The Toxic T-Shirt
“The T-shirt is now one of the most universal garments of both male and female, adult and children’s
wardrobes, worn everywhere around the world, penetrating even the most remote tribes of the Amazon.”1
Cotton
Cotton is the world’s most important non-food agricultural commodity. It has been used to make textiles for
over 5000 years and is grown on 76 million acres of land world-wide. Although cotton is made from a
natural fibre, from a plant, the pressure for more cotton processed cheaply and quickly has resulted in a final
product that is far from natural.
Getting conventional cotton from the harvest field to the high street is a complex and global process. Over
300 million people across the world earn their living from cotton production; 99% of them live in the
developing world and right at the bottom of the supply chain are the cotton farmers, of which there are over
50 million of them.
Conventional cotton growing requires the use of acutely toxic pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. It takes
approximately 150 grammes of chemicals to grow enough cotton to make just one t-shirt. The pesticides and
chemical fertilisers used to grow conventional cotton damage the soil fertility, forcing the farmers into
buying more chemicals to encourage their cotton plants to grow – and sinking them and their families into
debt.
1
Sandy Black, author of Eco-Chic: The Fashion Paradox
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Subsidised cotton industries in developed countries (primarily the US who are major exporters but also in
the EU and China ) have driven down world cotton prices, intensifying the financial pressure on developing
world farmers to produce higher yields, which means more chemicals and less profit. Many of these farmers
cannot afford to send their children to school and as a result frequent suicides are reported in India, Brazil
and a number of places in Africa due to spiraling debts to pesticide suppliers.
Cotton is the second most pesticide-laden crop in the world. Five of the top nine pesticides are that used on
cotton in the U.S. (cyanide, dicofol, naled, propargite and trifluralin) are known cancer-causing
chemicals. Some pesticides have the potential to affect nervous, hormonal or immune systems. There are
many studies showing that chronic exposure to pesticides may increase the risk of a wide range of serious
health problems, including certain cancers such as leukaemia, lymphoma and brain cancer, neurological
problems such as Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, respiratory diseases, some birth defects, spontaneous
abortions and reproductive problems such as reduced sperm count and sterility, decreased intelligence,
behavioural abnormalities and a weakened immune system. Chronic toxicity refers to health problems that
may arise from repeated or prolonged exposure to smaller doses of pesticides.2
Pesticides are hazardous by design – these are chemicals manufactured with the aim of killing, repelling or
inhibiting the growth of living organisms by impairing biological processes essential for the maintenance of
life. Aldicarb, a powerful nerve agent, is one of the most toxic pesticides applied to cotton worldwide and
the 2nd most used pesticide in global cotton production. Just one drop of aldicarb, absorbed through the
skin, is enough to kill an adult.
Between 1 and 3% of agricultural workers worldwide suffer from acute pesticide poisoning with at least 1
million requiring hospitalization each year, according to a report prepared jointly for the FAO, UNEP and
WHO. These figures equate to between 25 million and 77 million agricultural workers worldwide.
A 2004 study conducted by researchers at the Technical University of Lódz, in Poland, has shown that
hazardous pesticides applied during cotton production can also be detected in cotton clothing.
2
http://www.wellcultivated.co.uk/blog/2008/12/eco-fabrics-%e2%80%93-sorting-the-truth-out-from-the-hype/#menu7
The Toxic T-Shirt
The Cotton Supply Chain
Source: Sustainable cotton on the shelves: A handbook for the mainstream retail
Planting
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Cotton is very vulnerable to pests. To address the problem, 22.5% of the world’s insecticides and 10% of
all pesticides are sprayed on cotton plants.
Pesticides used in the cultivation of cotton cause many health problems from poisoning to reproductive
problems and organ damage.
Children are also often the first victims of pesticide poisoning, even if they do not participate in spraying,
due to the proximity of their homes to cotton fields or because of the re-use of empty pesticide
containers.
Cotton requires long, sunny growing seasons, most of it is produced in hot countries, where water is
scarce.
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Cotton is a very thirsty plant; requiring a lot of water to grow. “Cultivating 1kg of cotton draws on as
much as 8000 litres of water (an estimated average across the global cotton crop)”. 3
Harvesting
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The cotton bolls or seed cotton is harvested by the farmer. In developing countries such as Benin or
Uganda, this process is done by hand.
Cotton workers toil in temperatures of more than 40 degrees, often with little or no available drinking
water.
Cotton workers labour for long hours and are paid poverty wages.
Child labour and forced labour is also known to be prevalent in several cotton producing countries,
including India as well as the Central Asian Republics of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan.
Ginning
This stage separates the seeds from the fibres which produces cotton lint. This is the compressed and
packed into bales.
There are obvious hazards of working with large, dangerous machinery such as cotton bailers, which can
easily rip off an arm if not guarded properly, as well as less visible health and safety issues. These include
back injuries resulting from endless repetition of the same task, lung diseases from invisible dust particles.
3
(Laursen 1997 Environmental Assessment of Textiles) p7 Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys
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Spinning
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Lint is cleaned, carded (a combing process) then spun (often by hand in developing countries) into yarn
Knitting/Weaving
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Weaving and knitting transform the yarn into fabric. This is a largely mechanical process with high
energy use and waste production as the negative environmental impacts.
Dyeing and Bleaching
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Dyeing gives the textile its colour. Bleaching makes the cotton fabric white. Both natural and man-made
dyes can be used for dyeing, along with other processing chemicals that must be washed out after
dyeing. The dyeing or bleaching process uses a lot of water, energy and chemicals.
On average, a t-shirt that weighs 200 grams needs 16-20 litres of water to dye it. Every year the global
textile industry discharges 40,000-50,000 tonnes of dye into rivers and streams.
Finishing
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The chemical finish applied to a garment gives it various properties, e.g. shrink resistance, crease
resistance, water-repellent or flame retardant. Most of the chemicals used have negative effects on
human health and other creatures.
CMT – Cut, Make, Trim
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In making the garments, accessories such as zips, buttons and screen prints are added which, as well as
using non-renewable resources to make, are often non-biodegradable.
Garment factories around the world are notorious for their neglect of workers’ rights, low pay and
unacceptable working conditions.
Post-Consumer
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The way we wash and care for our clothes can have a significant impact on the environment and can
contribute to climate change. Often ignored, but still vitally important, the post-consumer phase looks
at what happens to the garment after it is used and disposed of.
The Toxic T-Shirt
Between 2001 and 2005, the number of garments bought per person in the UK increased by over one third.
In 1997 the average woman bought 19 garments a year, today that figure has more than doubled4. The
Institute for Manufacturing at the University of Cambridge estimates that 1.8 million tonnes of clothing are
thrown away in the UK each year. This statistic equates to approximately 220 million black bin bags of
textiles, which are disposed of in landfill each year5.
Alternatives to Conventional Cotton
“The best way to avoid chemicals in clothes is not to wear clothes at all, which is, save for a select few,
impossible.”6
Low-chemical cotton, hand-picked, rain-fed and drip-irrigated cotton are improvements to conventional
cotton cultivation, however the best alternative is organically grown, Fairtrade cotton7. KF
Organic Cotton
Organic cotton can be produced in a sustainable and environmentally
acceptable manner, whilst bringing new economic opportunities to smaller farmers in developing countries.
Organic cotton is grown in certified pesticide-free and herbicide-free soil, using organic farming methods
that do not involve chemical products but instead use ecological, organic fertilisers and compost which
produce healthier fabrics, preserve the quality of our water and prevent toxins from entering the human
food chain in the form of cottonseed and other by products8.
Organic cotton, grown without chemical pesticides or fertilizers, and processed minus toxic dyes or other
treatments, avoids many of the environmental, health and social problems associated with conventional
cotton production.
Organic cotton farmers can also grow food safely on their land. In Africa organic farmers plant different
cereals, nuts, vegetables and other crops as part of crop-rotation, which helps prevent build up of disease
and harmful pests and act as “trap crops”, attracting pests away from the cotton. The organic farmer can
feed themselves and their families or sell these crops and this diversifies their income and provides food
security. Organic farmers also report substantially higher incomes, allowing them to educate their children
and gain access to health care.
4
Well Dressed? The present and the future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom, Institute for Manufacturing,
University of Cambridge, 2006, p.14
5 Ecologist: A to Z of Eco Fashion, London Fashion Week, September 2007
6 Matilda Lee, author of Eco-Chic: The Savvy Shopper’s Guide to Ethical Fashion
7 Kate Fletcher
8 http://www.wellcultivated.co.uk/blog/2008/12/eco-fabrics-%e2%80%93-sorting-the-truth-out-from-the-hype/#menu7
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Organic cotton cultivation must meet strict European guidelines. The Organic Standard No 834/2007 came
into force in 2009 and sets the minimum standards for all agricultural products and foodstuffs that want to
be labeled “organic” across all EU states. Certification is required to ensure that farms and organizations
fully meet the rigorous standards. There are many certification companies and in the UK the Soil Association
organic symbol is most widely recognized. The label shows consumers that the product is free from
pesticides and chemicals that cause environmental damage and those that are harmful to health.
Organic cotton is the only cotton that can be guaranteed GM (Genetically Modified) free due to the
traceability of its origins and global organic standards. GM or Bt cotton plants are genetically modified by the
insertion of one or more genes. ‘Bt’ comes from Bacillus thuringiensis, a toxin-producing bacterium found
naturally in soils, to destroy the bollworm, a major cotton pest. It is estimated that 20% of all cotton in the
world is GM cotton.
Certification however usually applies to the production stage, from planting the cotton to ginning, but it is
possible to have a 100% organic T-shirt, where every stage along its supply chain has meet proven organic
standards. There are no laws governing the entire supply chain but the Global Organic Textile Standards
(GOTS) is the industry benchmark and it ensures that textile products meet high level environmental criteria
along the entire supply chain as well as complying with social criteria as well.
Fairtrade
Fairtrade labelling began in the Netherlands in 1988. The UK’s Fairtrade
Foundation came into existence in 1994, however Fairtrade standards were not applied to cotton until 2004.
For a product to display the FAIRTRADE Mark it must meet international Fairtrade standards which are set by
the Fairtrade Labelling Organisation (FLO). It’s sister organization FLO-Cert certifies the products and carries
out a social compliance assessment of the processing and manufacturing stages, ensuring that minimum
national and international labour legislation is adhered to that guarantees that cotton farmers are receiving
a fair and stable Fairtrade price and premium, receiving pre-financing where requested, and benefiting from
longer-term, more direct trading relationships.
OEKO-TEX Standard 100
Introduced at the beginning of the 1990’s, the Oeko-Tex Standard 100 is
primarily concerned with the health risks of textiles to the consumer. It doesn’t address the issues faced by
the cotton producer, but instead it provides consumers with a reliable gauge of the ecological impact of
textiles through a uniform standard. Criteria are made stricter according to the extent to which the textile
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comes into contact with the skin and certification also includes precautionary measures to safeguard health.
An Oeko-Tex certificate is valid for 12 months and confirms that the textile product is:
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free from any prohibited substances
free from chemicals that are known to be harmful to human health
The EU Ecolabel
The EU Ecolabel is Europe’s official environmental label. It has
the shape of a flower and it is only awarded to goods and services which meet strict criteria limiting their
impacts on the environment. In particular, the EU Ecolabel criteria for textile products group aim at
measuring and limiting water and air pollution in relation to textile processing and manufacturing.
Source: Sustainable cotton on the shelves: A handbook for the mainstream retail
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Address Book and Resources
Sustainable cotton initiatives
Better Cotton Initiative
www.bettercotton.org
Sustainable cotton initiative
http://www.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/pakistan/
projects/index.cfm?uProjectID=8W0011
Australian BMP Cotton
www.bmpcotton.com.au
Cotton made in Africa
www.cotton-made-in-africa.com
The Sustainable Cotton project
http://sustainablecotton.org
Standards
IFOA M (international Federation of Organic
Agriculture movements)
www.ifoam.org
GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard)
www.global-standard.org
Fairtrade labelling Organisation
http://www.fairtrade.net/cotton.html
Pesticide Action Network
www.pan-international.org
Soil Association
www.soilassociation.org
Cotton and sustainability
WW F Cleaner, greener cotton
http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_
freshwater/freshwater_resources/?uNewsID=115940
EJF, The Children behind Our Cotton
http://www.ejfoundation.org/pdf/The%20Children%20
behind%20Our%20Cotton%20FINAL.pdf
EJF, The Deadly Chemicals in Cotton
http://www.ejfoundation.org/pdf/the_deadly_chemicals_
in_cotton.pdf
EJF, White Gold
http://www.ejfoundation.org/page152.html