Unit One: What is social psychology?
This unit serves as the basis upon which all of the other units of study are developed. It sets the
context for the course by describing psychology as an empirically based, scientifically conducted
discipline. This unit introduces the origins, development and perspectives of psychology, setting
the foundation for a consideration of research methods by which the students then can begin to
acquire knowledge about the concepts of social psychology. The next step in the process
involves organizing and integrating the new knowledge by making connections with their
existing knowledge and understandings, as well as make connections between psychology and
other disciplines. Finally, students can begin to apply those concepts and understandings in a
practical, contemporary manner.
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Unit 1 Test
Multiple Choice
1. How can social psychology make a positive difference in our lives?
2. What can be a major issue when conducting surveys?
3. The Ecological model of Behavior (Brofenbrenner) has three levels of influence: the macrosystem, the
microsystem, and the…
4. Gender role is
5. A methodological issue while conducting a survey could be
6. An ethical issue while conducting an experiment could be
7. A valid psychological study means that…
8. A reliable psychological study means that…
Matching
Match the psychologist to his theoretical perspective (6)
Match the idea to its theoretical perspective (6)
Short Answer
1. What is social psychology? (3)
2. Using 2 examples explain part of the nature / nurture debate. (8)
3.
Why is Phineas Gage important to psychology? (5)
4. First Nations people do not have a term for asocial psychology. First Nation people try to
understand the holistic relationship to nature. Which theoretical perspective can you link this
to? (4)
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1.1 What is social Psychology?
Studying for the test:
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What is social psychology?
Who are social psychologists and what do they do?
How can social psychology make a positive difference in our lives?
What is your metaphor for life?
Psychology is the science of human thought and behaviour. All of the statements included in the
template are questions of interest to social psychologists. The important thing is not who is in the
blank, but rather it is thinking about why each blank is included in the survey.
Believe It Or Not!
_________________________ was born in another province.
_________________________ has more than 5 siblings.
To become a doctor is the career goal of _____________________.
____________________ and _____________________ are related.
____________________ can play a musical instrument other than a guitar, piano or drums.
____________________ has relatives that live on another continent.
____________________ has more than 5 body piercings.
_________________ has represented Saskatchewan at a national event.
____________________ live in the same house in which they were born.
___________________ has lived in more than 2 provinces.
___________________ has a relative older than 90 years of age.
When ________________ graduates, his/her plan is to travel to ______________.
___________________ is an aunt or an uncle.
___________________ has twins in his/her family.
___________________ thinks football is the greatest sport in the world!
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Social psychology is the study of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are
influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 11).
Social psychology deals with human interaction – the way people relate to one another and the
way people influence one another. How can we understand human relations and social
influence? By studying the way people feel and the way people think – in short, by studying the
heart and the mind (Aronson et al., 1994, p. 5).
How can social psychology make a positive difference in our lives?
Social psychologists have worked to understand such phenomena as economic depression,
attitude formation, racial prejudice, adaptation and acculturation of immigrants, friendships and
relationships, the effects of the Canadian multiculturalism policy, social norms of behaviour,
group dynamics, propaganda and conformity, the development of racial identity among native
children, conflict resolution, cognitive processes such as memory, attention and problem solving,
environmental issues, marital conflicts, addiction and aggression (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 9).
Do you know the top 12 Teen addictions? Knowing would be the first step to making a positive
diffence…
Guess
If you want to wreck the guessing game, flip the page.
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1. Junk food
2. Internet use
3. Majaurana / Hash
4. Alcohol
5. Tobacco
6. Sugar / candy
7. Over eating
8. Under eating
9. Self – harm
10. Sex
11. Bullying others
12. Video games
Next….
Two people can skip to the bottom of page 10
#1 – Track the difference in bullet #1
#2 – Tack the difference in bullet #2
#3 – Track the difference in bullet #3
Since we’re just learning, don’t worry about being pin point accurate. (In reality, you’d have to
be though) Just get a general sense.
Ex) Even.
Ex) Way more _________________ than __________________.
Pick the two most noticeable differences to present to the class.
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Are you willing to shell out more money for organic products? (May 2008)
Yes (97 votes, 45 %)
No (117 votes, 55 %)
Total number of votes: 214
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Do you spend too much time online? (April 2008)
Yes (56 votes, 67 %)
No (28 votes, 33 %)
Total number of votes: 84
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Should we boycott the Summer Olympics in Beijing given the situation in Tibet? (March
2008)
Yes (49 votes, 53 %)
No (43 votes, 47 %)
Total number of votes: 92
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Are you a last-minute Christmas shopper? (December 2007)
Yes (318 votes, 47 %)
No (357 votes, 53 %)
Total number of votes: 675
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Do you belong to a social-network site such as Facebook or MySpace? (August 2007)
Yes (702 votes, 48 %)
No (761 votes, 52 %)
Total number of votes: 1463
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Are you concerned about greenhouse gases and global warming? (March 2007)
Yes (6556 votes, 78 %)
No (1886 votes, 22 %)
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Total number of votes: 8442
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Do you usually make New Year's resolutions? (January 2007)
Yes
(1018 votes, 23 %)
No (3409 votes, 77 %)
Total number of votes: 4427
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Have you had enough of reality TV? (July 2006)
Yes (3244 votes, 75 %)
No (1086 votes, 25 %)
Total number of votes: 4330
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Has the time come to stop buying real Christmas trees for the holidays? (January 2004)
Yes (711 votes, 47 %)
No (807 votes, 53 %)
Total number of votes: 1518
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Do you think it's generally still safe for a ten-year-old to play on Canada's suburban
streets? (June 2003)
Yes
(840 votes, 39 %)
No (1296 votes, 61 %)
Total number of votes: 2136
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Should people with communicable viruses such as the flu or the common cold stay away
from work? (May 2003)
Yes
No (202 votes, 17 %)
(963 votes, 83 %)
Total number of votes: 1165
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
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Are parents chiefly responsible for the epidemic in overweight children? (August 2002)
Yes
No
(1107 votes, 90 %)
(122 votes, 10 %)
Total number of votes: 1229
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Are men less compassionate than women? (June 2002)
Yes (835 votes, 65 %)
No (454 votes, 35 %)
Total number of votes: 1289
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Is your child too brand conscious? (April 2002)
Yes (213 votes, 47 %)
No (241 votes, 53 %)
Total number of votes: 454
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
How much would you pay to save the life of your pet? (March 2002)
Under $500 (338 votes, 45 %)
Up to $1000 (156 votes, 21 %)
Up to $2000 (63 votes, 8 %)
Over $2000 (201 votes, 27 %)
Total number of votes: 758
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Are our kids getting enough phys-ed in school? (February 2002)
Yes
(179 votes, 20 %)
No (703 votes, 80 %)
Total number of votes: 882
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Would you leave your spouse if told he or she had had an affair? (August 2001)
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Yes (1771 votes, 49 %)
No (1866 votes, 51 %)
Total number of votes: 3637
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Recently, a number of politicians have suggested the time has come for Canada to sever its
ties to the British monarchy. Has that day arrived? (July 2001)
Yes
(1023 votes, 37 %)
No (1719 votes, 63 %)
Total number of votes: 2742
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Is it better for parents to stay together for the sake of the kids? (December 2000)
Yes
(541 votes, 38 %)
No (868 votes, 62 %)
Total number of votes: 1409
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Should religion be taught in schools? (August 2000)
Yes (670 votes, 60 %)
No (438 votes, 40 %)
Total number of votes: 1108
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Do teens today suffer from a lack of moral direction in their lives? (March 2000)
Yes
(1112 votes, 89 %)
No (134 votes, 11 %)
Total number of votes: 1246
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Should parents be legally permitted to spank their children? (January 2000)
Yes
(1249 votes, 88 %)
No (169 votes, 12 %)
Total number of votes: 1418
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
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Are you afraid to walk the streets at night in your community? (December 1999)
Yes
(284 votes, 29 %)
No (681 votes, 71 %)
Total number of votes: 965
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Should car owners be restricted from using cell phones while driving? (August 1999)
Yes
No (187 votes, 18 %)
(833 votes, 82 %)
Total number of votes: 1020
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Is banning specific breeds like pit bulls and rottweilers a reasonable solution to the
problem of dog attacks? (July 1999)
Yes
(310 votes, 43 %)
No (412 votes, 57 %)
Total number of votes: 722
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
Should parents be held accountable in some way for the crimes of their children? (April
1999)
Yes (757 votes, 80 %)
No (195 votes, 20 %)
Total number of votes: 952
Note: totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding.
These results are lumped all together. What would happen if we studied the information of the voters?
Think how much more we could learn.
For example:
○
How did the responses compare between males and females?
○
How did the responses differ based on age of respondent?
○
How did the responses differ between urban (city) and rural respondents?
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Reflect
Go back into the online survey.
Find a potential problem.
Ex) Christmas tree question – asked in a town
where the majority of people do not celebrate
Christmas.
Surveys in psychological research
What is the survey method of research?
Conducting research using a survey involves going out and asking questions about the
phenomenon of interest.
What do I need to consider when doing surveys?
 Prepare your survey question(s) in advance, and share them with your teacher so
that they can be checked for accuracy and correctness.
 If you are needing additional respondent information such as age, occupation or
gender, be sure to include those questions on the survey.
 Who is your sample? Who will you be asking the questions to? Will you be getting
the kind of information you need from the people you are asking the questions of?

Is your sample size large enough? What sample size is appropriate?
 Is your sample representative of the general population? Does it represent a
balance between male and female? Do you need to sample a particular age group or
will a general survey be alright?
 When will you be conducting your survey? How long will you be surveying? Will
time lapse make a difference?
 How will the respondents answer? Will they record their responses on separate
sheets of paper or will you ask them the questions and then record their responses?
 How will you present your findings? Will you convert the answers to a percentage?
Will you be constructing a bar graph or a pie chart?

If you are considering other factors such as age or gender, then you will need to go through the
responses again after you have completed the survey, based on those criteria.
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What are the issues, or concerns in conducting surveys?
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Do the survey questions address the research question?
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Are the survey questions clear?
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Is my sample size of respondents large enough?
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Have I surveyed a representative sample?
 Apart from factors such as age, occupation and gender, are the respondents
anonymous?
 Is time a factor? How long should I survey? If I surveyed over a longer time period
would that affect the results?

Are there other sources against which I could compare the survey results?
Quick Check
Plan a survey
Have a friend critique the Set Up
Do not carry it out.
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Activity B: Metaphors for life
If you were to have a theme song, what would it be?
Some people see life as a battle. Every encounter is a struggle, and if they don’t win, they feel
like they have lost. Others view life as an adventure. A new day brings new opportunities to
explore. If something goes badly today, there’s always tomorrow.
How do these metaphors develop? As children we begin to understand and organize the
world. If we think of the brain as a filing cabinet, then childhood is when we open the files and
label them. We often spend the rest of our lives putting new material in these old files. If
childhood was healthy, then we may have a pretty good filing system. If it was a struggle, then
we often see struggles for the rest of our life.
What are your metaphors? This is not usually obvious. We have to stand back a long way to
see patterns like this in our lives. A few examples:
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A battle – Everything is a competition or a struggle. We are always either winning or
losing.
A garden – Relationships are cultivated like flowers or vegetables. We see things as
growing, flowering or producing.
A mission – We believe that we have the truth and we need to convince others that our
point of view is right.
A journey or an adventure – We travel from place to place meeting new people and
exploring.
A building – Starting with a solid foundation, then adding floors and rooms.
A roller coaster – Life consists of ups and downs, and we are along for the ride.
A stained glass window – Full of light and colours.
A mountain climb – Life consists of hierarchies. We are always climbing the various
ladders of life.
A race – Always finding the fastest route, “keeping up with the Joneses”.
A courtroom – Everything in life should be fair.
Stepping stones – We barely get comfortable where we are before we are looking for a
better job or a bigger house.
A prison – Feeling like we do not have choices, like others have all the power.
A classroom – There are always new lessons to learn.
A battery – Every encounter seems to drain energy. We need the weekends to recharge
(Source: Mental Health Network).
In a group come up with your own metaphor.
Naturally, it’s a competition. Naturally, I’ll have a crappy prize for the winner.
Example on next page…
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Mr. Gilmore’s:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFqvIUcfBcw
Change Blind Melon
I don't feel the sun’s coming out today
It's staying in, it’s gonna find another way
As I sit here in this misery I don't think I'll ever see the sun from here
And oh as I fade away, they'll all look at me and say,
Hey look at him I'll never live that way
But that's ok they’re just afraid to change
When you feel your life ain't worth living, you've got to stand up and
take a look around you then a look way up to the sky
And when your deepest thoughts are broken, keep on dreamin’ boy cause
when you stop dreamin’ its time to die
And as we all play parts of tomorrow
Some ways we'll work and other ways we'll play
But I know we can't all stay here forever
So I want to write my words on the face of today
.....And then they'll paint it
And oh as I fade away they'll all look at me and say,
hey look at him and where he is these days
When life is hard you have to change
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Your teacher used to be a bit of a music fanatic. He believes it’s not a coincidence that he loves
the relation between psychology and music. In fact, if this was the only class he taught, he’d
probably rig the whole thing so you could listen to music to meet all the demands of the class.
Songs are about the way people see the world.
Songs are stories that deal with choices people have to make.
With what you know of social psychology so far, pick out a song, print out the lyrics and write a
paragraph relating it to what we’ve learned thus far.
Sample Song:
Louis Armstrong’s “What A Wonderful World”
#1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPcgM1MnDnI
Positive Pictures
#2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YFlrAfKGQuU
Good Morning Vietnam
Sample Answer:
- Copy and pasted from our notes:
How can we understand human relations and social influence? By studying the way people feel and the
way people think – in short, by studying the heart and the mind.
This relates to the one song because two people clearly took a different way of representing a meaning
from the same lyrics. One is trying to push a social agenda through satire, the other wants to push a
social agenda through positiveness.
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Neil Young…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_93
Overview of what happened
http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xlzxu_neil-young-lets-roll
Actual video
"Let's Roll"
I know I said I love you,
I know you know it's true,
I've got to put the phone down,
and do what we got to do.
One's standing in the iselway,
Two more at the door,
We've got to get inside there,
Before they kill somemore.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
No time for indecision,
We've got to make a move,
I hope that were foregiven,
For what we got to
How this all got started,
I'll never understand,
I hope someone can fly this thing,
And get us back to land.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
No one has the answer,
But one thing is true,
You've got to turn on evil,
When it's coming after you,
You've gota face it down,
And when it tries to hide,
You've gota go in after it,
And never be denied,
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
Let's roll for freedome,
Let's roll for love,
We're going after satan,
On the wings of a dove,
Let's roll for justice,
Let's roll for truth,
Let's not let our children,
Grow up fearfull in there youth.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
Time is runnin' out,
Let's roll.
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Questions to Link this to Social Psychology:
○ How do you explain the actions of Todd Beamer? Was Todd Beamer a hero? What do you
think motivated Todd Beamer and the other passengers? What is the meaning, or message of
this story?
○ How do you explain the actions of the highjackers? What do you think motivated these
people? How can you explain the differences in motivations, thoughts, feelings and behaviours
of the highjackers as compared to Todd Beamer and the other passengers on board Flight 93?
○ What relevance does this story have for social psychology? What aspects of human
behaviour does social psychology attempt to describe and explain?
Topic 1 is done.
You’ve probably had zero homework.
Here’s how homework works in the class – you go back and review what we’ve done together,
ensuring that you can answer the test questions that relate to what we’ve done.
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1.2 What influences human social action and interaction?
Studying for the test:
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What is the biological basis for our behaviour?
What are the various systems of support that influence our behaviour?
In what ways do heredity, experience and/or the systems of support influence how we
think, feel and behave?
How does gender influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviours?
What is the biological basis for our behaviour?
How is it that human beings have dreams, make plans, feel joy or hunger, fall in love, read and
understand this page, or remember events that took place ages ago? This question is about the
relationship between biology, brain, and behaviour and the answer is at once most simple and
most complex. The simple answer is this. All of our thoughts, feelings and behaviours originate
from basic biological processes – more specfically from the brain (Baron et al., 1998, p. 42).
http://www.ted.com/talks/vilayanur_ramachandran_on_your_mind.html
What have we learned about biological basis for behaviour
1. There is a region in our brain that allows us to recognize people’s faces.
2.
3.
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/christopher_decharms_scans_the_brain_in_real_time.html
Short 4 minute TED Talk about how we may be able to control regions of our brain.
Something to remember:
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What are the various systems of support that influence our behaviour?
In his Ecological Model, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) described three levels of influence that
affect an individual through various processes. According to Bronfenbrenner, each person is
significantly affected by interactions among a number of overlapping ecosystems. At the center
of the model is the individual. Microsystems are the systems that intimately and immediately
shape human development. Interactions among the microsystems, as when parents and teachers
coordinate their efforts to educate the child, take place through the mesosystem. Surrounding the
microsystems is the exosystem, which includes all the external networks, such as community
structures and local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems, that
influence the microsystems. Influencing all other systems is the macrosystem, which includes
cultural values, political philosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. Together, these
systems are termed the social context of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, as quoted
in Berger, 2000, p. 7).
The Ecological Model of Human Behaviour
The Ecological model, the major proponent of which is Urie Bronfenbrenner, seeks to explain
individual knowledge, development, and skills in terms of the guidance, support, and structure
provided by society and to explain social change over time in terms of the cumulative effect of
individual choices (Berger, 2000).
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Explained by someone else:
According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, each person is significantly affected by interactions among
a number of overlapping ecosystems. At the center of the model is the
individual. Microsystems are the systems that intimately and immediately shape human
development. The primary microsystems for children include the family, peer group,
classroom, neighbourhood, and sometimes a church, temple, or mosque as well. Interactions
among the microsystems, as when parents and teachers coordinate their efforts to educate the
child, take place through the mesosystem. Surrounding the microsystems is the exosystem,
which includes all the external networks, such as community structures and local educational,
medical, employment, and communications systems, that influence the microsystems. And
influencing all other systems is the macrosystem, which includes cultural values, political
philosophies, economic patterns, and social conditions. Together, these systems are termed
the social context of human development.
Just checking…
Which system of support does this cartoon represent?
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In what ways do heredity, experience and/or the systems of support influence how we
think, feel and behave?
Psychologists and biologists have long debated whether interaction with the environment—a person’s
family and culture, for instance—is more important than genes in shaping disease, character, and
behaviour. It is becoming more obvious that environment and genes have different degrees of
influence, depending on the trait. Some traits such as eye colour appear to depend on only a genetic
component with little or no environmental input. However, others such as muscle strength or musical
achievement seem to require contributions from both genes and the environment. If a person is born
with the alleles for great athletic or musical potential, for example, those talents will not develop
without practice. A child may be born with the alleles for potentially high academic intelligence, but lack
of stimulation and limited exposure to new experiences in early childhood may keep the child from
realizing that potential. Lack of nutrition during childhood can turn a person with the potential to be six
feet tall into someone who barely clears five feet. Current research indicates that expression of alleles
in certain individuals may also depend on their unique internal environment – their nervous system,
hormone balance, or other aspects of their biochemistry (Berger, 2000, p. 82).
Here’s a TED Talk is a good example, but we’ll have to work through it together.
Is being a murderer genetics or environmental influence?
http://www.ted.com/talks/jim_fallon_exploring_the_mind_of_a_killer.html?awesm=on.ted.com_
1f&utm_campaign=ted&utm_content=site-basic&utm_medium=on.ted.comcopypaste&utm_source=direct-on.ted.com
Notes to Remember :
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The Story of Phineas Gage:
The written version:
http://brainconnection.positscience.com/topics/?main=fa/phineas-gage
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kc213mMSsjY
Some guy’s rendition from a book he read
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJqCOarebWw
The animation version
What’s this teach us?
For the keeners out there… make the connection between Phineas Gage and the below cartoon.
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How does gender influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviours?
Gender identity is our classification of ourselves (and others) as male or female, boy or girl, and
so on. Gender role refers to the behaviours, attitudes, beliefs and so on which a particular society
either expects from, or considers appropriate to, males and females on the basis of their
biological sex. To be masculine or feminine, therefore, requires males and females to conform to
their respective gender roles (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p. 393).
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Without doing this activity, let’s talk about it. You’ve done things like this in Health class since
grade 2. Now we’ll take it to the next level and begin to ask the question, “Why?”.
Activity: Socializing agencies
Socializing agencies are any person or social institution that shapes a person’s values, beliefs, and
behaviours is a socializing agency. The main agencies are parents, mass media, teachers and peers.
1. Parents – Parents interact with infants according to gender in a number of ways and children
establish a gender identity early in life.
They are possibly more inclined to hold and cuddle females;
they give boys and girls different toys;
they may reinforce certain aggressive or “sweet” behaviours
they often assign different kinds of jobs according to gender (girls do dishes and boys mow lawns).
2. Mass Media - Media texts include any form of reproduced communication from a book, film, CD,
toy, T-shirt, etc. The media reflects society but also reinforces and constructs it.

Examine children’s books for gender stereotyping to explore male/female ratios of main
characters and male/female ratio of animal characters.

Analyze fairy tales such as “Cinderella” and “Sleeping Beauty” for gender stereotypes. Sleeping
Beauty waits to be awakened by the prince. Reverse the roles and speculate on the following
question: “What if sleeping beauty had been a boy?"

Look at recent newspapers. How many stories can you find about women? About men?

Toys go far beyond the truck/dolls controversy. Barbie and Ken dolls have recently invoked
some concern that they promote an over-emphasis on stereotypes and “looking good”. If
turned into to a real woman, she would boast an 18” waist, an image that few girls could
realistically aspire to. Design and conduct a research study investigating toys and gender. What
toys do young children prefer? Are there gender differences? Does playing with guns promote
aggression and violence in young children?
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What stereotypes exist on television for gender roles? How are males typically portrayed? How
are females typically portrayed? What careers do males and females have on television? How
many sitcoms feature women as their main performers? How are adolescents portrayed on
television?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rcwkedn31hs
We’ll revisit Disney and gender later, but for now, how does this relate?
Also Note: How cool is Prezi…! Why do a power point ever again!
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Image Advertising
Look at techniques that advertisers use, particularly in the area of “image-creation” where
women are wooed with advertising that suggests that they will improve their appearance,
desirability, etc. by purchasing certain products or clothing. Skinny models, often computer
altered images, create body proportions that the average girl cannot or should not try to
achieve.
o Create a portfolio of images from magazines that depict women and men.
o
Analyze popular magazines such as Vogue, Chatelaine, New Women, People, Seventeen,
Us, YM. What types of articles are included in the magazine (e.g., sports, fashion,
beauty, sex, gender roles, relationships, communication, lifestyles, travel, careers)?
What percentage of the magazine is devoted to image advertising?
3. Schools – What is the role and influence of schools on gender roles and identity?
What do schools teach in terms of gender identity, roles and equity?
Do schools promote gender stereotypes?
Is there gender equity in your school?
Do females hold positions of influence on school organizations such as student government?
25
4. Peers - are a HUGE socializing agent during adolescence.

In what ways do your peers influence you?
In what ways do you influence others?
Are there times or situations when your peers have more influence?
Who has the biggest influence on you? Why?
Who are your gender role models? Why?
Do your friends share the same gender role models?
Mr. Gilmore’s 2 cents:
Name one prominent gay athlete.
Option 1 – There are none.
Option 2 – The gender expectations are prevalent in this area.
Which one actually sounds ridiculous?
One male and one female volunteer.
You are going to hold hands.
OK two couples if you are brave. (Or desperate)
Everyone else flip the page.
26
o
Note the relative position of the male student’s hands. Invariably, the male
student’s hand will be on top, and the female student’s hand will be on the
bottom. Repeat several times to establish a pattern.
A biological interpretation (nature) will explain it in terms of the mechanics of holding hands, in
other words, the taller person (usually the male) will find it more comfortable to place his hand
on top.
A psychological (social environment or nurture) explanation might include the relative
“dominance” of males versus the “submissiveness” of females, as illustrated in the unconscious
act of placing the female hand on the bottom.
27
1.3 Theoretical Perspectives on Human Development
Studying for the test:


What are the contemporary perspectives used to explain human social behaviour?
What is an Aboriginal perspective on social psychology?
Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the inner person.
Advocates of the psychodynamic perspective believe that behaviour is motivated by inner forces,
memories and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious forces act to determine
personality and behaviour. To Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality about
which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs that
are hidden, because of their disturbing nature, from conscious awareness. Freud
suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday behaviour.
Ignore the whole seduction, Maxim Magazine vibe to this and see if you can make a link
between the definition above and the game.
http://www.damonchernavsky.com/Games/Kokology/The_Cube_Game/the_cube_game.html
The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. It represents primitive
drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. The id operates according to the
“pleasure principle”, in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension.
The ego is the part of the personality that is rational and reasonable. Providing a reality check for the
demands of the id, the ego acts as a buffer between the outside world and the primitive id. The ego
operates on the “reality principle”, in which instincts are restrained in order to maintain the safety of
the individual and help integrate the individual into society.
Finally, Freud proposed that the superego represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions
between right and wrong. It develops around age five or six and is learned from an individual’s parents,
teachers and other significant figures (Feldman, 2000, p. 15).
28
Here is a short film, without words, that acts out a client-therapist relationship that is using the
psychoanalytic model.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uM2FGc0wDg8
Erikson’s psychosocial theory suggests that developmental change occurs throughout our lives
in eight distinct stages. The stages emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people.
Erikson argues that each stage presents a crisis or conflict that the individual must resolve.
Although no crisis is ever fully resolved, making life increasingly complicated, the individual
must at least address the crisis of each stage sufficiently to deal with demands made during the
next stage of development.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGFKAfixHJs&feature=related
The eight stages, as presented by a student.
http://www.utdallas.edu/~kprager/erik_e1.gif
Diagram form
http://www.electrical-res.com/EX/10-19-11/11eriksonstages.jpg
Chart form
29
The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the roots of understanding.
The cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and
think about the world. The cognitive perspective emphasizes how people internally represent and
think about the world. By using this perspective, developmental psychologists hope to
understand how children and adults process information, and how their ways of thinking and
understanding affect their behaviour.
No single person has had a greater impact on the study of cognitive development than Jean
Piaget who proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages
of cognitive development. In each stage, he suggested that not only did the quantity of
information increase, but so did the quality of knowledge and understanding. Piaget suggests that
the growth in children’s understanding of the world can be explained by two basic principles.
Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current
state of cognitive development and ways of thinking.
In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to
encounter with new stimuli or events.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ue8y-JVhjS0
Sensorimotor
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg&feature=related
Preoperational
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M&feature=related
Concrete Operational
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjJdcXA1KH8
Formal Operations
30
Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory proposes that a full understanding of
development is impossible without taking into account the culture in which children develop.
Sociocultural theory proposes that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through
their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. As children play and cooperate
with others, they learn what is important in their society, and at the same time, advance
cognitively in their understanding of the world.
http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/i/i_09/i_09_p/i_09_p_dev/i_09_p_dev.html
Review of Piaget & relates to Vygotsky – written
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yY-SXM8f0gU
A grad student’s 90 second differentiation of the two theories
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Axi7xctulbM&feature=related
Extranormal version
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rX8lRh1u5iE&feature=related
Zone of Proximal Development (yuck video)
31
The Behavioural Perspective: Considering the outer person.
The behavioural perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable
behaviour and outside stimuli in the environment. If we know the stimuli we can predict the
behaviour. Behavioural theories reject the notion that individuals universally pass through a
series of stages. Instead, people are assumed to be affected by the environmental stimuli to which
they happen to be exposed. Developmental patterns, then, are personal, reflecting a particular set
of environmental stimuli, and development is the result of continuing exposure to specific factors
in the environment.

John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner’s theories of classical and operant conditioning hold
that all behaviour is learned as a response to external stimuli. Classical conditioning
occurs when an organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that
normally does not evoke that type of response. For example, Russian psychologist Ivan
Pavlov found that if a dog is repeatedly exposed to the pairing of two stimuli, such as the
sound of a bell and the presentation of meat, it may learn to react to the sound of the bell
alone in the same way it reacts to the presentation of meat. In operant conditioning,
reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the
probability that a preceding behaviour will be repeated. In addition, punishment will
decrease the probability that the preceding behaviour will occur in the future.
http://nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/pavlov/about.html
Game
Barenaked Ladies Song – Brian Gordon
lyrics http://bnlweb.tripod.com/gordon.htm#BrianWilson
Video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ch84fmOa414&ob=av2e

According to social-cognitive learning theorist Albert Bandura, when we see the
behaviour of a model being rewarded, we are likely to imitate that behaviour. Behaviour
is learned through observation and imitation, not conditioning through reinforcement or
punishment.
(Ever see an older sibling teach a younger one to swear?)
32
The Humanistic Perspective:
Concentrating on the unique qualities of human beings.
The humanistic perspective contends that people have a natural tendency to make decisions
about their lives and control their behaviour. The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will,
the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives.

Carl Rogers suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an
underlying wish to be loved and respected. Because it is other people who provide this
positive regard, we become dependent on them. Consequently, our view of ourselves and
our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us.

Abraham Maslow suggests that self-actualization is a primary goal in life. Selfactualization is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential
in their own unique way.
33
The Sociocultural Perspective: Emphasizing the systems of support.
The Ecological model, the major proponent of which is Urie Bronfenbrenner, seeks to explain
individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of the guidance, support, and
structure provided by society and to explain social change over time in terms of the cumulative
effect of individual choices.

According to Urie Bronfenbrenner…
I deleted this part – we’ve already talked about him.
Review him if you forget.
The Evolutionary Perspective:
Focusing on biology as the determinant of development.
The Ethological Theory stresses that behaviour is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to
evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. Evolutionary approaches grow out
of the groundbreaking work of Charles Darwin.

Konrad Lorenz discovered that newborn geese are genetically preprogrammed to
become attached to the first moving object they see after birth. His work, which
demonstrated the importance of biological determinants in influencing behaviour
patterns, ultimately led developmentalists to consider the ways in which human
behaviour might reflect inborn genetic patterns.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UIU9XH-mUI
Critical Periods -

The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the
field of lifespan development, behavioural genetics. Behavioural genetics studies the
effects of heredity and genetics on behaviour. As technology improves, and researchers
continue to map the human genome, there is an increasing understanding of the role and
function of the genetic codes and their influence on development.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuUpnAz5y1g
How far in the future is it really? Nutrition based on a person’s specific genetics
34
An Aboriginal perspective on social psychology
Abstract: In conversation with Mr. Bill Asikinack, Assistant Professor, Department of Native
Studies with the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, and Traditional Leader of the Crane
Clan in his family in the Ojibway Nation, Interactions explores the basic concepts of social
psychology from an Aboriginal perspective.
Interactions: From an Aboriginal perspective, how would you define social psychology?
In our culture, Aboriginal people do not have a term like “social psychology” as it is used in the
Western world. From our perspective, we seek to understand our holistic relationship to Nature
and others, understanding our role and place in Creation. In life, we seek meaning, which helps
provide purpose, and understanding how to live in harmony with Nature and others. This
process starts with the individual and moves outwards. In our culture, the medicine wheel
represents all aspects of our Being; physical, spiritual, mental, and emotional. Each of these
aspects must be equally developed in a healthy, well-balanced individual through the
development and use of our will.
Interactions: How was this understanding communicated?
Through the oral tradition of storytelling. Storykeepers, or storytellers, would instruct and guide the people using “Lessons from
Nature”. In some instances there were men’s stories, and stories meant primarily for women (but I am sure that these were not kept
exclusive to either group!). Some Nations only told stories at certain times or for a very specific purpose, while others would tell
stories as the need arose. This was the case with my people, I can remember being told stories whenever a lesson was needed to
be learned!
35
Interactions: Who were, or are, the “psychologists” in the Aboriginal culture?
Storytellers, or storykeepers. This was not a male or female dominated role. I heard as many
stories from women as I did men. It was the women were mostly responsible for the
transmission of cultural values and attitudes, because at a certain age the young males would
go off with the older males to learn the skills of hunting and providing, while the girls would stay
with their mothers and grandmothers for a longer period of time.
Interactions: How did the storykeepers influence their people?
The storykeepers would observe behaviour and tell stories to indirectly guide and direct
behaviour. The stories were always directly applicable to what the storykeepers had seen or
heard. But one fascinating aspect of the stories was that they were always expressed in
a positive way, the stories were never “negative words”. The stories were also never told in a
direct manner, as a list of do’s and don’ts. Instead, it was storytelling in an allegorical and
metaphorical way. For example, I remember one story that was told to me when I was fishing.
The story involved the black water monster, who would rise up and take me away from this
reality to the next unless I paid careful attention to the signs around me. How would I interpret or
explain this story in ways that non-Aboriginals could understand? Well, the black water is a sign
in nature of an impending storm. Being caught out in that storm could be dangerous. So it was
left up to me to get the meaning from the story. I was never told to watch the water because
black water meant possible danger. I would use an onion as an example for the type of stories
that I heard when I was a child. Every time I heard a story, I would peel away one layer of
meaning and another layer would appear.
36
Interactions: What skills or training were necessary to become an Aboriginal “social
psychologist”?
In our tradition, the Elders would have selected, and trained, young people in the art of
storytelling. The storyteller was developed from within the group; it was an active process of
selection by the Elders who recognized that certain individuals had a “gift”. That gift was then
promoted, and the young storytellers would then develop the ability to tell their stories in exactly
the same way. Storytellers would sometimes have visited other Nations to share stories, and
these stories would then become part of the storykeeper’s stories. A storyteller had a very high
social status, a prominent role in the culture.
Interactions: What are the Aboriginal perspectives on various aspects of human thought and
behaviour? Let’s begin with the issue of Self identity.
Children were named in a formal naming ceremony by a name-giver, a person charged with the
responsibility of naming the baby. Children were named for a purpose, to learn certain things.
The whole community knew the name and fostered the development of the qualities and
attributes associated with the name. In a very real sense, then, part of the sense of identity
would come from your given name. The community became responsible for helping the child
fulfill their name.
Interactions: What is the Aboriginal perspective on child rearing and parenting?
In our culture, the child had control over their own development but the parents (and the
community) were always watchful, so that the child would develop into a “proper” adult whose
skills would be useful to the survival of the community. As I have already described from my
upbringing, child development was guided through stories, and interpretation left up to
developing individual. You remember the story of the black water, water monster, in
contemporary sense, black water means impending storm.
Interactions: What is the role and importance of spirituality to Aboriginal peoples?
It’s the whole world to an Aboriginal person. Spirituality is central to our way of Being. In our
tradition, we celebrate life, give thanks every day. I remember a story when I was in Navajo
country in the United States, and a small cactus was pointed out to me. I was reminded that this
small plant was absolutely critical to my survival, because if I had nothing else, that the milk of
this cactus would provide enough nutrition to survive in the desert. That's what I mean about
giving thanks, and appreciating the gifts of Creation.
37
Interactions: What is the Aboriginal perspective on the role of the family?
In the Aboriginal culture, the family is what has been described as an "extended" family, it
involves the whole community. There is an active connecting to the extended family,
recognizing the need to involve many people in the development and guidance of the child.
Family, then, could be defined as “people who have influence on the developing person”.
Interactions: How would you describe the Aboriginal worldview?
A worldview is the fundamental set of values that direct our behaviour, it is how we view our
relationship to all Creation. From our perspective, Humankind is the least of all of Creation
(because humans depend on the animals and plants. They do not need us to survive, we need
them. In our worldview, everything is related to everything else, and everything has purpose.
Our worldview is opposed to control, dominance, and ownership of Creation, we are one with
Creation, and we must seek to live in harmony with all Creation.
38
1.4 How do we make sense of our behaviour?
Studying for the test:





How do we make sense of our behaviour?
What are the methods of research in social psychology?
What are the methodological issues in conducting research?
What are some of the ethical issues in conducting research?
How do I make research more valid and reliable?
What is the scientific method of research?
There are several basic steps in the scientific method of research:
1. Develop a research question
2. Describe the hypothesis
3. Select a research method
Observation
Experiment
Interview
Case Study
Survey
Topical
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Describe the process to be followed
Gather the data
Analyze the data
Report the findings, account for reliability and validity
State conclusions in relation to the hypothesis
39
What is the observational method of research?
In naturalistic observational research the observer does not intervene at all. The researcher is invisible and works
hard not to interrupt the natural dynamics of the situation being investigated.
Naturalistic Observation
In naturalistic research, the
observer does not intervene at
all. For all intents and purposes,
the researcher is invisible and
works hard to not interrupt the
natural dynamics of the situation
being investigated.







play behaviours of young children
violence and television
social norms (typical ways of behaving) in a variety of
contexts (e.g., cafeteria, malls, hallways, sporting events)
group behaviours (e.g., single gender, mixed gender,
different age groups)
social facilitation/inhibition (ways in which the presence of
other people helps or hinders behaviour)
seating arrangements and their effects on conversation.
working with young children (e.g., daycare, nursery,
babysitting)
What do I need to consider when doing observational research?




Try to be “invisible”, do not get involved in the dynamics of the situation.
Use all of your senses, not just your sense of vision. Record the sounds, smells and tastes (if applicable).
Record your impressions and feelings. How do you feel while observing? Were you frightened, surprised,
anxious, amused, excited? Relate what you were feeling to what you were observing.
Record the context of the situation: place, time, participants, numbers of participants, gender of
participants, etc.
What are the issues, or concerns in conducting observational research?






Completeness of information recorded is critical to gain a complete understanding of the dynamics of the
situation.
Accuracy of the information recorded. Did you miss anything? Did you record it exactly as you observed it?
Bias. Did I “add” to what I observed by presuming or assuming something that did not exist?
Would someone else who had not observed the same thing be able to get a clear, correct picture of what
you observed by reading your notes?
Confidentiality. Be sure not to name people or places in your presentation of the information. You have not
asked for their permission to conduct research, and so therefore they have to right to remain anonymous.
Refer to the general situation, for example, a school playground, an urban mall, a farm, a family gathering,
etc.
Videotaping, audiotaping or taking photographs of the situation is infringing on the participant’s rights to
privacy. Use only your written notes.
What materials will I need? - Journal, note paper, writing materials
40
What is the interview method of research?
Interview research usually involves the interviewer asking a series of questions which are then recorded in some manner.
Interview

The interview method of research,
typically, involves a face-to-face
meeting in which a researcher
(interviewer) asks an individual a
series of questions.




Ask Elders or seniors: How has society changed since they were
adolescents.
Ask your parents: What are the major sources of stress in your lives?
Ask people in leadership positions: What qualities are important in a
leader?
Ask your parents or friends: What qualities are important in a
relationship?
Ask your parents or friends: What are your values? Are there certain
basic human values?
What do I need to consider when doing interviews?






Prepare your interview questions in advance, and share them with the participant(s).
Tape record, or videotape record the interview.
Do not be afraid to ask questions if they arise during the interview, even if you did not have them listed
before the interview.
After the interview, you will need to transcribe (copy) exactly what was said during the interview. This can
be a very slow, and timing consuming process, but it is critical that you copy exactly what was said.
After you have copied out the interview, replay the interview again and compare it to your notes. Make any
corrections necessary.
Share the written copy of the interview with the participant to make sure that they agree with, and affirm
the contents of the interview.
What are the issues, or concerns in conducting interviews?





Completeness of information recorded is critical to gain a complete understanding of the accuracy of the
interview.
Accuracy of the information recorded. Did you miss anything? Did you record it in written form exactly as
was said by the participant?
Bias. Did I “add” to what I observed by presuming or assuming something that was not stated directly by the
participant?
Would someone else who had not interviewed the participant be able to get a clear, correct picture of what
was discussed by reading your notes?
Confidentiality. Be sure you have asked for their permission to be interviewed, and that they are aware of
the purpose and intended audience of the interview.
What materials will I need?


Journal, note paper, writing materials
Tape recorder, videotape recorder
41

List of interview questions prepared beforehand.
What is the case study method of research?
A case study is an intensive study of one individual. Typically, the case study may involve interviews, observation,
experiments and tests.
Case Study
A case study is an intensive study of one
individual. Typically, the case study is based on
interviews with the subject regarding his or her
background, present thinking or actions; it may
also utilize interviews of others who know the
individual. Additional case-study material may
be obtained through observation, experiments
and standardized tests, such as personality
inventories and intelligence tests.











A senior or Elder in your family or community
The Wild Boy of Aveyron
Phineas Gage
Henry M
Martin Luther King
Roberta Bondar
Terry Fox
Jim Jones
Oskar Schindler
Rick Hansen
Albert Bandura
What do I need to consider when doing case studies?



Prepare your research questions in advance: What kinds of information do you want to know?
Consider many different forms of information sources: Online websites, paper-based sources such as
encyclopedias, journals, magazines and newspapers.
Case studies may also include observational research, experiments and tests. Consider what other types of
research are appropriate.
What are the issues, or concerns in conducting case studies?





Completeness of information recorded is critical to gain a complete understanding of the accuracy of the
case study. Have I checked every conceivable resource for information?
Because of the variety of information sources, be sure that you have reviewed all of the issues or concerns
for each of the research types.
Bias. Did I “add” to what I observed by presuming or assuming something that was not written about,
spoken by or observed of the person?
Would someone else who had not case studied the participant be able to get a clear, correct picture of what
was discussed by reading your report?
Confidentiality. Be sure you have asked for their permission to be case studied, and that they are aware of
42
the purpose and intended audience of the report.
What is the topical method of research?
A topical research project involves the acquisition, synthesis, organization and presentation of information.
Topical research
A topical research study involves the
acquisition, synthesis, organization and
presentation of information. Typically, the
topical research study will involve both paperbased as well as web-based
resources. Additional information may be
gained through the other research methods
and strategies.












Gender development
Personality
Aboriginal spirituality
Cultural industries (Fashion, Music, Beauty)
Advertising
Prejudice
Aggression
Love
Attraction
Leadership
Stress
Eating disorders
What do I need to consider when doing topical research?










Prepare your research questions in advance: What kinds of information do you want to know?
Consider many different forms of information sources: Online websites, paper-based sources such as
encyclopedias, journals, magazines and newspapers.
If the case study is of a person who can be interviewed, review the following:
Prepare your interview questions in advance, and share them with the participant(s).
Tape record, or videotape record the interview.
Do not be afraid to ask questions if they arise during the interview, even if you did not have them listed
before the interview.
After the interview, you will need to transcribe (copy) exactly what was said during the interview. This can
be a very slow, and timing consuming process, but it is critical that you copy exactly what was said.
After you have copied out the interview, replay the interview again and compare it to your notes. Make any
corrections necessary.
Share the written copy of the interview with the participant to make sure that they agree with, and affirm
the contents of the interview.
Topical research studies may also include observational research, experiments and tests. Consider what
other types of research are appropriate.
What are the issues, or concerns in conducting topical research studies?



Completeness
Bias.
Would someone else who had not researched the topic be able to get a clear, correct picture of what the
43

topic was all about by reading your report?
Confidentiality.
What is the experimental method of research?
Experimental researchers manipulate variables, randomly assign participants to various conditions and seek to
control other influences.
Experimental research
Read 10 worst psychology experiments
(Edited version)
Experimental researchers take care to create
an environment in which they can make causal
statements. They manipulate variables,
randomly assign participants to various
conditions, and seek to control other
influences that could affect their research.
What do I need to consider when doing experiments?









Experimental research in psychology involves defining a research problem, describing a hypothesis,
describing the process to be followed, gathering data, analyzing the data, reporting the findings, and stating
conclusions in relation to the hypothesis.
Prepare your experiment in advance. Practice your procedure. Be sure that you have all of the materials
necessary to conduct the experiment.
Permission to conduct research. Does the participant(s) know that you are conducting an experiment? Do
you have their written permission?
Is the experiment safe? Will the participants suffer any physical, mental or emotional anguish? If so, do not
perform the experiment.
Discuss the experiment with your teacher. Your teacher will be able to guide and assist you to ensure that
the experimental procedure is correct, complete and valid.
Audiotape or videotape the experiment. This will help in data analysis, as well as provide some additional
information that may be of value when interpreting the data.
Ethics of the experiment. Is the experiment appropriate? Is the experiment safe?
Bias. Did I “add” to the test results by presuming or assuming something that was not written about, spoken
by or observed during the experiment?
Confidentiality. Be sure you have asked for their permission to be studied, and that they are aware of the
purpose and intended audience of the results of the experiment.
What materials will I need?


Journal, note paper, writing materials
Tape recorder, videotape recorder
44


List of materials needed, prepared beforehand.
Written permission forms
What is the survey method of research?
Conducting research using a survey involves going out and asking questions about the phenomenon of interest.
Survey
Conducting research
using a survey
involves going out
and asking questions
about the
phenomenon of
interest.











Should parents be legally permitted to spank their children?
Should parents be held accountable in some way for the behaviour of their children?
Should we abolish the military and use the money to fund social programs?
What, or who, are the primary influences on you?
Should animals be used for scientific research purposes?
What are the qualities you most admire in a friend?
Should the legal age to drive a car be raised to 18?
Should the legal age to consume alcohol be raised to 21?
Do you agree with euthanasia (mercy killing)?
Do you think we should reinstate capital punishment?
What is the most important quality in a parent?
What do I need to consider when doing surveys?





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Prepare your survey question(s) in advance, and share them with your teacher so that they can be checked
for accuracy and correctness.
If you need additional respondent information such as age, occupation or gender, be sure to include those
questions on the survey.
Who is your sample? Who will you be asking the questions to? Will you be getting the kind of information
you need from the people you are asking the questions of?
Is your sample size large enough? What sample size is appropriate?
Is your sample representative of the general population? Does it represent a balance between male and
female? Do you need to sample a particular age group or will a general survey be alright?
When will you be conducting your survey? How long will you be surveying? Will time lapse make a
difference?
How will the respondents answer? Will they record their responses on separate sheets of paper or will you
ask them the questions and then record their responses?
How will you present your findings? Will you convert the answers to a percentage? Will you be constructing
a bar graph or a pie chart?
If you are considering other factors such as age or gender, then you will need to go through the responses
again after you have completed the survey, based on those criteria.
Do the survey questions address the research question?
Are the survey questions clear?
Is my sample size of respondents large enough?
Have I surveyed a representative sample?
Apart from factors such as age, occupation and gender, are the respondents anonymous?
Is time a factor? How long should I survey? If I surveyed over a longer time period would that affect the
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results?
Are there other sources against which I could compare the survey results? For example, Taking The Pulse, or
Reader’s Digest Surveys?
Reliability: Reliability refers to the extent to which the research yields the same results each
time they are applied to the same issue (Baron et al., 1998, p. 459).
For instance, if we were conducting an observational study of the play behaviours of children
during recess, and our findings at the end of one study indicated that the boys were more
aggressive than girls, but when we repeated our study at a different school and we found the
opposite, that the girls were more aggressive than the boys, then we could not claim that our
study was reliable.
Validity: Validy refers to the extent to which a research methodology measures what it is
supposed to measure (Baron et al., 1998, p. 460).
Continuing with our example of the play behaviours of young children, is the observational
approach a valid means of studying the topic? Let’s say that we had chosen to do an interview,
and we interviewed the children and asked them questions about what happened at recess
time. Would this method be considered valid as a way to gain information from which we could
draw a conclusion? Probably not, or not as valid as directly observing them.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4B23nO4gcWE
Confidentiality is the right of privacy for subjects concerning their participation in research. All
steps must be taken to assure that subjects’ participation is confidential. If any possibility exists
that someone other than the researcher may have access to the data, the subject must be informed
of this possibility before they provide their informed consent to participate (Buskist et al., 2002,
p. 42).
Informed Consent requires that potential subjects understand exactly what is expected of them
during the course of the research and that the investigator protects participants from physical and
psychological discomfort, harm and danger (Buskist et al., 2002, p. 42).
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Debriefing requires that research participants be given full information about all aspects of the
study after they have participated in it, thus assuring that they leave with a full understanding of
its purpose, and receive a full disclosure of the information gathered (Baron et al., 1998, p. 31).
How do I make research more valid and reliable?
Scientific investigation includes the possibility that researchers’ procedures and/or biases may
compromise the validity of their findings. Researchers can, however, use a number of
techniques to increase the validity of their research:
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Sample size: To make statements about people in general, scientists study groups of individuals
chosen from populations. Each such group, called a sample, must be large enough to ensure
that a few extreme cases within the sample do not distort the picture it gives of the population.
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Representative sample: Data collected from one group of individuals may not be valid for other
people who are different in significant ways, such as in gender or ethnic background. Thus it is
important that every sample be a representative sample, that is, consist of people who are
typical of the general population the researchers wish to learn about.
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“Blind experimenters”: When experimenters have specific expectations about their research
findings, those expectations can affect the research results. As much as possible, therefore, the
people who actually gather the data should be “blind”, that is, unaware of the purpose of the
research.
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Operational definitions: When planning a study, researchers must establish operational
definitions of whatever phenomena they will be examining. That is, they must define each
variable in terms of specific, observable behaviour that can be measured with precision.
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Experimental and control groups: To test a hypothesis accurately in an experiment, researchers
must gather data on two samples that are similar in every important way except one. They
must compare an experimental group and a control group, which does not receive the
experimental treatment.
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Statistical significance: Whenever researchers find a difference between two groups, they have
to consider the possibility that the differences occurred purely by chance. Determining the
statistical significance is a mathematical measure of the likelihood that a particular research
result occurred by chance (Berger, 2000, p. 23).
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