The Old English Period
450-1100
One of two periods in the English Middle Ages, the other one being the Middle English Period
Political events
 The Roman invasion of Great Britain- After Rome invaded Britain, the Roman influence
began to change British culture.
 The Germanic invasion of Great Britain
 The Anglo-Saxons invaded in AD 400.
 The Norsemen invaded in AD 700-800s.
 The Normans invaded in 1066. As heir to the French throne, William of Normandy, the
Conqueror, introduced many elements of French culture to Britain.
The religious invasion of Great Britain.
 Primitive Christianity, 1st century- The Roman Catholic Church established influence in
the British Isles. However, the mysticism and tribal lifestyle of the British mixed with
the Catholicism to produce a mystic version of Christianity.
 Irish Catholicism, AD 432 (fall of Rome)- Patrick
 Strong Roman Catholicism, AD 597 (under Pope Gregory)
Political consequences
 As a result of all of the invasions, a national consciousness started to grow and take place
of the tribal mindset within Britain. Tribes began to mix and become the modern British
people.
 When William of Normandy invaded, England was ripe for a centralized government.
Religious consequences
 Dominance of Roman Catholicism
Cultural consequences
 National language became English, but the language was yet a cognate language, or
compilation of words from other languages. English changed from a runic language, or a
language of symbols, into a written language with a Latin alphabet. This was necessary
in order for the literature of Britain to develop. Several languages rose:
 Latin was associated with the church and international affairs.
 Scandinavian languages were associated with the common people
 French was associated with the upper-class
Anglo-Saxon Literature
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The first literature of the Anglo-Saxons was poetry rather than prose. It was not written, but
rather recited or sung.
Anglo-Saxon literature has five main themes:
1. The love of freedom;
2. Responsiveness to nature, especially in her sterner moods;
3. Strong religious convictions and a belief in Wyrd, or Fate; This was the most vital
element of their religion, this belief in a mysterious power that ruled the universe
and had a will stronger than man's will. This was typified in the goddess Wyrd, or
Fate.
4. Reverence for women; and
5. A devotion to glory as the ruling motive in every warrior's life.
Comitatus- the unquestioning loyalty of warrior to chief and of chief to warrior that
required the members of a warrior band to protect one another to death- it was a
disgrace to leave the battlefield before the other
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The Anglo-Saxon poet was called a scop.
The gleeman recited poems; he was not an original poet but a performer, a chanter, a harper,
and sometimes a jester and juggler.
Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon poetry.
1. Lines do not rhyme.
2. Four stressed beats per line (unstressed beats vary)
3. Each line is divided into two half-lines of two strong stresses by a decisive
pause, or caesura. (often indicated with a semicolon)
Heofon to hrofe
halig Scyppend
Heaven as a roof,
holy Creator;
4. Alliteration- the repetition of initial consonants, binds the two halves of each line
together.
- Hrofe and halig/ In a somer season, when soft was the sonne
5. Variation- repetition of an idea in different words in the same grammatical form. (Alpha
and Omega, the beginning and the end) common in the Bible, especially the Psalms
6. Periphrastic epithet- expressing ideas in a more elegant way
(“the finny tribe” for “fish,” the bleating kind” for “sheep”)
7. Kenning-type of periphrasis, expression of new ideas by word compounding.
- whale road for sea, ring-giver for king, the ringed prow for ship, pathless deep for
sea, wave-skimmer for boat, swan-road, bone-case, glee-wood, bone-rings
- Look for a hyphen!
Author: The Venerable Bede (673-735)
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He was a monk who is known as the Father of English history
Bede was an outstanding scholar from Northumbria which became the center of culture in
England in the seventh century with the founding of monasteries and schools.
He knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew and wrote over forty textbooks on a variety of subjects.
Bede’s most famous work is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, a five-volume
work that covers nearly 800 years of English history.
The book is about the spread of Christianity (Roman Catholicism) in England.
Bede popularized A. D.
Conversion of Edwin
* What does the phrase “cleansed together in Christ the Fount of Life” mean? refers to
baptism which was believed to remove guilt and penalty for all previous sins and essential
to salvation
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The council referred to in the work was called the witan and is the ancestor of the British
Parliament, particularly of the House of Lords.
What does Coifi say of their old religion? It seems powerless and valueless
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Why is Coifi willing to accept this new religion? low motive- personal advancement, so he
could be granted more honor and favor from this God and the king
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Why does the other counselor motion to accept the religion? desire for religious truth
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The counselor’s comparison of man’s life to the flight of a sparrow through a banquet hall in
winter implies ignorance of the answers the three basic philosophical questions, which only
the Scriptures can provide: Where did I come from? Where am I going? Why am I here?
- Very famous simile, Wordsworth used in "Persuasion"
Notice that the religion of the king becomes the religion of the realm.
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Caedmon’s Hymn
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Possibly the oldest surviving English poem.
Caedmon is known as the “cowherd of Whitby.”
Caedmon is known as the First English Poet.
The poem contains seven epithets for God. number of perfection
1. Guardian of the heavenly kingdom
2. Glorious Father (Father of glory)
3. Eternal Lord (God)
4. Holy Creator
5. Guardian of mankind (almighty preserver of the human race)
6. Lord Almighty
7. Eternal Lord
The poem progresses in content: It begins with God and the heavenly kingdom and
progresses to the created heavens over the earth, to the earth itself, and finally to man, for
whom God provided all this.
Psalm 19 is possibly the inspiration for this hymn of praise to God. Compare the two
versions if time.
Caedmon’s Hymn- Spaces indicate caesura
Nu sculon herigean
Heofonrices Weard
Now we must praise
Heaven-kingdom’s Guardian,
Meotodes meahte
And his modgepanc
The Creator’s might
And his mind-plans,
Weorc Wuldor-Faeder
Swa he wundra gehwaes
The work of the Glory-Father,
When he of wonders of every one,
Ece Drihten
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onstealde
Eternal Lord.
The beginning established.
He aerest sceop
Ielda bearnum
He first created
For men’s sons
Heofon to hrofe
Halig Scyppend
Heaven as a roof,
Holy Creator;
Beowulf Part 1
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Unknown author
Composed around 700 AD
The greatest of the Anglo-Saxon poems
The oldest surviving epic of any Germanic people
Meant to be listened to rather than read
Describes events from the 3rd and 4th centuries
The events in Beowulf do not take place in England, but in Denmark and southern Sweden, where
the Anglo-Saxon lived before they invaded England.
Mixes both Christian and pagan ideas- Tolkien, We as Christians need to learn to discover what is
good and bad In literature.
(God and the pagan goddess of destiny, Wyrd)
Some believe that an English writer (or possibly several) compiled the story and added the Christian
elements found in the pagan legend. (as seen on p. 18)
A folk epic
1. Long verse narrative
2. On a serious subject (exploration of the struggle of good and evil)
3. Told in a formal and elevated style (lofty language)
4. Centered on a on a heroic or quasi-divine figure on whose actions depend the fate of a nation
5. Grand in scope
6. Supernatural elements
We do not have many epics today due to several factors.
- The novel has replaced the epic in breadth. We have turned from the idealism of the epic to the
realism of the novel.
- We have lost our shared religious beliefs.
- We no longer look automatically for great heroes. Instead, we praise the underdog.
Circular structure (It begins and ends with the death of a king.)
Theme: Good vs. evil or more specifically a great leader saves people from grave danger
Beowulf is the ideal Anglo-Saxon hero.
1. Courageous
2. Super-human strength
3. Loyal
4. Devoted to duty
5. Stands for freedom and justice
External foes
1. Grendel (Part One)
2. Grendel’s mother (Part Two)
3. A dragon (Part Three)
Internal foes- still ours today
1. Pride (Parts One and Two)
2. Greed (Part Three)
The emphasis on internal foes shows another trait that it is common to epics, didacticism. Beowulf is
concerned with teaching.
The contest increases in difficulty as the hero’s strength wanes.
Notice in the poem:
1. The boasting of Beowulf
2. Examples of hyperbole (deliberate exaggeration)
3. Alliteration
4. Kennings
5. Caesura
6. Synecdoche (A part of something is used to signify the whole, or the whole is used to
signify a part.) bone-case, bone-rings
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Background
- Beowulf begins as a mysterious ship from an unknown country comes into harbor one day. It
brings an infant called Scyld (Shild) to the homeland of the Spear-Danes. This child later
becomes their king, and a good king he is. When he dies, his subjects clothe him in armor,
surround him with treasure, place him on a ship, and send him back to the sea. Years pass.
Scyld’s descendant Hrothgar wins great fame and wealth in battles with enemies. He builds the
greatest of mead halls, called Heorot (Hay oh rot), where his warriors may gather. Hrothgar feels
that he has earned peace, rest, and enjoyment of the riches he has won, but fate has other
things in store for him.
Beowulf Part 2
Vocabulary
1. scop – composers and storytellers of Anglo-Saxon poetry
2. moored – secure a ship
3. gables – decorative triangular-shaped roofing structures
4. wergild – "man-payment," a fine paid to the relatives of a murdered person to free the offender from
further obligations or punishment, the practice of paying a slain man’s family to atone for the deed
and to prevent them from taking revenge against the manslayer
- Before the events in the poem, Hrothgar paid a wergild to Beowulf ’s father. Hence, Beowulf
feels compelled to help Hrothgar in his time of need.
5. linden – soft light wood
6. mead – an alcoholic drink of fermented honey and water
7. vexed – irritated, annoyed
8. gorges – eats greedily
9. sentinel – a person or thing that stands watch
10. talons – claws
11. sinews – tendons
12. hoary – gray or white with age
13. pyre – a bonfire for burning a dead body
14. hoard – a hidden or carefully guarded supply or accumulation of valuables
15. scabbard – a sheath for a sword
16. runic – consisting or set down in an ancient alphabet used for writing Germanic script, especially in
Germanic languages, most often of Scandinavia and Britain from about the third to thirteenth
centuries
17. solace – to console or cheer
18. niggardly – reluctant to give or spend, stingy
19. skulked – moved stealthily
20. scruples – morals or ethical considerations that restrain one’s behavior and inhibits certain actions
Random Information
* It is most important that they remember that Beowulf represents the Geats and that Hrothgar
represents the Danes.
* Grendel is known as the son of Cain.
Summary
PROLOGUE TO PART 10 — GRENDEL’S FIRST ATTACK, BEOWULF’S ARRIVAL- In this section,
Hrothgar’s ancestors are briefly described. Herot is constructed, and Grendel attacks it. Beowulf hears of
the troubles at Herot and decides to help Hrothgar. Once he arrives, he is welcomed and feasted.
Unferth challenges Beowulf ’s reputation. Beowulf defends himself and attacks Unferth’s reputation.
Hrothgar makes note that before now he has never entrusted his hall to a stranger. Beowulf stays
awake, waiting for Grendel, as the rest of the hall settles into sleep.
PART 11 TO PART 18 — GRENDEL’S BATTLE WITH BEOWULF- Grendel attacks Herot again, killing a
Geat before Beowulf engages him in battle. Since no weapons can harm Grendel, Beowulf must fight
Grendel bare-handed, and the other warriors are unable to come to Beowulf ’s aid. Beowulf tears
Grendel’s arm off at the shoulder and hangs it from the rafters. Grendel escapes, though he is mortally
wounded. The next morning, there is a celebration in Herot. Warriors come from far-off lands. Some of
them trace Grendel’s retreat to the lake, boiling with Grendel’s blood. On the way back to Herot, a scop
recounts the story of Beowulf ’s victory and also tells the stories of Siegmund and Hermod. The scop’s
purpose is to show that Beowulf is comparable to Siegmund, an ancient hero. Hermod, however, was a
bad king who “spread sorrow” and “heaped troubles on his unhappy people’s heads.” The next morning,
there is a celebration in Herot. Hrothgar praises Beowulf. Beowulf wishes he had been able to kill
Grendel in the hall and keep the monster from escaping. Herot is cleaned, and Beowulf and his men are
rewarded with treasure. The scop tells the story of the Battle of Finnsburgh. Welthow and her two sons,
Hrethic and Hrothmund, pay homage to Beowulf. Once again, the hall settles to sleep.
PART 19 TO PART 26 — GRENDEL’S MOTHER- Grendel’s mother comes to Herot to avenge Grendel.
She escapes, taking Esher, Hrothgar’s trusted lieutenant. Hrothgar laments the loss of Esher, along with
the other sorrows Grendel and his mother have inflicted on Herot. He asks again for Beowulf’s help.
Beowulf agrees to avenge Esher. Hrothgar leads Beowulf and his own men to the bloody lake, the abode
of Grendel and his mother. The men discover Esher’s head on a cliff above the lake. Unferth gives
Beowulf his sword, Hrunting, and Beowulf dives into the lake to attack Grendel’s mother. After
swimming for hours, he finds her. Like Grendel, she is impervious to weapons — Hrunting is useless. In
the heat of battle, he finds a magic sword hanging on the wall and kills Grendel’s mother with it. He then
finds Grendel’s body and severs the monster’s head. When the men onshore see blood rise to the
surface of the lake, they assume Beowulf has been killed, and the Danes return to Herot. The Geats wait
sadly, believing the worst. Beowulf ’s magic sword melts, but he returns to shore with the hilt and
Grendel’s head, leaving behind massive amounts of treasure. Beowulf and the Geats take their “terrible
trophy” to Herot. Beowulf offers the magic sword’s hilt to Hrothgar, who warns Beowulf against pride
and selfishness. Beowulf and his men prepare to return home.
PART 27 TO PART 31 — BEOWULF’S RETURN TO GEATLAND- Beowulf and his men leave. Higd,
Higlac’s queen, is compared favorably with the proud and selfish Thrith. Beowulf and his men are
welcomed by Higlac, who asks Beowulf to tell him about the adventure at Herot. Beowulf caps his tale
with a presentation of his gifts from the Danes to Higlac. Years later, after Higlac and his son Herdred
die, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats.
PART 31 TO PART 43 — THE DRAGON AND BEOWULF’S DEATH- Beowulf gains the crown of Geatland
after the deaths of Higlac and Herdred. He has been a good and generous king for 50 years when a thief
rouses a sleeping dragon by taking a gem-studded cup. Unable to find the thief, the dragon vows
revenge and destroys Geatland. Beowulf blames himself for the tragedy, thinking he must have
somehow broken God’s law. He prepares to go to battle against the dragon, recalling his past successes
for motivation. He sets out to fight the dragon alone and is followed by a group of his men. During the
battle, Beowulf ’s shield is melted and his sword is broken. The rest of his men flee, but Wiglaf comes to
Beowulf ’s aid and slays the dragon. Beowulf dies in battle, and Wiglaf admonishes the Geats for their
desertion of Beowulf. In honor of their king, the Geats build a pyre for Beowulf.
Riddles
* What is the famous riddle in the Bible?
Samson, Judges 14:12-14
* What is the most famous riddle?
In Greek lore, a Sphinx once blocked the way to Thebes. She would give a riddle: "What walks on four
legs in the morning, on two legs at noon, and on three legs in the evening?" She strangled and
devoured anyone unable to answer. Oedipus solved the riddle: man — he crawls on all fours as a
baby, then walks on two feet as an adult, and walks with a cane in old age. Bested at last, the
Sphinx then threw herself from her high rock and died. An alternative version tells that she
devoured herself.
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Riddles are an ancient form of amusement and instruction for both the unlearned and the learned.
Some Old English riddles are versions of Latin riddles composed by early Anglo-Saxon churchmen.
Others are of unknown derivation. Together they exhibit a wide range of subject, style, purpose,
and tone. Many are easily decipherable, but some are baffling and probably unsolvable today. Some
seek lyrical grace; others, logical difficulty. Some exclusively entertain; others also instruct. The
latter show how poetry may combine seriousness and wit, pleasure and wisdom.
Riddle 1
* What is the answer?
Shield
* Which literary device does this riddle use?
Personification- the shield is speaking- riddle 1 marginal information on p. 36
* What is the theme of this riddle? (It is a common theme in Old English elegiac poetry.)
Silent suffering, steadfast endurance
Riddle 2
* What is the answer?
Bookworm
* What is the tone of this riddle?
Humorous and serious
* How is this riddle ironic?
The irony is directed against the ambition of poets and preachers seeking permanence and fame.
(Only the writing considered most worthy of preservation found its way into monasteries.)
* How can the answer be compared to some readers today?
Also, it is directed against the ignorant devourer of words: one who reads with not more
understanding and awareness of the importance of what he is reading than the lowly worm.
Riddle 3
* What is the answer?
Weathercock (weather vane)-Tell about our family’s weather vane.
* What is the theme of this riddle?
endurance
* Why does this riddle visualize the answer enduring a storm rather than enjoying a fair day?
Because that’s when it is most useful and helps emphasize the theme of endurance.
* When would a weather vane most likely be useful?
During a storm to tell the direction of the wind
* Why would it be especially important to a seafaring nation?
They depend on the wind for everything.
* How are riddles 1 and 3 similar in theme?
The riddle 1, the shield must endure the onslaught of spears and swords; and in riddle 3, the
weathercock must endure the elements of nature. In both riddles the subjects endure hardships
with a sense of resignation.
* What is the Christian view of this theme?
A Christian view of suffering, according to verses such as Acts 5:42, includes the element of joy in
tribulation. Also, our purpose in trials is much higher—the glory of God!
Riddle 4
* What is the answer?
Iceberg
* What do the words mother and daughter refer to?
Water in its liquid form, which both precedes and follows its frozen form in an iceberg
* What is the calling of the iceberg?
The shouting of the iceberg is its echoing the shouts of the mariners who are tempted by its beauty to
navigate closer than is safe.
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How can water be both a blessing and a curse?
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
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Exists in seven manuscripts beginning about 891 during the time of Alfred the Great, the founder of
English prose, and ending with the last entry of the Peterborough version in 1154.
It is a valuable source of English political, social, and linguistic (shows the development of the
English language over several centuries) history from the time of the Anglo-Saxon Alfred to the reign
of the Norman Henry II.
Victory of Canute
* Canute vs. Edmund Ironside
* How many armies did Edmund raise?
Five
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Notice that Edmund faced the following difficulties:
1. His father Ethelred lacked fortitude.
2. Edmund lacked prudence; he trusted foolishly in the wrong people.
3. Alderman Eadric lacked loyalty; he betrayed Edmund to Canute.
4. The English could travel only overland.
5. Danes could travel by sea.
6. Those living in the Danelaw region were loyal to Canute.
* What were the results of Canute’s victory? (last three paragraphs of the selection)
They gave hostages to each other.
Confirmed their friendship with both pledge and oath
Arranged the tribute for the Scandinavian army
King Edmund took possession of Wessex.
Canute took possession of Mercia.
Peace
The Character and Reign of William the Conqueror
* What is the author’s purpose in writing both positively and negatively about William according to
the last sentence of this selection?
“We have written these things about him, both good and bad, so that good men may take to
virtue and shun evil and go in the way that leads us to the heavenly kingdom.”—His purpose is
didactic, like other authors of this period.
* What is the author doing in the first paragraph of this selection?
Moralizing, death is a social leveler
* Who left behind him the three sons? (second paragraph)
Robert the Devil, Duke of Normandy
* What did the three sons get after their father’s death? (second paragraph)
Robbert got Normandy.
William got England.-considered less important than Normandy
Henry got rich.
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The writer was qualified to write about William because he was a member of the court.
* What were William’s good points? (paragraph 3)
Wise and powerful
Built a splendid monastery
Built Canterbury Church
Peace- (conquered Wales and Scotland, would have Ireland too) William, though a tyrant, enforced
justice among his subjects. Notice the high value given to domestic peace. Tyranny, Englishmen
believed, is better than anarchy.
People could travel safely.
Low crime rate- no murder
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How many times did William wear the royal crown, and on what days did he wear the royal crown?
(third paragraph)
3 times
Easter in Winchester
Pentecost in Westminster
Christmas in Gloucester
* What were William’s bad points? (fourth paragraph)
Covetous
Proud
Very fierce so no one dared disobey
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What rule did William establish according to the poem in this selection? What were the
consequences for disobeying this rule? (ending poem)
No one could hunt deer, boar, or hares; or they would be blinded.