http://www.teachersnetwork.org/ntol/howto/adjust/effective.htm
Effective Instructional Strategies by Sharon Longert
Students need to have a focus to be successful learners. It is the teacher who guides the student to have a focus.
To focus a student to a particular task, skill, or strategy the teacher needs to fully explain the task, skill, or
strategy. Students don’t retain much information when they are told; they need scaffolds and supports to process
information. As teachers we need to…..” ask ourselves whether we are explaining or telling.” (Fisher and Frey,
2008)
Students need to be aware of the thinking process of the teacher. The mini-lesson/lecture in the middle and the
high school classroom should contain new terms and concepts and allow students to draw conclusions from the
ideas otherwise they could read the information in a book. Before the students are focused, they need to
understand the purpose for the lesson. At this time the teacher connects the previously learned information to
the reason for the new information; reminds students of correlated written and social skills and presents a
synopsis of what the students will be doing. Two methods of focusing are modeling and
demonstration. Modeling emphasizes how a task, skill, or strategy is accomplished. Demonstration uses a
combination of verbal and visual elements to accomplish a task, skill, or strategy.
Modeling







Name the particular task, skill, or strategy: “Today we will learn how to solve equations.”
State the purpose of the task, skill, or strategy: “When you work with a variable, you will need to solve
equations.”
Explain when the skill or strategy is used: “When you want to complete a number sentence with an unknown
variable, you will be solving an equation.”
Use analogies to link their prior knowledge to the new skill: ”When you work with word problems, you often
have to find unknown numbers by using the information that is given.”
Demonstrate how the task, skill, or strategy is completed: “When you add/subtract the same number from both
sides of the equation, you can find the variable.”
Alert the learners about errors to avoid: “Make sure to add/subtract the same number form BOTH sides of the
equation.”
Access the use of the skill: “Now we will work on another equation together and review the steps.”
When the skill or strategy is modeled, not just told they gain a deeper understanding for when to apply it, what
to watch for and how to assess their own success.
Demonstration




Name all of the materials and explain their purpose in completion the final project.
Show the steps in “real time.”
Give alternative steps to the process ( “there is more than one way to ……”).
Discuss the possible errors by using a shortcut.
The demonstration includes the sequence of steps and the decisions that accompany each steps so the next step
makes sense. Errors to avoid are also noted to accomplish the task, skill or strategy.
After modeling and demonstrating the skill or strategy students can be led to know how and when to use their
new skills. They can self-assess and evaluate the approaches they use to connect the learning to the next new
skill that they learn. They can begin to travel on the road to self-directed learning.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., Better Learning Through Structured Learning: A Framework for the Gradual Release of
Responsibility, ASCD, 2008.
I hope you’ve found this article helpful. If you have a question or suggestion, don’t hesitate to e-mail
me.
Have a question or suggestion about how to
adjust your teaching styles to students' learning
style?
E-mail it to Sharon.
Sharon's articles on adjusting your teaching
styles to students' learning styles.
NEW Teaching Social Responsibility
Articles on Adjusting Your Teaching Styles to
Students' Learning Styles.
Including Children with Special Needs in Your
Classroom
Ed Clement
Including Children with Special Needs/ Cooperative
Groups
Ed Clement
The Arts and Education
Organizing the Learning Environment
Including Children with Special Needs/ Individualized
Instruction
Ed Clement
Effective Lesson Planning
Strategies for Classroom Management
Brain Research and What Teachers Should Know
About the Differences In Boys and Girls as Learners
Theresa London Cooper
Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning
Feedback and Teaching
Meeting the Needs of Every Student with
Differentiated Instruction
Theresa London Cooper
Organization of Materials
Summer Reading
Effective Instructional Strategies
Activating Students' Knowledge of New Material
James Dallas
Debriefing During and After Instruction
James Dallas
Feedback and Homework
Teacher Behavior/Student Behavior
Helping Poor Readers Improve Reading and Writing
Skills
Benna Golubtchik
Before They Write
Teaching Students to Ask the Best Questions
Awareness of Differences: Economics
Teaching Students to See in Their Mind's Eye
Benna Golubtchik
Having a Successful Mainstreaming Experience
Benna Golubtchik
Organization
Remembering Sequences
Improving Memory Skills Part 1
Reinforcing Difficult Concepts
Benna Golubtchik
Recognizing Learning Styles
Benna Golubtchik
Improving Memory Skills Part 2
Responding to the Need of Adolescent Learners
Adolescents and Learning
Recognizing Students At Risk
Benna Golubtchik
Knowing and Caring About Your Students to Improve
Student Achievement
The High-Risk Learner
Judy Jones
Differentiation for Tweens
Improving Reading Responses
Lisa Kihn
Classroom Management
Using Differentiated Instruction
Students With Written Output Difficulties
Effective Questioning in the Mixed Ability Classroom
Assessment Strategies to Promote Learning
Teaching Tips
The Mixed Ability Classroom
Writing: More Than a Grading Device
Asking the Right Questions
Online Quiz and Test Taking as an Alternative to
Paper and Pencil Assessment
Katherine McNeil
Teaching a New Way to Multiply
Katherine McNeil
http://ww
w.internet
4classroo
ms.com/d
i.htm
Knowing Your Students as People
Lisa Peterson
Knowing Your Students as Learners
Lisa Peterson
Revisiting Life Experiences and Learning Goals
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
Helping Your Students Tackle Test-Taking Anxiety
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
Employing Literacy Strategies to All Content Area
Recurring Self-Reflections
Using Window Notes
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
Scaffolding
Classroom Connections to Real Life Experiences
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
The Basics of Adjusting Your Teaching Style to
Students’ Learning Styles
Science to Art
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
Know What They Know
Daily Classroom Specials
Lesson Plans
Learning Independently
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
The Differentiating Tool of Choice
Sharon Pettey-Taylor
Keeping Students Engaged in Learning with Marker
Boards
Nancy Powell
Reaching an Audio Learner with MP3 Files
Nancy Powell
Home | Grade Level Help | Links for K-12 Teachers | Technology Tutorials | Assessment Assistance | Daily Dose of the
Web | About Us
Differentiated Instruction
Instructional Theory | Practical Tips | Multi links | Sample Units | Other Documents
Page last edited 5/31/2009
Learning Styles
1. Find your strengths - determine which intelligences are strongest for you
2. Learning Styles Inventory Test - a quick questionnaire designed to determine your personal learning style
3. Learning Styles Test - more detailed questionnaire with explanations and help to address the weakness and
strengths, results shown on a continuum
4. Learning Styles - for younger children; This chart helps you determine your learning style.
5. Multiple Intelligence - Take this survey online to see your learning style
6. Multiple Intelligences Inventory - a snapshot in time of an individual's perceived MI preferences
7. Multiple Intellegent Snowflake - Interactive activity designed to show that everyone has all of the Intellegents in
various degrees.
8. Paragon Learning Style Inventory - a self-administered survey that provides a very reliable indication of learning
style and cognitive preference
Instructional Theory
1. AllKindsofMinds - "Take a close look at the skills that must be mastered, the neurodevelopmental factors that
may influence student's success, and common obstacles that students may encounter on the road to mastery"
2. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy - or Bloom's Revised Taxomony PDF Sheet to print - posters and explanations
3. Curriculum Differentiation - An overview of the research into the curriculum differentiation educational strategy
4. Differentiated Instruction - What is it?
5. Differentiated Instruction - list of websites; teaching strategies, lesson plans, understanding the basic concept
6. Differentiating Instruction - Finding Manageable Ways to Meet Individual Needs. When students are diverse,
teachers can either "teach to the middle" and hope for the best, or they can face the challenge of diversifying
their instruction.
7. Differentiated Instruction - Scavenger Hunt
8. Differentiated Instruction Resources - Links to handouts for skills and abilities in the classroom
9. Differentiating Instruction For Advanced Learners In the Mixed-Ability Middle School Classroom - By Carol Ann
Tomlinson
10. Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation - from CAST, the Center for Applied Special
Technology based on the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL).
1. Teaching Every Student
2. Tools and Activities - This section of Teaching Every Student supports strategic learning by offering
tutorials, tools, templates, and activities to help teachers put UDL into practice.
11. Differentiated Instruction - This article first appeared in Classroom Connect magazine, February, 2003. (posted
on Dr. Gus' site with permission from Classroom Connect)
12. Finding Lost Children Through Differentiated Instruction - Article - “If the work matches my needs, I do better.”
13. Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction - (by Carol Ann Tomlinson) striving to maximize the capacity of each
learner
14. Reconcilable Differences? Standards-Based Teaching and Differentiation - Standards-based instruction and
differentiated learning can be compatible approaches in today's classrooms. (from the magazine Educational
Leadership)
15. Towards inclusive schools: a study of how a teacher facilitate differentiated instruction -a long, scholarly paper
presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, Edinburgh, 20-23 September 2000.
16. What Differentiated Instruction Is, and Is Not
Practical Tips for the Classroom
1. Anchor Activities - what it is and how to use it in the classroom. Math Anchor Activities
2. Differentiated Instruction - from the Center on Human Policy; Disability Studies for Teachers
3. Differentiated Instruction - An approach to planning so that one lesson is taught to the entire class while
meeting the individual needs of each child. (also called Multi-level Instruction)
4. Differentiated Instruction Resources - Free downloads for teachers
5. Differentiated Instruction for Science - What does Differentiated Instruction look like in the Science classroom?
6. Differentiated Instruction in the English Classroom - Content, Process, Product, and Assessment
7. Dimensions of 'Differentiation' - overview of the different aspects of differentiation
8. Exit Cards - quick assessment tool for teachers to help them become more aware of student understanding of
concepts taught
9. Finding Manageable Ways to Meet Individual Needs
10. High School Help (from E-Subjects, Origami for the Mind) five practices which address communication and
organization
11. How to Differentiate Instruction - Plan for differences (scroll past the Teachnology membership index)
12. How to Work Effectively With a Heterogeneous Classroom - Follow the *flow* of instruction in a differentiated
classroom
13. Instructional and Management Strategies - many ideas to help individualize lessons
14. Layered Curriculum - an exciting and effective student-centered teaching method [This page opens in a new
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
window.]
Management of Learning and Differentiation - The management of learning for a range of individual differences
involves three main features: Space, Time, and People
Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction - article about how different classrooms incorporate DI ;
Nine different strategies for delivering differentiation in history - "The matching of work to the differing
capabilities of individuals or groups of pupils in order to extend their learning." Handbook for the Inspection of
Schools
Product Choices - List of ideas of products using either auditory, visual or tactile
Resources for Teachers - all sorts of activities and black line masters created for differentiating instruction in
your classroom posted by the West Bloomfield School District
Strategies for Differentiating
Teaching in mixed-ability classrooms- article from Mary Anne Hess
Ten Tips for Differentiation - for students who don't "get it," or don’t seem motivated or interested
Tiered Curriculum Project (from the Indiana Department of Education) - An index of example lessons for each
grade K-12
Tools for Differentiation - Best practices that have helped meet the varying needs of students.
Two Sides of the Same Coin - explanation and lesson plan of 8th grade
Using Technology to Support Diverse Learners - help teachers integrate technology into the curriculum to
support diverse learners.
Sample Units and Lessons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Board Game - Directions for a board game project.
Causes of the Civil War - a tiered lesson plan
Classrooms@Work -Models of effective technology integration.
Differentiation Information - This is a list of sample lessons organized by grade, in MS Word format. Number of
lessons: K (4), First (9), Second (1), Third (2), Fifth (4), and Eighth (2).
Differentiated Instruction Using Technology - an example lesson for upper elementary
Differentiated Learning Egyptian Project - Lesson plan for middle school a page to print
Differentiated Lessons for Teachers posted by Leon County
1. Elementary
2. Middle/High School
Patterns - Math Lesson - middle school
Photojournalism Tiered Lesson Plan ( grades 10-12 ) - In this lesson, students explore how photographs can be
interpreted as conveying rich stories to the beholder.
Sample Layered Curriculum Units posted by Dr. Kathie Nunley (the page starts with middle/high school but
includes most middle/high subjects as well as some K-6 units near the bottom of the page)
Social Studies - 2nd grade lesson - Community
Language Arts lesson - Heros and Heroines - 7th grade
Multi-Link Sites
1. Adjust Your Teaching Styles to Students' Learning Styles - a list of links from Teacher's Network
2. Differentiating Instruction - many articles (posted by the Arizona Department of Education)
3. Differentiated Instruction - from Social Studies Central
Other Documents (Word, PowerPoint, or Acrobat documents)
= a PowerPoint Show |
= a document to print |
= a Word document |
= Adobe Acrobat document
1. Chaos: Modeling Differentiated Instruction for Pre-service Teachers - The purpose of this article is to describe an activity
the authors developed meant to introduce the construct of differentiated instruction to pre-service teacher
candidates.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Curriculum Differentiation - The Maker Model
Differentiated Instruction - a thirty-six slide show about what DI is and what it is not
Differentiated Instruction in the Foreign Language Classroom - Meeting the Diverse Needs of All Learners
Differentiated Instruction in Science- Clone Wars - Gail B. Wartmann ; meet the needs of science students with a
variety of strengths, weaknesses and readiness.
7. Differentiated Learning within Groups - (13 slides)
8. Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction - "Students can take different roads to the same destination".
9. Sample Project list - Adapted to Learning Style and Student Interest - Topic of Study: Romeo and Juliet
10. Scence in All Sizes - Shannon Cde Baca;
Differentiated Instruction: A Research Brief for Practitioners University of Alberta
Home | Grade Level Help | Links for K-12 Teachers | Technology Tutorials | Assessment Assistance | Daily Dose of the
Web | About Us
Differentiated Instruction
Instructional Theory | Practical Tips | Multi links | Sample Units | Other Documents
Page last edited 5/31/2009
Learning Styles
1. Find your strengths - determine which intelligences are strongest for you
2. Learning Styles Inventory Test - a quick questionnaire designed to determine your personal learning style
3. Learning Styles Test - more detailed questionnaire with explanations and help to address the weakness and
strengths, results shown on a continuum
4. Learning Styles - for younger children; This chart helps you determine your learning style.
5. Multiple Intelligence - Take this survey online to see your learning style
6. Multiple Intelligences Inventory - a snapshot in time of an individual's perceived MI preferences
7. Multiple Intellegent Snowflake - Interactive activity designed to show that everyone has all of the Intellegents in
various degrees.
8. Paragon Learning Style Inventory - a self-administered survey that provides a very reliable indication of learning
style and cognitive preference
Instructional Theory
1. AllKindsofMinds - "Take a close look at the skills that must be mastered, the neurodevelopmental factors that
may influence student's success, and common obstacles that students may encounter on the road to mastery"
2. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy - or Bloom's Revised Taxomony PDF Sheet to print - posters and explanations
3. Curriculum Differentiation - An overview of the research into the curriculum differentiation educational strategy
4. Differentiated Instruction - What is it?
5. Differentiated Instruction - list of websites; teaching strategies, lesson plans, understanding the basic concept
6. Differentiating Instruction - Finding Manageable Ways to Meet Individual Needs. When students are diverse,
teachers can either "teach to the middle" and hope for the best, or they can face the challenge of diversifying
their instruction.
7. Differentiated Instruction - Scavenger Hunt
8. Differentiated Instruction Resources - Links to handouts for skills and abilities in the classroom
9. Differentiating Instruction For Advanced Learners In the Mixed-Ability Middle School Classroom - By Carol Ann
Tomlinson
10. Differentiated Instruction and Implications for UDL Implementation - from CAST, the Center for Applied Special
Technology based on the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL).
1. Teaching Every Student
2. Tools and Activities - This section of Teaching Every Student supports strategic learning by offering
tutorials, tools, templates, and activities to help teachers put UDL into practice.
11. Differentiated Instruction - This article first appeared in Classroom Connect magazine, February, 2003. (posted
on Dr. Gus' site with permission from Classroom Connect)
12. Finding Lost Children Through Differentiated Instruction - Article - “If the work matches my needs, I do better.”
13. Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction - (by Carol Ann Tomlinson) striving to maximize the capacity of each
learner
14. Reconcilable Differences? Standards-Based Teaching and Differentiation - Standards-based instruction and
differentiated learning can be compatible approaches in today's classrooms. (from the magazine Educational
Leadership)
15. Towards inclusive schools: a study of how a teacher facilitate differentiated instruction -a long, scholarly paper
presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, Edinburgh, 20-23 September 2000.
16. What Differentiated Instruction Is, and Is Not
Practical Tips for the Classroom
1. Anchor Activities - what it is and how to use it in the classroom. Math Anchor Activities
2. Differentiated Instruction - from the Center on Human Policy; Disability Studies for Teachers
3. Differentiated Instruction - An approach to planning so that one lesson is taught to the entire class while
meeting the individual needs of each child. (also called Multi-level Instruction)
4. Differentiated Instruction Resources - Free downloads for teachers
5. Differentiated Instruction for Science - What does Differentiated Instruction look like in the Science classroom?
6. Differentiated Instruction in the English Classroom - Content, Process, Product, and Assessment
7. Dimensions of 'Differentiation' - overview of the different aspects of differentiation
8. Exit Cards - quick assessment tool for teachers to help them become more aware of student understanding of
concepts taught
9. Finding Manageable Ways to Meet Individual Needs
10. High School Help (from E-Subjects, Origami for the Mind) five practices which address communication and
organization
11. How to Differentiate Instruction - Plan for differences (scroll past the Teachnology membership index)
12. How to Work Effectively With a Heterogeneous Classroom - Follow the *flow* of instruction in a differentiated
classroom
13. Instructional and Management Strategies - many ideas to help individualize lessons
14. Layered Curriculum - an exciting and effective student-centered teaching method [This page opens in a new
window.]
15. Management of Learning and Differentiation - The management of learning for a range of individual differences
involves three main features: Space, Time, and People
16. Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction - article about how different classrooms incorporate DI ;
17. Nine different strategies for delivering differentiation in history - "The matching of work to the differing
capabilities of individuals or groups of pupils in order to extend their learning." Handbook for the Inspection of
Schools
18. Product Choices - List of ideas of products using either auditory, visual or tactile
19. Resources for Teachers - all sorts of activities and black line masters created for differentiating instruction in
your classroom posted by the West Bloomfield School District
20. Strategies for Differentiating
21. Teaching in mixed-ability classrooms- article from Mary Anne Hess
22. Ten Tips for Differentiation - for students who don't "get it," or don’t seem motivated or interested
23. Tiered Curriculum Project (from the Indiana Department of Education) - An index of example lessons for each
grade K-12
24. Tools for Differentiation - Best practices that have helped meet the varying needs of students.
25. Two Sides of the Same Coin - explanation and lesson plan of 8th grade
26. Using Technology to Support Diverse Learners - help teachers integrate technology into the curriculum to
support diverse learners.
Sample Units and Lessons
1.
2.
3.
4.
Board Game - Directions for a board game project.
Causes of the Civil War - a tiered lesson plan
Classrooms@Work -Models of effective technology integration.
Differentiation Information - This is a list of sample lessons organized by grade, in MS Word format. Number of
lessons: K (4), First (9), Second (1), Third (2), Fifth (4), and Eighth (2).
5. Differentiated Instruction Using Technology - an example lesson for upper elementary
6. Differentiated Learning Egyptian Project - Lesson plan for middle school a page to print
7. Differentiated Lessons for Teachers posted by Leon County
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
1. Elementary
2. Middle/High School
Patterns - Math Lesson - middle school
Photojournalism Tiered Lesson Plan ( grades 10-12 ) - In this lesson, students explore how photographs can be
interpreted as conveying rich stories to the beholder.
Sample Layered Curriculum Units posted by Dr. Kathie Nunley (the page starts with middle/high school but
includes most middle/high subjects as well as some K-6 units near the bottom of the page)
Social Studies - 2nd grade lesson - Community
Language Arts lesson - Heros and Heroines - 7th grade
Multi-Link Sites
1. Adjust Your Teaching Styles to Students' Learning Styles - a list of links from Teacher's Network
2. Differentiating Instruction - many articles (posted by the Arizona Department of Education)
3. Differentiated Instruction - from Social Studies Central
Other Documents (Word, PowerPoint, or Acrobat documents)
= a PowerPoint Show |
= a document to print |
= a Word document |
= Adobe Acrobat document
1. Chaos: Modeling Differentiated Instruction for Pre-service Teachers - The purpose of this article is to describe an activity
the authors developed meant to introduce the construct of differentiated instruction to pre-service teacher
candidates.
2. Curriculum Differentiation - The Maker Model
3. Differentiated Instruction - a thirty-six slide show about what DI is and what it is not
4. Differentiated Instruction: A Research Brief for Practitioners University of Alberta 5. Differentiated Instruction in the Foreign Language Classroom - Meeting the Diverse Needs of All Learners
6. Differentiated Instruction in Science- Clone Wars - Gail B. Wartmann ; meet the needs of science students with a
variety of strengths, weaknesses and readiness.
7. Differentiated Learning within Groups - (13 slides)
8. Mapping a Route Toward Differentiated Instruction - "Students can take different roads to the same destination".
9. Sample Project list - Adapted to Learning Style and Student Interest - Topic of Study: Romeo and Juliet
10. Scence in All Sizes - Shannon Cde Baca;
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Learning_Styles.html
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Learning_Styles.html
Students preferentially take in and process information in different ways: by seeing and hearing, reflecting and
acting, reasoning logically and intuitively, analyzing and visualizing, steadily and in fits and starts. Teaching
methods also vary. Some instructors lecture, others demonstrate or lead students to self-discovery; some focus
on principles and others on applications; some emphasize memory and others understanding.
When mismatches exist between learning styles of most students in a class and the teaching style of the
professor, the students may become bored and inattentive in class, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the
courses, the curriculum, and themselves, and in some cases change to other curricula or drop out of school.
Professors, confronted by low test grades, unresponsive or hostile classes, poor attendance and dropouts, know
something is not working. They may become overly critical of their students (making things even worse) or
begin to wonder if they are in the right profession. Most seriously, society loses potentially excellent
professionals. To overcome these problems, professors should strive for a balance of instructional methods (as
opposed to trying to teach each student exclusively according to his or her preferences.) If the balance is
achieved, all students will be taught partly in a manner they prefer, which leads to an increased comfort level
and willingness to learn, and partly in a less preferred manner, which provides practice and feedback in ways of
thinking and solving problems which they may not initially be comfortable with but which they will have to use
to be fully effective professionals.
This site contains resources for a model of learning styles generally referred to as the Felder-Silverman model.
The model was originally formulated by Dr. Felder in collaboration with Dr. Linda K. Silverman, an
educational psychologist, for use by college instructors and students in engineering and the sciences, although it
has subsequently been applied in a broad range of disciplines.
Video of an interview with Richard Felder
Introduction to Learning Styles, a taped interview at California State University at Dominguez Hills.
Assessment of learning style preferences
The Index of Learning Styles is a self-scoring questionnaire for assessing preferences on four dimensions of the
Felder-Silverman model.
Descriptions of learning styles. A four-page handout that briefly explains the learning style preferences
obtained using the Index of Learning Styles.
Publications related to the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model
1. R.M. Felder and L.K. Silverman, "Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education," Engr. Education, 78(7),
674-681 (1988). The article that originally defined the Felder-Silverman model and identified teaching practices
that should meet the needs of students with the full spectrum of styles. The paper is preceded by a 2002 preface
that states and explains changes in the model that have been made since 1988.
2. R.M. Felder, "Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education," J. College
Science Teaching, 23(5), 286-290 (1993). An updated presentation of the Felder-Silverman model.
3. R.M. Felder and E.R. Henriques, "Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second Language Education,"
Foreign Language Annals, 28(1), 21-31 (1995). Application of the F-S learning style model to language education.
4. R.M. Felder and J.E. Spurlin, "Applications, Reliability, and Validity of the Index of Learning Styles," Intl. Journal of
Engineering Education, 21(1), 103-112 (2005). A validation study of the Index of Learning Styles.
5. T.A. Litzinger, S.H. Lee, J.C. Wise, and R.M. Felder, "A Psychometric Study of the Index of Learning Styles," J. Engr.
Education, 96(4), 309-319 (2007). Reliability, factor structure, and construct validity of the Index of Learning
Styles.
6. R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Understanding Student Differences." J. Engr. Education, 94(1), 57-72 (2005). An
exploration of differences in student learning styles, approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and
levels of intellectual development, with recommended teaching practices to address all three categories.
Publications related to other learning style models
1. R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Understanding Student Differences." J. Engr. Education, 94(1), 57-72 (2005). An
exploration of differences in student learning styles, approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and
levels of intellectual development, with recommended teaching practices to address all three categories.
2. R.M. Felder, "Matters of Style." ASEE Prism, 6(4), 18-23 (December 1996). Principles and applications of four
learning style models (Felder-Silverman, Kolb, and models based on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the
Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument). The paper concludes that the choice of a model is almost irrelevant:
teaching designed to address all dimensions on any of the models is likely to be effective, and all of the models
lead to more or less the same instructional approach.
3. R.M. Felder, G.N. Felder, and E.J. Dietz, "The Effects of Personality Type on Engineering Student Performance
and Attitudes." J. Engr. Education, 91(1), 3-17 (2002). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator was administered to 116
sophomore engineering students, whose progress through the curriculum for the next two years was monitored.
Type differences in various academic performance measures and attitudes were generally consistent with the
predictions of type theory. Active and cooperative learning improves the performance of MBTI types (extraverts,
sensors, and feelers) found in previous studies to be disadvantaged in the engineering curriculum.
4. R.M. Felder, "A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student Performance and Retention. IV. Instructional Methods
and Student Responses to Them," J. Engr. Education, 84(4), 361-367 (1995). Instructional methods designed to
reach the full spectrum of learning styles, as applied in an ongoing longitudinal study of engineering students.
5. R.M. Felder, G.N. Felder, and E.J. Dietz, "A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student Performance and Retention.
V. Comparisons with Traditionally-Taught Students" J. Engr. Education, 87(4), 469-480 (1998). Performance and
attitude differences between students taught with an active/cooperative learning model and students taught
with a traditional instructor-centered model.
The subsequent references focus on individual dimensions of student differences.
6. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 1. Stan and Nathan." Chem. Engr. Education, 23(2), 68-69 (Spring 1989). The
sensing learning and the intuitive learner.
7. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 2. Susan and Glenda." Chem. Engr. Education, 24(1), 7-8 (Winter 1990). The
sequential learner and the global learner.
8. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 3. Michelle, Rob, and Art." Chem. Engr. Education, 24(3), 130-131 (Summer
1990). Three different approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and the conditions that induce
students to take a deep approach.
9. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 4. Jill and Perry." Chem. Engr. Education, 25(4), 196-197 (Fall 1991). The
judger and the perceiver on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
10. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 5. Edward and Irving." Chem. Engr. Education, 28(1), 36-37 (Winter 1994).
The extravert and the introvert on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and to a good approximation, the active
learner and reflective learner on the Index of Learning Styles.
11. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 6. Tony and Frank." Chem. Engr. Education, 29(4), 244-245 (Fall 1995). The
thinker and the feeler on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
Send email to Richard Felder at rmfelder@mindspring.com
Return to Dr. Felder's home page
Students preferentially take in and process information in different ways: by seeing and hearing, reflecting and
acting, reasoning logically and intuitively, analyzing and visualizing, steadily and in fits and starts. Teaching
methods also vary. Some instructors lecture, others demonstrate or lead students to self-discovery; some focus
on principles and others on applications; some emphasize memory and others understanding.
When mismatches exist between learning styles of most students in a class and the teaching style of the
professor, the students may become bored and inattentive in class, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the
courses, the curriculum, and themselves, and in some cases change to other curricula or drop out of school.
Professors, confronted by low test grades, unresponsive or hostile classes, poor attendance and dropouts, know
something is not working. They may become overly critical of their students (making things even worse) or
begin to wonder if they are in the right profession. Most seriously, society loses potentially excellent
professionals. To overcome these problems, professors should strive for a balance of instructional methods (as
opposed to trying to teach each student exclusively according to his or her preferences.) If the balance is
achieved, all students will be taught partly in a manner they prefer, which leads to an increased comfort level
and willingness to learn, and partly in a less preferred manner, which provides practice and feedback in ways of
thinking and solving problems which they may not initially be comfortable with but which they will have to use
to be fully effective professionals.
This site contains resources for a model of learning styles generally referred to as the Felder-Silverman model.
The model was originally formulated by Dr. Felder in collaboration with Dr. Linda K. Silverman, an
educational psychologist, for use by college instructors and students in engineering and the sciences, although it
has subsequently been applied in a broad range of disciplines.
Video of an interview with Richard Felder
Introduction to Learning Styles, a taped interview at California State University at Dominguez Hills.
Assessment of learning style preferences
The Index of Learning Styles is a self-scoring questionnaire for assessing preferences on four dimensions of the
Felder-Silverman model.
Descriptions of learning styles. A four-page handout that briefly explains the learning style preferences
obtained using the Index of Learning Styles.
Publications related to the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model
1. R.M. Felder and L.K. Silverman, "Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education," Engr. Education, 78(7),
674-681 (1988). The article that originally defined the Felder-Silverman model and identified teaching practices
that should meet the needs of students with the full spectrum of styles. The paper is preceded by a 2002 preface
that states and explains changes in the model that have been made since 1988.
2. R.M. Felder, "Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education," J. College
Science Teaching, 23(5), 286-290 (1993). An updated presentation of the Felder-Silverman model.
3. R.M. Felder and E.R. Henriques, "Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second Language Education,"
Foreign Language Annals, 28(1), 21-31 (1995). Application of the F-S learning style model to language education.
4. R.M. Felder and J.E. Spurlin, "Applications, Reliability, and Validity of the Index of Learning Styles," Intl. Journal of
Engineering Education, 21(1), 103-112 (2005). A validation study of the Index of Learning Styles.
5. T.A. Litzinger, S.H. Lee, J.C. Wise, and R.M. Felder, "A Psychometric Study of the Index of Learning Styles," J. Engr.
Education, 96(4), 309-319 (2007). Reliability, factor structure, and construct validity of the Index of Learning
Styles.
6. R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Understanding Student Differences." J. Engr. Education, 94(1), 57-72 (2005). An
exploration of differences in student learning styles, approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and
levels of intellectual development, with recommended teaching practices to address all three categories.
Publications related to other learning style models
1. R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Understanding Student Differences." J. Engr. Education, 94(1), 57-72 (2005). An
exploration of differences in student learning styles, approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and
levels of intellectual development, with recommended teaching practices to address all three categories.
2. R.M. Felder, "Matters of Style." ASEE Prism, 6(4), 18-23 (December 1996). Principles and applications of four
learning style models (Felder-Silverman, Kolb, and models based on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the
Herrmann Brain Dominance Instrument). The paper concludes that the choice of a model is almost irrelevant:
teaching designed to address all dimensions on any of the models is likely to be effective, and all of the models
lead to more or less the same instructional approach.
3. R.M. Felder, G.N. Felder, and E.J. Dietz, "The Effects of Personality Type on Engineering Student Performance
and Attitudes." J. Engr. Education, 91(1), 3-17 (2002). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator was administered to 116
sophomore engineering students, whose progress through the curriculum for the next two years was monitored.
Type differences in various academic performance measures and attitudes were generally consistent with the
predictions of type theory. Active and cooperative learning improves the performance of MBTI types (extraverts,
sensors, and feelers) found in previous studies to be disadvantaged in the engineering curriculum.
4. R.M. Felder, "A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student Performance and Retention. IV. Instructional Methods
and Student Responses to Them," J. Engr. Education, 84(4), 361-367 (1995). Instructional methods designed to
reach the full spectrum of learning styles, as applied in an ongoing longitudinal study of engineering students.
5. R.M. Felder, G.N. Felder, and E.J. Dietz, "A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student Performance and Retention.
V. Comparisons with Traditionally-Taught Students" J. Engr. Education, 87(4), 469-480 (1998). Performance and
attitude differences between students taught with an active/cooperative learning model and students taught
with a traditional instructor-centered model.
The subsequent references focus on individual dimensions of student differences.
6. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 1. Stan and Nathan." Chem. Engr. Education, 23(2), 68-69 (Spring 1989). The
sensing learning and the intuitive learner.
7. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 2. Susan and Glenda." Chem. Engr. Education, 24(1), 7-8 (Winter 1990). The
sequential learner and the global learner.
8. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 3. Michelle, Rob, and Art." Chem. Engr. Education, 24(3), 130-131 (Summer
1990). Three different approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and the conditions that induce
students to take a deep approach.
9. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 4. Jill and Perry." Chem. Engr. Education, 25(4), 196-197 (Fall 1991). The
judger and the perceiver on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
10. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 5. Edward and Irving." Chem. Engr. Education, 28(1), 36-37 (Winter 1994).
The extravert and the introvert on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and to a good approximation, the active
learner and reflective learner on the Index of Learning Styles.
11. R.M. Felder, "Meet Your Students: 6. Tony and Frank." Chem. Engr. Education, 29(4), 244-245 (Fall 1995). The
thinker and the feeler on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
Send email to Richard Felder at rmfelder@mindspring.com
Return to Dr. Felder's home page
http://www.willamette.edu/cla/tec/styles.htm
Teaching and Learning Styles
On this page you will find links to websites that discuss classroom learning dynamics from both the
perspective of the instructor and the learner. The links are arranged by topic. To report broken links,
send an e-mail message to Michael Marks.
Theories of Pedagogy
"What Do We Know About Students' Learning and How Do We Know It?," a lecture by Prof. K.
Patricia Cross (UC-Berkeley), published on the website of the American Association for Higher
Education
Theories about learning, from Funderstanding.com
"Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory into Practice Database," from George
Washington University. TIP is a tool intended to make learning and instructional theory more
accessible to educators. The database contains brief summaries of 50 major theories of learning and
instruction. These theories can also be accessed by learning domains and concepts.
Teaching to Learn
"Teaching to Variation in Learning," an on-line guide from Brown University's Harriet W. Sheridan
Center for Teaching and Learning
"Instructional Design Models," by Prof. Martin Ryder, University of Colorado-Denver
Learning Styles
"Problem-Based Learning," from the Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction
"Learning Styles," a compendium of readings and sources from Prof. R.M. Felder (North Carolina
State University)
"Learning Modalities, Styles, and Strategies," from Virginia Commonwealth University
Active Learning
Active Learning Online, from Abiline Christian University's Adams Center for Teaching Excellence
The Active Learning Site-VARK VARK is a short, simple inventory that has been well-received by
students and faculty alike because its dimensions are intuitively understood and its applications are
practical. Its use has helped students to learn more effectively and faculty to become more sensitive
to the diversity of teaching strategies necessary to reach all students. Although copyrighted, VARK is
free for use in student or faculty development as long as attribution is given.
Teaching Critical Thinking
"Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts," by Peter A. Facione (Santa Clara University),
published on the website of the California Academic Press.
"Critical Thinking and Problem Solving," from the University of Tennessee-Chatanooga's Grayson H.
Walker Teaching Resource Center.
The Critical Thinking Source at the University of Minnesota's Center for Teaching and Learning
Services
Group and Cooperative Learning
"Further Notes on Group Behavior, Rapport, Trust, and Etiquette," by Laura Border (University of
Colorado). In the National Teaching and Learning Forum (Vol.6, No.5, August 1997).
"Working in Groups," from Harvard University's Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning.
"A Definition of Collaborative vs. Cooperative Learning," by Ted Panitz, London Guildhall University
"Guidelines for Group Learning," by David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson. From the University of
Oregon's Teaching Effectiveness Program
"Cooperative Learning," compendium of materials presented at the 1996 Instructional Excellence
Retreat sponsored by the University of Tennessee-Chatanooga's Grayson H. Walker Teaching
Resource Center
"Cooperative/Collaborative Learning for Active Student Involvement," excerpted from Teaching
Concerns magazine, 1992.
"Collaborative Learning," from the Wisconsin Center for Educational Research
The Collaborative Learning home page, maintained at Swarthmore College.
"Cooperative Learning," from Sherman Consulting.
Return to Teaching Resources Home Page
Here you'll find links to instruments designed to help you think more about teaching and learning styles.
Learning Styles
Learning Styles - This page contains some information re: learning styles.
Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire - A 44-question, online assessment that will return your results online.
Multiple Intelligences Quiz - A 40-question, online quiz designed to offer a profile of your intelligences.
Multiple Intelligences Quiz - Another quiz that will provide a score report online.
Multiple Intelligences Quiz for Children - A 35-item quiz written in kid-friendly language.
Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire
Barbara A. Soloman
First-Year College
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695
Richard M. Felder
Department of Chemical Engineering
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC 27695-7905
Directions
Please provide us with your full name. Your name will be printed on the information that is returned to you.
Full Name
For each of the 44 questions below select either "a" or "b" to indicate your answer. Please choose only one answer for
each question. If both "a" and "b" seem to apply to you, choose the one that applies more frequently. When you are
finished selecting answers to each question please select the submit button at the end of the form.
1. I understand something better after I
(a) try it out.
(b) think it through.
2. I would rather be considered
(a) realistic.
(b) innovative.
3. When I think about what I did yesterday, I am most likely to get
(a) a picture.
(b) words.
4. I tend to
(a) understand details of a subject but may be fuzzy about its overall structure.
(b) understand the overall structure but may be fuzzy about details.
5. When I am learning something new, it helps me to
(a) talk about it.
(b) think about it.
6. If I were a teacher, I would rather teach a course
(a) that deals with facts and real life situations.
(b) that deals with ideas and theories.
7. I prefer to get new information in
(a) pictures, diagrams, graphs, or maps.
(b) written directions or verbal information.
8. Once I understand
(a) all the parts, I understand the whole thing.
(b) the whole thing, I see how the parts fit.
9. In a study group working on difficult material, I am more likely to
(a) jump in and contribute ideas.
(b) sit back and listen.
10. I find it easier
(a) to learn facts.
(b) to learn concepts.
11. In a book with lots of pictures and charts, I am likely to
(a) look over the pictures and charts carefully.
(b) focus on the written text.
12. When I solve math problems
(a) I usually work my way to the solutions one step at a time.
(b) I often just see the solutions but then have to struggle to figure out the steps to get to them.
13. In classes I have taken
(a) I have usually gotten to know many of the students.
(b) I have rarely gotten to know many of the students.
14. In reading nonfiction, I prefer
(a) something that teaches me new facts or tells me how to do something.
(b) something that gives me new ideas to think about.
15. I like teachers
(a) who put a lot of diagrams on the board.
(b) who spend a lot of time explaining.
16. When I'm analyzing a story or a novel
(a) I think of the incidents and try to put them together to figure out the themes.
(b) I just know what the themes are when I finish reading and then I have to go back and find the incidents
that demonstrate them.
17. When I start a homework problem, I am more likely to
(a) start working on the solution immediately.
(b) try to fully understand the problem first.
18. I prefer the idea of
(a) certainty.
(b) theory.
19. I remember best
(a) what I see.
(b) what I hear.
20. It is more important to me that an instructor
(a) lay out the material in clear sequential steps.
(b) give me an overall picture and relate the material to other subjects.
21. I prefer to study
(a) in a study group.
(b) alone.
22. I am more likely to be considered
(a) careful about the details of my work.
(b) creative about how to do my work.
23. When I get directions to a new place, I prefer
(a) a map.
(b) written instructions.
24. I learn
(a) at a fairly regular pace. If I study hard, I'll "get it."
(b) in fits and starts. I'll be totally confused and then suddenly it all "clicks."
25. I would rather first
(a) try things out.
(b) think about how I'm going to do it.
26. When I am reading for enjoyment, I like writers to
(a) clearly say what they mean.
(b) say things in creative, interesting ways.
27. When I see a diagram or sketch in class, I am most likely to remember
(a) the picture.
(b) what the instructor said about it.
28. When considering a body of information, I am more likely to
(a) focus on details and miss the big picture.
(b) try to understand the big picture before getting into the details.
29. I more easily remember
(a) something I have done.
(b) something I have thought a lot about.
30. When I have to perform a task, I prefer to
(a) master one way of doing it.
(b) come up with new ways of doing it.
31. When someone is showing me data, I prefer
(a) charts or graphs.
(b) text summarizing the results.
32. When writing a paper, I am more likely to
(a) work on (think about or write) the beginning of the paper and progress forward.
(b) work on (think about or write) different parts of the paper and then order them.
33. When I have to work on a group project, I first want to
(a) have "group brainstorming" where everyone contributes ideas.
(b) brainstorm individually and then come together as a group to compare ideas.
34. I consider it higher praise to call someone
(a) sensible.
(b) imaginative.
35. When I meet people at a party, I am more likely to remember
(a) what they looked like.
(b) what they said about themselves.
36. When I am learning a new subject, I prefer to
(a) stay focused on that subject, learning as much about it as I can.
(b) try to make connections between that subject and related subjects.
37. I am more likely to be considered
(a) outgoing.
(b) reserved.
38. I prefer courses that emphasize
(a) concrete material (facts, data).
(b) abstract material (concepts, theories).
39. For entertainment, I would rather
(a) watch television.
(b) read a book.
40. Some teachers start their lectures with an outline of what they will cover. Such outlines are
(a) somewhat helpful to me.
(b) very helpful to me.
41. The idea of doing homework in groups, with one grade for the entire group,
(a) appeals to me.
(b) does not appeal to me.
42. When I am doing long calculations,
(a) I tend to repeat all my steps and check my work carefully.
(b) I find checking my work tiresome and have to force myself to do it.
43. I tend to picture places I have been
(a) easily and fairly accurately.
(b) with difficulty and without much detail.
44. When solving problems in a group, I would be more likely to
(a) think of the steps in the solution process.
(b) think of possible consequences or applications of the solution in a wide range of areas.
When you have completed filling out the above form please click on the Submit button below. Your results will be
returned to you. If you are not satisified with your answers above please click on Reset to clear the form.
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LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES
Richard M. Felder
Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering
North Carolina State University
Barbara A. Soloman
Coordinator of Advising, First Year College
North Carolina State University
ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS
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Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it-discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly
first.
"Let's try it out and see how it works" is an active learner's phrase; "Let's think it through first" is the
reflective learner's response.
Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone.
Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is hard for both learning
types, but particularly hard for active learners.
Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other may be
strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting you can jump
into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting you may never get
anything done.
How can active learners help themselves?
If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving
activities, you should try to compensate for these lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the members
take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what you will be asked on the
next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information better if you find ways to do
something with it.
How can reflective learners help themselves?
If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or no class time for thinking about new information,
you should try to compensate for this lack when you study. Don't simply read or memorize the material; stop
periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible questions or applications. You might find it
helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but
will enable you to retain the material more effectively.
SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS
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Sensing learners tend to like learning facts, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and
relationships.
Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and surprises;
intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent being
tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.
Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory)
work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with
abstractions and mathematical formulations.
Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more
innovative than sensors.
Sensors don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don't like "plugand-chug" courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.
Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be strong,
moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If
you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or
hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods
and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.
How can sensing learners help themselves?
Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are
in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask your instructor for
specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply in practice. If the teacher
does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or other references or by brainstorming
with friends or classmates.
How can intuitive learners help themselves?
Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to be in a
class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have trouble with
boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find the connections
yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient with details and don't
like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the entire question before you start
answering and be sure to check your results
VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS
Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and
demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more
when information is presented both visually and verbally.
In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and read
material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are visual learners,
which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual presentation were used
in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either visually or verbally.
How can visual learners help themselves?
If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any other
visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult reference
books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available. Prepare a concept
map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts
to show connections. Color-code your notes with a highlighter so that everything relating to one topic is the
same color.
How can verbal learners help themselves?
Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be particularly
effective: you gain understanding of material by hearing classmates' explanations and you learn even more
when you do the explaining.
SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS
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Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from
the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly
without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it."
Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be
able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the
big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.
Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone has
experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or not is what
happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the material but they can
nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the test) since the pieces they have
absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack good sequential thinking abilities, on the
other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after they have it, they may be
fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a
subject but may have trouble relating them to different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.
How can sequential learners help themselves?
Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and you have
an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty following and
remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by consulting references.
When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself in logical order. In the long run
doing so will save you time. You might also try to strengthen your global thinking skills by relating each new
topic you study to things you already know. The more you can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic
is likely to be.
How can global learners help themselves?
If you are a global learner, it can be helpful for you to realize that you need the big picture of a subject before
you can master details. If your instructor plunges directly into new topics without bothering to explain how they
relate to what you already know, it can cause problems for you. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that
may help you get the big picture more rapidly. Before you begin to study the first section of a chapter in a text,
skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming initially but it may save
you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of spending a short time on every subject every
night, you might find it more productive to immerse yourself in individual subjects for large blocks. Try to
relate the subject to things you already know, either by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by
consulting references. Above all, don't lose faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material,
and once you do your understanding of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply
it in ways that most sequential thinkers would never dream of.
Teaching Styles
Teaching Styles - This page is full of information about teaching styles. It is designed to help teachers think
about the ways their teaching styles will affect their ability to successfully offer online courses.
Teaching Styles Quiz - Take this little quiz to gain some insight into your teaching style.
True Colors Quiz - This quiz, based on the True Colors personality assessment, will give you some insight into
your preferences for relating with others.
Here is another version: Follow Your True Colors
Teaching Style Survey
(Grasha-Riechmann)
The following is a Grasha-Riechmann teaching style
survey. Respond to each of the items below in terms of
how you teach.
If you teach some courses differently than others, respond
in terms only of one specific course. Fill out another survey
for the course(s) that you teach in a different style.
Try to answer as honestly and as objectively as you can.
Resist the temptation to respond as you believe you should
or ought to think or behave, or in terms of what you believe
is the expected or proper thing to do.
Respond to questions below by using the following rating scale:
1 = strongly disagree | 2 = moderately disagree | 3 = undecided |
4 = moderately agree | 5 = strongly agree
1. Facts, concepts, and principles are the most important
things that students should acquire.
Response:
2.
Response:
I set high standards for students in this class..
1 = strongly disagree
3. What I say and do models appropriate ways for students to
think about issues in the content.
Response:
4. My teaching goals and methods address a variety of student
learning styles.
Response:
5. Students typically work on course projects alone with little
supervision from me.
Response:
6. Sharing my knowledge and expertise with students is very
important to me.
Response:
2 = moderately
disagree
3 = undecided
4 = moderately agree
5 = strongly agree
7. I give students negative feedback when their performance is Response:
unsatisfactory.
8. Activities in this class encourage students to develop their
own ideas about content issues.
Response:
9. I spend time consulting with students on how to improve
their work on individual and/or group projects.
Response:
10. Activities in this class encourage students to develop their
own ideas about content issues.
Response:
11. What I have to say about a topic is important for students to
acquire a broader perspective on the issues in that area.
Response:
12. Students would describe my standards and expectations as
somewhat strict and rigid.
Response:
13. I typically show students how and what to do in order to
master course content.
Response:
14. Small group discussions are employed to help students
develop their ability to think critically.
Response:
15. Students design one of more self-directed learning
experiences.
Response:
16. I want students to leave this course well prepared for
further work in this area.
Response:
17. It is my responsibility to define what students must learn
and how they should learn it.
Response:
18. Examples from my personal experiences often are used to
illustate points about the material.
Response:
19. I guide students' work on course projects by asking
questions, exploring options, and suggesting alternative
Response:
1 = strongly disagree
2 = moderately
disagree
3 = undecided
4 = moderately agree
5 = strongly agree
1 = strongly disagree
2 = moderately
disagree
3 = undecided
4 = moderately agree
5 = strongly agree
ways to do things.
20. Developing the ability of students to think and work
independently is an important goal.
Response:
1 = strongly disagree | 2 = moderately disagree | 3 = undecided |
4 = moderately agree | 5 = strongly agree
21. Lecturing is a significant part of how I teach each of the
class sessions.
Response:
1 = strongly
disagree
22. I provide very clear guidelines for how I want tasks
completed in this course.
Response:
2 = moderately
disagree
23. I often show students how they can use various principles
and concepts.
Response:
3 = undecided
24. Course activities encourage students to take initiative and
responsibility for their learning.
Response:
4 = moderately
agree
25. Students take responsibility for teaching part of the class
sessions.
Response:
26. My expertise is typically used to resolve disagreements
about content issues.
Response:
27. This course has very specific goals and objectives that I
want to accomplish.
Response:
28. Students receive frequent verbal and/or written comments
on their performance.
Response:
1 = strongly
disagree
29. I solicit student advice about how and what to teach in this
course.
Response:
2 = moderately
disagree
30. Students set their own pace for completing independent
and/or group projects.
Response:
3 = undecided
31. Students might describe me as a "storehouse of knowledge"
who dispenses the fact, principles, and concepts they need.
Response:
4 = moderately
agree
32. My expectations for what I want students to do in this class
are clearly defined in the syllabus.
Response:
5 = strongly agree
33. Eventually, many students begin to think like me about
course content.
Response:
34. Students can make choices among activities in order to
complete course requirements.
Response:
35. My approach to teaching is similar to a manager of a work
group who delegates tasks and responsibilities to
subordinates.
Response:
5 = strongly agree
1 = strongly
disagree
2 = moderately
disagree
36. There is more material in this course than I have time
available to cover it.
Response:
37. My standards and expectations help students develop the
Response:
3 = undecided
4 = moderately
agree
discipline the need to learn.
5 = strongly agree
38. Students might describe me as a "coach" who works closely Response:
with someone to correct problems in how they think and
behave.
39. I give students a lot of personal support and encouragement
to do well in this course.
Response:
40. I assume the role of a resource person who is available to
students whenever they need help.
Response:
Copyright 1976, 1987, 1990, 1996 by Anthony F. Grasha and Sheryl Riechmann-Hruska, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Oh 45221
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http://www.crlt.umich.edu/publinks/handbooks.php Michigan teaching and learning
http://educationalissues.suite101.com/article.cfm/teaching_to_the_learning_styles suite 101
http://ctl.stanford.edu/Tomprof/postings/464.html
http://ctl.stanford.edu/Tomprof/postings/464.html
"Clearly, preparing graduate students for teaching requires more than preparing them to
deal with different institutional settings and students; it requires crafting a training program
that prepares them for different learning and teaching styles from many gender and ethnic
perspectives-a veritable array of pedagogies."
Tomorrow's Professor Msg.#464 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES - THE
CULTURAL CONTEXT
Folks:
The posting below looks at some of the role cultural context plays in developing and using various teaching and
learning styles. It is from Chapter 7, Teaching, Testing, and Measuring Intelligence, Uncovering the Evidence That
Cultureal Context is Important, in Beyond Affirmative Action Reframing the Context of Higher Education, by Robert A.
Ibarra. The University of Wisconsin Press, 2537 Daniels Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53718. Copyright ©2001 The
Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.
Regards,
Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Information Technology and the Future of the Research University
Tomorrow's Teaching and Learning
------------------------------------ 1,754 words -----------------------------------TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES Uncovering the Evidence That Cultural Context is Important
Teaching is so fundamental to academics that we scarcely think about it. That, unfortunately, is also a fundamental
flaw in training graduate students. Traditionally, learning from the "master" meant acquiring knowledge, learning
research analysis and methodologies, and - if the graduate student is lucky-perhaps trying to teach if a teaching
assistantship is available. In the past this experience did not necessarily come with training or guidance, for learning
to teach relied mainly upon knowing the academic discipline well. Today higher education is beginning to realize that
knowing something well is simply not enough to teach it effectively. Thus graduate student programs, such as
Preparing Future Faculty (PFF), sponsored by the Association of American Colleges and Universities and the Council of
Graduate Schools, are being offered and are growing in both size and popularity at various graduate schools
throughout the country. Long overdue, these programs are immensely important for recontextualizing academia. One
goal is to change the pedagogy of teaching to match institutional types (i.e., two-year community colleges or fouryear liberal arts schools) and thereby change academic culture. PFF programs can focus on the contrasts and "cultural
gaps" encountered by junior faculty in both teaching and learning styles. Doing so reveals clues to what those
differences in cultural context and cognition are.
Galloway (1996), perhaps unintentionally, effectively demonstrated some of these pedagogical differences in the
published proceedings of recent PFF symposium held for graduate students at Howard University. In her symposium
presentation, "Coping with Cultural Differences in the Learning Process," Irelene Ricks, and African American graduate
student in political science, commented on unexpected teaching situations she has encountered:
What I began to discern with growing unease was a cultural difference in how the students engaged in the learning
process. Simply put, they were quiet, too quiet to my way of thinking. They were respectful and dutiful, but inactive
participants. I like open exchange> I am an interactive person, so I found myself developing little strategies to draw
them out (group presentations, debates) with little success. What this meant was that I had to modify my teaching
style to fit their learning style-something I was unable to do easily. Somehow we completed the semester with both
teacher and students trying to adjust (Galloway 1996, 34)
PFF students learn to teach in different types of colleges and to students from a variety of ethnic groups, and Ricks
does not tell us what the different cultural backgrounds of her students were. She just thought they were too quiet
and inactive. Regardless, Ricks has clear preferences for a more high-context teaching style-interactive, collaborative,
group-oriented learning activities- and for students who are more active in the classroom, a learning style that
researchers have found typical of African Americans (see also Brice-Heath 1983). Though one could argue this also
could be a difference in the teaching styles and expectations at small colleges versus large universities, for African
Americans something more may be involved. Confirming that African American schoolchildren tend to be cognitively
field sensitive and highly interactive learners, Shade suggests that "the group consciousness, cooperation, sociocentric,
and affective orientation that seems to underlie Afro-American culture has an effect on learning" as well (1982, 238).
Chambers, Lewis, and Kerezsi (1995) reiterate the difficulties minority faculty encounter when teaching majority
college students in this country. Evoking the findings of Rosalie Cohen (1969) and Hall (1976, 1984), among others,
Chambers, Lewis, and Kerezsi point out that at all levels of education in the United States the predominant analytical
style is that of the middle-class majority populations (1995, 48). They have found that conflicts between cultural
context and cognition make faculty less effective and can generate negative racial attitudes among students.
What Ricks is saying also points to another strategic mandate for high-context minority faculty-adapt to the culture of
the students and abandon and attempt to transform them to your cultural teaching perspectives. This is an uneasy
lesson that minority faculty soon learn, revealed in Rick's parting advice to others: "Don't try to change the culture-it
isn't broken and you don't need to fix it" (Galloway 1996, 35).
Clearly, preparing graduate students for teaching requires more than preparing them to deal with different
institutional settings and students; it requires crafting a training program that prepares them for different learning
and teaching styles from many gender and ethnic perspectives-a veritable array of pedagogies. Because such training
is probably the least developed component of higher education, programs like PFF are few. The American Association
for Higher Education (AAHE) in Washington, D.C., is dedicated to advancing college-level teaching and learning
programs. Historically, AAHE has fostered new initiatives for learning more about what constitutes a learning-centered
campus. The initiatives are not only innovative but aimed at reforming higher education in general (see E. Anderson
1993; Edgerton, Hutchings, and Quinlan 1991; Lambert and Tice 1993). Within a variety of new ideas on teaching and
assessment, some, like peer collaboration and review teaching (Hutchings 1996), are even headed in the direction of
accommodating high-context learners.
But even the mixture of programs and goals at AAHE appears to be missing major ingredients in the recipe for
enhancing faculty and student success-how cultural background affects teaching and learning. AAHE's programs never
even mention ethnic cultures, context, or cognition. The organization is not alone in this omission, for other
organizations that work to improve college teaching also do not incorporate these concepts in their programs.
This omission is not, however, the result of insufficient research on diversity and teaching/learning styles. In fact,
quite a few scholars and teachers have incorporated and developed pedagogical models centered around the diverse
learning styles of college students (see M. Adams 1992; Schmeck 1988; Tobias 1990). The problem is centered
around the compartmentalization, fragmented, somewhat low-context approach used to institute cultural change by
using these teaching and learning models.
Let me explain. A small portion of organizational initiatives and related literature on the topic acknowledges the
importance of multicultural research and researchers (J. Anderson 1997; J. Anderson and Adams 1992; M. Ramirez
1991; M. Ramirez and Castaneda 1974). Felder (1993) and Felder and Silverman (1998), for example, have
developed some very promising models that, although they may not highlight ethnic or gender diversity, incorporate
college students' learning styles so inclusively that the models closely match the needs of all high- and low-context
and field-sensitive and -independent students simultaneously.
The remarkable feature of Felder's "multistyle" approach is that is was created for teaching science, specifically, his
(inherently low-context) chemistry and engineering courses. The problem, however, is that many organizational
efforts, and much of the research on pedagogy mentioned earlier, fail to adequately address the core issue-how to
change all, not just a few, of the components of academic organizational cultures. This means doing more than simply
adding multicultural ideas piecemeal to a curriculum or to the pedagogy of teaching as if they were stand-alone
components; it means changing them systematically and synchronously along with other components within the
infrastructure of institutional culture itself. That is not an easy task.
Yet in a variety of ways educators can sense when the style of academic cultural systems is causing students to
disconnect. Lani Guinier senses a disconnect between teaching and learning that unfairly discriminates against female
students, especially in law school. Challenged because of her supposedly controversial views on minority voting rights
after she was nominated to head the civil rights division of the Justice Department in 1993, Guinier is now challenging
the traditional Socratic teaching style in law school classrooms (Mangan 1997). Her views reflect the same concerns
evident when high-context Latinos and Latinas are subjected to learning in predominately low-context educational
environments. Hall (1977, 106-8) describes legal procedures and trial law in the United States as an illustration of
how law has been overadapted to a low-context culture.
The importance of Guinier's book, Becoming Gentlemen: Women, Law School, and Institutional Change (1997), is that
she not only understands the problem but provides a way to create a more inclusive learning environment for women
and ethnic minorities. Although her intent is to change the learning process, she appears to be suggesting a way of
doing this that doe not compromise the long heritage of legal education and training. Her insights reach far beyond
gender differences.
Guinier illustrates the multiple teaching styles that can reframe the context of academia. (Guinier, of course, is writing
about women, but she says applies equally to men from high-context cultures.) She believes that women have
difficulties in law school-more stress, lower grades, fewer honors than men-because the traditional Socratic method is
designed to shape students into gladiator-like trial lawyers. In the classroom "a professor calls on students and asks
them a series of questions about a court decision in order to extrapolate the underlying legal principles" (Mangan
1997, A12). The problem, Guinier finds, is that this method unnecessarily belittles and intimidates women in a
combative, less-than-respectful atmosphere. Because the Socratic teaching method has become a deliberate one-onone sparring match between student and professor, its advocates believe it is ideal for preparing students to deal with
the unexpected. It also favors majority males, who are low context and more aggressive. "Women," Guinier argues,
"generally learn better through cooperative approaches [which are high context] than through adversarial ones,"
which are low context, and in an atmosphere of respect (i.e., student centered and high context) (1997, A12). In her
book she describes women who "participate only after listening to what others are saying. They see conversation as a
way of collaborating to synthesize information, rather than competing to perform or win" (in Mangan 1997, A12). The
Socratic method forces women, she says, to act like males; when they do, their self-esteem suffers.
In a brief description of Guinier's class Mangan tells us that Guinier has students sit in a semicircle, and she
encourages students with a number of high-context techniques and methods (1997, A13). She asks them to build
upon other students' comments, compiling and extending ideas in a collaborative process and tracking arguments
through what appears to be a comprehensive (rather than linear) thought process. In effect, her approach fosters a
more controversial process of social interaction. When challenges arise-and they do-they are between students and
not professor versus student. In a traditional classroom students usually sit in an auditorium facing the professor, with
little or no interaction among students. Guinier claims that this environment favors men and affects women (and men
from high-context cultures) adversely because they are reluctant to volunteer (1997, A13). Moreover, high-context
individuals take longer to adjust to and participate in a confrontational atmosphere.
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