
antecedent in he same sentence as required for heir appropriateness and
ungrammatical would result i.e. “himself killed the lion”.
Quirk (1972) “Reflexivisation referred to as pronoun that ends with self
(singular) and selves (plural). These suffixes are added to the determiner
possessive (myself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves) and as we also have in
kurama language:
cxxix
Singular 1
Subject
I
Meh
You
Bọ
He/she
wọh/wọh
We
Harọ
You
Bọ
They
Hah
st
2nd
3rd
1st
Plural
2nd
3rd
Object
Me
Meh
You
Bọ
Him/her
wọh/wọh
us
woroh
You
Bọ
Them
Wah
a. Meh tìzowà meh
I
laugh
me
‘I laugh at me’.
b. Meh tìzowà ham
I laugh myself
‘I laugh at myself’
a. bọ
ìnjàgábugáná bọ
you
beat
you
‘You
beat
you’.
b. bọ
ìnjàgábugáná nehe
cxxx
reflexives
Myself
hm
Yourself
Néhe
Himself/herself
Nam/na
Ourselves
allán
Yourselves
Nobọ
Themselves
Awah
you
beat
yourself
‘You beat yourself’.
a. Wọh ìnjàgábugáná
He
beat
wọh
him
‘he beats him’
b. wọh ìnjàgábugáná
He
beat
nam
himself
‘He beats himself’
a. wọh
she
ìnjàgábugáná
beat
wọh
her
‘She beats her’.
b. Wọh ìnjàgábugáná
She
beat
na
herself
‘she beats herself’
a. harọ ìnjàgábugáná
we
beat
woroh
us
‘We beat us’.
b. harọ ìnjàgábugáná
allam
cxxxi
We
beat
ourselves,
‘We beat ourselves’.
a. Hah ìnjàgábugáná
They
beat
wah
them
‘They beat them’.
b. Hah ingyánhàzàbó
They
greet
wah
them
‘They greet them’.
c. Hah ingyánhàzàbó
They
greet
awah
themselves
‘They greet themselves’.
In this type of transformational process, two identical nouns are coreferential. Reflexivisation as a transformation introduces such pronoun on the
basis of co-referentiality. Reflexive pronouns show numerous properties with noun
phrase, their distribution is some what limited i.e. there are positions within the
sentence where reflexive pronouns cannot appear otherwise the sentence will
become ungrammatical. In kurama language, reflexization is used in basic form.
cxxxii
1a. Biodun inweh Biodun
Biodun kill
Biodun
‘Biodun killed Biodun’.
DERIVED FORM
Biodun
inweh
nam
Biodun
kill
himself
‘Biodun
killed
himself’.
BASIC FORM
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
NP
Tns
Agr
[+pres]
V1
N
Biodun
Biodun
V
NP
inweh
killed
N
Biodun
Biodun
“Biodun killed Biodun”.
cxxxiii
DERIVED FORM
IP
I1
Spec
I
VP
NP
Tns
Agr
[+pres]
V1
N
Biodun
Biodun
V
NP
inweh
killed
N
nam
himself
‘Biodun killed himself’.
cxxxiv
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0
INTRODUCTION:
This concluding chapter gives a brief summary of
the whole research work and highlights the major findings. It concludes and gives
possible recommendation.
5.1
SUMMARY
This research work has discussed various issues in the preceding four
chapters. The first chapter introduces the aspect that covers the historical
background of kurama people. It tells us that the kurama people migrated from
Bauchi as a result of war. In order to avoid being conquered, they migrated and
settled in an area surrounded by mountains.tis work also talks about the rich
culture of the kurama people. It was pointed out that the major occupation of the
people was farming. It also talks about the rich culture of the kurama people in
marriage festival and so on.
Also, the first chapter briefly discussed sub-theories of Government and
Binding theory under which we reviewed X-bar, case, theta, bounding, binding,
government and control theories.
cxxxv
The second chapter talks about the Basic syntactic and phonological
concepts: the phonological system of language, the sound system of kurama
language, and its tone and syllable inventory.
The basic syntactic concepts examine the phrase structure rules, lexical
categories; the language attests S.V.O and order.
The third chapter is the focus of the research work, which is noun phrase in
kurama. A noun phrase is said to have determiners, adjectives, prepositions, and
complementizer phrase. It also discusses the roles or functions of a noun phrase as
subject of a sentence, object of a sentence, indirect object of a sentence, object of
verb and object of a preposition.
Chapter four examines the transformational processes attested in kurama
language: the processes are focus construction, relativisation and relexivisation.
Finally, chapter five which is the concluding chapter consists of the
summary, conclusion and recommendation.
5.2
CONCLUSION
The subject of discussion in this long essay is the aspects of kurama noun
phrase. In the course of this research, a lot of feature was observed in the language.
It was observed at the phonological level ha the language attests close and open
cxxxvi
syllables, that is a consonant and a vowel can end a word. It also observed that at
the grammatical level, there is the head initial parameter i.e. noun always comes
first in a noun phrase, a verb in a verb phrase and a preposition in a prepositionl
phrase.
5.3
RECOMMENDATION
I hereby recommend that the government institutions, both federal and state,
should encourage individuals who are involved in language development
programme to device orthography for the language. Furthermore, research work
should be sponsored on the language by government, private bodies and
individuals.
cxxxvii
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