SUBJECT: Chinese Art before 1280 (Survey Chapter 10)
RESOURCES
 Optional readings for this lecture:
Neil MacGregor’s A History of the World in 100 Objects
 MacGregor #23 (“Early Zhou dynasty gui ritual vessel”) 1100-1000 BCE
 MacGregor #30 ("Chinese Bronze Bell"). 500-400 BCE
 MacGregor #34 (“Chinese Han lacquer cup”). 4 CE
 MacGregor #39 (“Admonitions Scroll”) 500-800 CE
 MacGregor #50 (“Silk Princess Painting”) 600-800 CE
Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Civilizations
 Neolithic China pp. 82-3
 Shang China pp. 84-5
 Zhou China pp. 86-7
 The Unification of China pp. 88-9
 Optional video for this lecture:
“Engineering an Empire: China” video
The first 30 mins of the video describes the unification of China under the Qin dynasty,
and the various engineering feats they achieved to facilitate their initial dominance.
Post-video questions
What were some of the major structures undertaken in the early history of unified or
dynastic China?
 Response: The Great Wall of China, Canals, Terracotta Army
How did the Qin dynasty manage the first unification of China through, in part, these
building projects?
Response:
 Qin = mid 3rd century BCE (unification occurs 221 BCE)
 they were able to systematically make metal weapons, and so were able to
deploy vast amounts of well armed foot soldiers
 they supplemented this strategically with the use of soldiers on horses
 they were master of hydraulic engineering – they built levies to ensure food and
water for their armies (Li Bing – engineer)
 they also began projects like the Great Wall of China (begun 220 BCE) which
was added to by successive rulers. The wall demarcated their territorial
boundaries.
 Hydraulic engineering also plays a very important role in creating the Great
Canal which connects the East-west rivers with Beijing in the north and
Hangzhou in the south, making an important trade connection. Finished under
the Sui (581-618 AD).
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LECTURE NOTES
Key question for the lecture:
How were philosophical and political ideas conveyed through early Chinese art?
 We’ve already thought about how systems of belief (secular, religious,
philosophical) shape the design of/are manifested as art and architecture, and
how these beliefs can be co-opted for political use (eg. Ashokan pillars,
Byzantine mosaics).
 Here we’re going to take a very small portion of the artistic output of China and
think about how the art and architecture was influenced by the political
aspirations of rulers in these countries, by shared belief systems like
Confucianism and Daoism, and by the infiltration of Buddhism via the Silk Road.
Timeline: Our lecture will survey history and objects from the 3rd century BCE (the
unification of China under the Qin dynasty) to the 11th century CE (paintings from the
northern Song Dynasty).
Geography: The video will outline the first unification of China as a united territory by
the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. The terracotta army of this first emperor is located in
Shaanxi Province, in central China. We will consider the Silk Road, the trade networks
that connected China to the West that were initiated in the 2nd century BCE.
Historical outline (draw timeline on Whiteboard):
Neolithic China (5000-2000 BCE) – beginning agriculture, painted pottery
Shang China (1700 – 1100 BCE) – dev. of writing, bronze casting, birth of Confucius
Zhou China (1100 – 221 BCE) –peaceful period for 300 yrs, then Warring States
Unification of China under the Qin Dynasty (221 BCE)
Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)
Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE)
Mongol invasion – in 1279, the Mongols under Kublai Khan invaded China from the
north and founded the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368).
Objects covered:
Chinese Bell (Warring States period, 475BCE – 221BCE)
Terra-cotta Army of Shi Huangdi (210 BCE)
Chinese Han Lacquer Cup (4 CE)
Seated Buddha, Yungang (460 CE)
Admonitions to the Palace Ladies Hand Scroll (Six Dynasties period, 500-800
AD)
6. Fan Kuan, Travelers Among Mountains and Streams Hanging Scroll (Song
Dynasty, 11th century)
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OBJECTS
1. Chinese Bell (Warring States period, 475BCE – 221BCE) BBC resource & British
Museum Resource
Key idea: Confucianism
 This bell was made at the beginning of the Warring States period (475BCE –
221BCE).
 It is known as a bo, and has a handle in the shape of two dragons.
 It required great skill to make a bo (lost-wax casting) and bells of similar size
were not made in the west until a thousand years later.
 This bo would have been part of a set of bells of different sizes each playing
different notes. It is played with a hammer and plays two different notes
depending on where it is struck.
 The Warring States period = mid-5th century BCE through to 221 BCE when the
Qin united China.
 It was a time of political fragmentation and moral crisis in China where local
warlords competed for regional control.
 It was just before this time that Confucius developed his teachings.
Who was Confucius?
 Confucius was a scholar born into an aristocratic society (b. 551 BC – d. 479
BC).
 During his lifetime that warfare for supremacy was constant (during the Spring
and Autumn period – 8th through 5th centuries BCE - preceding the Warring
States period, and similarly unstable)
 Looking back at earlier, peaceful and orderly ages before him as a golden age,
he though about how a just and harmonious society could again emerge.
 His philosophy became central to Chinese thought and culture.
 Confucianism was a concern for humans and their place in society. There was an
emphasis on peace, prosperity and order.
Confucianism
 Rational political philosophy emphasizes deference, duty, discipline.
 Possible to better ones’ self through education (Confucius was a teacher)
 Confucianism offers an ethical system based on the correct relationship among
people.
Class question: What does the Neil MacGregor reading say about the Chinese
Bell as a visual manifestation of Confucian beliefs?
 Confucius was also a keen musician and saw in music the harmony he wanted to
achieve in society.
 So, while the bells could be an “audible sign of status” (they were costly to
make, so you had to be a rich patron to own one)
 They also stood for the idea that “music produces a kind of pleasure which
human nature cannot do without”
 And therefore the Confucian idea that “Music acts as a metaphor for a
harmonious society”
 The bells reinforce social hierarchy through promoting social harmony.
 This is more abstract than a leader making a hierarchical representation of
themselves as a God, or a depiction of them crushing their enemies.
 They commission art that advocates the status quo, the stable society that
benefits them, and the order that keeps them at the top.
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 Transition
The ethical/socio-political philosophy of Confucianism began in the 6th century BCE, but
was not adopted as the broader and official state belief system of China until the Han
Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE).
The Han Emperor made Confucianism the official state philosophy because of the
emphasis on social order and the respect for authority. It remained so until the end of
Imperial rule in the 20th century and the advent of Communism.
Before the Han though, came the Qin – the unifying dynasty of ancient China.
(Optional) WATCH VIDEO “Engineering an Empire” (26 mins)
2. Terra-cotta Army of Shi Huangdi (210 BCE) Smithsonian resource
Key idea: power/political unification of China
 For first time in its history, China united under single ruler, the Qin ruler Shi
Huangdi who reigned from 221-210 BCE (link: Palette of Narmer, unifies Egypt in
3100 BCE)
 To commemorate his rule, the emperor started building this tomb before his
death (like Egyptians, who prepared in advance)
 The resulting burial mound was always known to be that of the First Emperor.
However, local people in the Shaanxi province, northwest China, only discovered
the terracotta warriors that surround the burial site in March 1974, while
attempting to dig a well.
 The complex of underground vaults is still largely unexcavated, and stretches
across a 22-square-mile area.
 Three major pits are easily accessible, enclosed inside the four-acre Museum of
the Terracotta Army, constructed around the discovery site and opened in 1979.
 The soldiers were mass-produced from templates but then individually modeled
the facial features, suggesting the high level of craftsmanship and time that went
into their production.
 Between 6 – 6.5 ft tall. 8000 figures total on display at the museum.
 The terracotta figures include infantrymen, officers, generals, archer, and horses
and chariots.
 Other excavations have revealed clay figures of court officials, entertainers, and
animals.
Class question: why might a ruler like Shi Huangdi construct this type of
tomb?
 The First Emperor conquered and unified China with his army, so this large-scale
tomb, which the terracotta warriors “protected,” is fitting.
 Burial on such a grand scale indicates this was artwork intended as a
propaganda tool long after the emperor’s death.
 It reflects not just aesthetic objects, but the political and administrative system
created under the Qin, as well as what members of the elite would need in the
next life.
 The Qin’s supremacy over the Chu was achieved via their organized armies,
therefore this is a fitting tomb.
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 Transition
After this first unification under the Qin, in the succeeding Han Dynasty, the countries
borders were extended and secured and the Great Silk Road was established in around
200 BCE
The Silk Road was a network of land and waterways that linked China to Europe through
trade activity.
3. Chinese Han Lacquer Cup (4 CE) BBC Resource
Key idea: political diplomacy
Who were the Han Dynasty?
 China rivaled the Roman Empire in terms of wealth and size under the reign of
the Han dynasty (221 BCE - 220 CE).
 The Han established a central government and an efficient civil service, where
applicants were tested on their knowledge of the teachings of Confucius.
 The Han also began the state sponsorship of the reproduction of Confucian texts
This cup functioned as a political and diplomatic tool, given to assure loyalty
between the emperor and his far-flung local officials.
 Lacquer cups, like this one, were sometimes given by the emperor to an official
as a gift or in lieu of salary.
 An inscription on the bottom lists the six artisans that made the cup and the
seven product inspectors who guaranteed its quality.
 Inscription reads: “The wooden core by Yi, lacquering by Li, top-coat lacquering
by Dang, gilding of the ear- handles by Gu, painting by Ding, final polishing by
Feng, product inspection by Ping, supervisor-foreman Zong. In charge were
Government Head Supervisor Zhang, Chief Administrator Liang, his deputy
Feng, their subordinate Executive Officer Long, and Chief Clerk Bao."
 Powerful link between craft production (the cup) and state administration (its use
by the emperor as a diplomatic and political tool).
 Lacquer objects were expensive, this cup is said to be worth 10 bronze cups.
Lacquer objects were valued because they were time consuming to create.
 Lacquer is obtained from tree sap and a cup may require many coats.
 Creating a lacquer object, such as the Chinese Han cup, is a very painstaking
and time-consuming process with many thin layers of lacquer being applied with
special tools to a wooden core.
 On occasion as many as 300 coats may be applied and each layer must dry and
be polished before the next one can be applied.
 As lacquer hardens very slowly this may mean that only one layer can be put on
in a day.
 Lacquered objects are usually polished to a very high gloss and are extremely
durable.
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The richness of the color, the extraordinary craftsmanship involved and the fact
that raw lacquer is so toxic and difficult to use means that lacquer wares became
luxury items treasured by the upper class.
What does MacGregor tell us about the social and political function of this type
of object?
 “This cup comes from a turbulent period in the Han Dynasty, when at the
centre the emperor was under severe threat and, at the edges of the Empire,
he was struggling to keep control.
 The Han had extended Chinese power as far south as Vietnam, west to the
steppes of Central Asia and north to Korea, and in each of these places they
had set up military colonies.
 As Han commerce and settlements grew in these outposts, so their
governors gained in power, and there was always a risk that they might turn
into independent fiefdoms .
 The governors' loyalty to the Emperor needed to be secured. And one of the
ways the emperor kept them on-side was to give them gifts that carried huge
Imperial prestige.” (source: BBC)
 An object such as this one indicates “empire,” even when the great size of the
empire might not permit the ruler to be physically present. He could send
expensive gifts that bound his local administrators and officials to him.
 Transition:
In addition to burgeoning political administration of the Chinese Empire, and the ethicalpolitical belief system of Confucianism, Buddhism was brought to China along the trade
route that was begun under the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road.
Buddhism arrived in China as early as the 2nd century BCE (although more codified in
China from 1st century CE) and in Japan in the mid 6th century AD.
Buddhism engaged with existing belief systems in China (Daoism) and Japan (Shinto)
(and other countries like Tibet, where the indigenous religion was Bon) making its
spread much easier.
4. Seated Buddha, Yungang (460 CE) UNESCO Resource
Key idea: Buddhism
 Buddhism that was embraced by many during this time. It offered the promise of
a “life” after death in a time of constant warfare and material devastation.
 It also was less socially hierarchical that Confucianism (part of its appeal in India,
where the strict Vedic caste system was in effect).
 Buddhist shrines and caves were common along the Silk Road, and these caves
were part of a group made between the 5th and 6th centuries CE.
 There are a total of 252 caves and 51,000 statues at Yungang (just outside
Beijing in N. China).
 Small caves in upper area of rock were for monks/ passing pilgrims to shelter in.
Larger caves near the base were intended for shrines to the Buddha
 The Asian Art Museum in San Francisco created a short video that explains the
commissioning and function of these Buddhist shrines in China. The video
highlights the caves as both a demonstration of the spread of a new belief
system, and “political art on a grand scale.” Why? (Ans: the local Chinese rulers
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saw themselves as living Buddhas – the new belief system enhanced their ruling
administration)
Watch the Asian Art Museum video (4 min)
(Optional - Compare the to Bamiyan Buddhas and their destruction in
Afghanistan - WATCH)
 Transition:
The three-dimensional objects we’ve looked at (the bell, the terracotta army, the Han
cup, and the Buddhist shrine on the Silk Road) articulated political aspirations and new
systems of belief tied to the Empire.
To finish the lecture, we’ll look at two paintings that articulate political-philosophical
beliefs in two-dimensions.
5. Admonitions to the Palace Ladies Hand Scroll (Six Dynasties period, 500-800
AD)
Key idea: Confucianism as political commentary
Class question: What do you see? (class formal analysis through inquiry
discussion)
 The scroll painting illustrates a text of the same title
 It was painted to illustrate a poetic text written in 292 CE by the poet-official
Zhang Hua (232–300 CE).
 The text itself was composed to reprimand Empress Jia (disliked, villainous
Empress of the late 3rd century AD) and to provide advice to the women in the
imperial court.
 The painting illustrates this text with scenes depicting anecdotes about
exemplary behavior of historical palace ladies, as well as with more general
scenes showing aspects of life as a palace lady.
Look briefly at the rest of the Admonitions scroll on Wiki and as individual
slides.
Weave in observations from the class discussion to context below:
 The first scene shows the Lady Feng moving to protect her husband (the
Emperor) from a bear - showing that calmness of self, mind, and character are
very powerful
 Accompanying text: “When a black bear climbed out of its cage, Lady Feng
rushed forward. How could she have been without fear? She knew she might be
killed, yet she did not care.”
 The corresponding quotation from Zhang Hua's text is placed to the right of each
scene.
 Many copies have been made of this visual re-telling of the original story.
 Scene 5: Imperial litter and Lady Ban, etiquette and presenting the correct face
to society
 Accompanying text: “paintings of wise rulers always showed them in the
company of their ministers, whereas paintings of decadent rulers always showed
them in the company of their wives and concubines, and so it would be
inappropriate for her to be seen in public with the emperor.”
 Scene 6: mountain, presents metaphor for the impermanence of fame and glory.
 Huge importance placed on the landscape in Chinese art – has been the most
repainted part of this scroll because it was opened and touched so many times.
Nature = impermanence of humans in the face of nature, natural decay always
overtakes ruling ambitions.
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Confucian ideals of self-sacrifice and social duty shown through ideal
behavior of the women in the scroll
 Portrayed by using historical narrative to comment on a contemporary situation, a
metaphor rather than explicit criticism
 Intended for a discreet, chosen audience at first, but copied and circulated more
widely through this kind of scroll
Supplemental slide: HANDSCROLL/HANGING SCROLL FORMAT
 Scroll would not be fully unrolled, but read little by little, scene-by-scene
 Hanging scroll = fully open, whole scene seen at once
 The art of the brush – both calligraphy and ink painting – was hugely prized as a
learned, scholarly pursuit in China
 It took a great deal of practice to perfect the characters of the Chinese alphabet
(c. 50,000 characters. To read a newspaper today you’d need to know c. 3000
characters. A university professor might know 8000)
 Classical Chinese became the lingua franca of Asia, used in other Asian
countries – Japanese alphabet introduced in the 9th century; Korean only in the
15th century.
 Watch: San Francisco Museum of Asian Art Video of Chinese Calligraphy (4
min).
 Transition
Works like the Admonitions Scroll and our final painting, Travelers Among Mountains
and Streams by Fan Kuan (11th century, Song Dynasty, were therefore part of a
scholarly tradition of ink and brush.
6. Fan Kuan, Travelers Among Mountains and Streams Hanging Scroll (Song
Dynasty, 11th century)
Key idea: Taoism (& Buddhism/Neo-Confucianism)
Class question: What do we see? Landscape, many brushstrokes, vertical
format, can we see figures?
Q: Let’s look closer – what do we see? (Guide viewing toward the small mule
train in the lower right hand corner)
Q: What does the mule train add to the painting? Underlines the relationship
between man and the natural world
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The ptg of the landscape has a history in the Taoist practice of wandering
through the landscape for spiritual nourishment.
What is Taoism?
 Developed during the 4th century BCE during the Warring States period, Taoism
is a philosophical and religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish
harmony with the Tao (or Dao).
 The word "Tao" (or "Dao") is usually translated as "way", "path" or "principle",
although the word literally means "nature" as in the nature of all things as well as
the natural world.
 Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion,
moderation and humility
 Taoist thought generally focuses on nature.
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How are Daoist principles articulated in this painting?
 If one could wander through a painted landscape with one’s mind, the same
effect would be achieved as physically wandering through nature.
 Landscape appears strongly as a subject matter in painting in Song Dynasty
 Nature is seen as spiritually refreshing
 The Song dynasty is characterized as introspective. Foreshadowing the
impending invasion by Mongol forces in 1279 that would devastate China, the
country is invaded by the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria (to the north, just over the
Great Wall) and the Chinese court is pushed south.
 Guo Xi [pronun: Goo-oh See] was a court painter in the late eleventh
century. He left significant writings on the philosophy and technique of
landscape painting. In answer to the question, “Why landscape?”, he wrote:
“A virtuous man takes delight in landscapes so that in a rustic retreat he may
nourish his nature, amid the carefree play of streams and rocks, he may take
delight, that he might constantly meet in the country fishermen, woodcutters, and
hermits, and see the soaring of cranes and hear the crying of monkeys. The din
of the dusty world and the locked-in-ness of human habitations are what human
nature habitually abhors; on the contrary, haze, mist, and the haunting spirits of
the mountains are what the human nature seeks, and yet can rarely find. “
Note on perspective:
 What kind of perspective is used here? “Vertical perspective.” The ability of
a Chinese landscape to allow the viewer to wander freely is closely linked to the
absence of linear perspective. The goal of Chinese ptg is to provide a view
beyond what we normally see.
(Neo) CONFUCIANSIM
Paintings like this one also alluded to the ideas of Confucianism
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The individual brushstrokes stand for the millions of individuals in society coming
together to make a greater good
The natural world was used as a metaphor for social order, softening the
philosophy of Confucianism in the process by giving it a mystical/metaphysical
angle it had previous lacked.
The landscape thus articulated the Confucian social ideals of the elite, and their
cultural practices - this painting would have been considered at length by
scholars, its brushstrokes looked very closely as an extension of the prized art of
calligraphy
Such works do not record specific sties- the goal was to record the eternal
essence of “mountain-ness” etc. “Nature is vast and deep; high intelligence is
infinite and eternal.”
Through contemplation and education of nature, one would become
“enlightened” – the term was directly influenced by Buddhism entering China,
hence “neo” Confucianism.
BUDDHISM
 Although Song ptrs not necessarily Buddhists (Buddhism was still foreign), a
viewer could read the mountains as either a Confucian ruler with his attendants,
or a Buddha with his attendants.
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The ideas of social order and harmony, and the connection to nature also rang
true for the Buddhist faith, and indeed, this was a deliberate method of spreading
Buddhism – by making it seamlessly connect to existing faiths in neighboring
areas.
SLIDE: What relationship or response was the viewer meant to have with these
works? Was it the same in each case? What were the differences?
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Educated response (the viewer knows it’s Confucian/Daoism) which then
prompts a cerebral exercise in looking. Literary response when you read the
poem alongside seeing
Intimate relationship/response – (handscroll format demands a small audience
– what about the hanging scroll? What were the differences between the two?)
Time-based response – the handscroll unravels slowly, you take time to see the
detail in Fan Kuan’s work, repeated visits to the work, seeing it multiple times.
Aesthetic response – the beauty of nature, of courtliness, of Lady Feng’s
bravery, translated into visual action.
A direct tangible relationship with the work – if you were important then you
might stamp the work as your signature
You had a privileged relationship – you were part of an elite scholar class who
would understand these different responses and relationships with the work. Or,
part of court, part of upper ruling class in society.
Political relationship – did you recognize the implied criticism of the Empress in
the Admonitions Scroll?
CONCLUSION:
How were philosophical and political ideas conveyed through early Chinese art?
Confucian:
 Moral order of the Admonitions Scroll – Lady Feng is willing to sacrifice herself
 Based on a poem by a scholarly official of the court who is influenced by
Confucius’ tales of wifely virtue
 Therefore, based on the notion of correct relationships, duties, responsibilities,
ethics and etiquette between people in a social order
 There is a hierarchy, but there is also a sense of reciprocal responsibility
 In Fan Kuan’s work, idea of “everything in it’s place”
 The Bell evoked similar ideas of social order (like Ashoka, as a political tool to
impose ideas/ideals of order)
Taoism:
 The relationship between man and nature in Fan Kuan’s work – not a specific
site, stood for “all nature” + bigger relationship
 The prizing of the natural landscape in the Admonitions Scroll – the most
repaired part of the whole scroll
Buddhism
 The idea of being able to meditate using an image of nature to engender
enlightenment
 Monumental rock-cut Buddhas aiding in the dissemination of Buddhism along the
Silk Road
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Being aware of your place in the world and your relationships with others
The rise of Chen/Zen Buddhism in China (7th Cent. AD onwards) and later in
Japan promotes “direct” path to enlightenment that is not through theory or text
but “special transmission outside scriptures, not founded on words or letters.”
Images become key in this spiritual realization and self-actualization
Political
 The Great Wall of China, the canal systems, the Terracotta soldiers, and then the
bells = visual art and architectural structures are used in exactly the same
manner as we’ve seen thus far – to unite large (and often warring) populations
under one ruler or one cohesive belief system.
 To curry political favor and serve diplomatic ends in a large empire (Han cup)
 To monumentalize the ruler, even in death (Terracotta Soldiers)
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