Unit 1
ENGINEERING
LEAD-IN
Discuss the following questions:
What is engineering?
Why is it important for people?
What do engineers do?
READING
1. Read the text and explain the words and phrases in italics. Tell what engineering
is.
ENGINEERING
Engineering, term applied to the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and
natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied to the efficient use of
the materials and forces of nature. The term engineer properly denotes a person who has
received professional training in pure and applied science, but is often loosely used to
describe the operator of an engine, as in the terms locomotive engineer, marine engineer,
or stationary engineer. In modern terminology these latter occupations are known as crafts
or trades. Between the professional engineer and the craftsperson or tradesperson,
however, are those individuals known as subprofessionals or paraprofessionals, who apply
scientific and engineering skills to technical problems; typical of these are engineering
aides, technicians, inspectors, draftsmen, and the like.
Before the middle of the 18th century, large-scale construction work was usually placed in
the hands of military engineers. Military engineering involved such work as the preparation
of topographical maps, the location, design, and construction of roads and bridges; and the
building of forts and docks. In the 18th century, how-ever, the term civil engineering came
into use to describe engineering work that was performed by civilians for nonmilitary
purposes. With the increasing use of machinery in the 19th century, mechanical
engineering was recognized as a separate branch of engineering, and later mining
engineering was similarly recognized.
The technical advances of the 19th century greatly broadened the field of engineering and
introduced a large number of engineering specialties, and the rapidly changing demands of
the socioeconomic environment in the 20th century have widened the scope even further.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2004.
READING
1. Read the text about modern engineering trends and say what modern branches of
engineering are there and say about their importance. Make a short plan to the text.
MODERN ENGINEERING TRENDS
Scientific methods of engineering are applied in several fields not connected directly to
manufacture and construction. Modern engineering is characterized by the broad
application of what is known as systems engineering principles. The systems approach is a
methodology of decision-making in design, operation, or construction that adopts (1) the
formal process included in what is known as the scientific method; (2) an interdisciplinary,
or team, approach, using specialists from not only the various engineering disciplines, but
from legal, social, aesthetic, and behavioral fields as well; (3) a formal sequence of
procedure employing the principles of operations research.
In effect, therefore, transportation engineering in its broadest sense includes not only
design of the transportation system and building of its lines and rolling stock, but also
determination of the traffic requirements of the route followed. It is also concerned with
setting up efficient and safe schedules, and the interaction of the system with the
community and the environment. Engineers in industry work not only with machines but
also with people, to determine, for example, how ma-chines can be operated most
efficiently by the workers. A small change in the location of the controls of a machine or of
its position with relation to other machines or equipment, or a change in the muscular
movements of the operator, often results in greatly increased production. This type of
engineering work is called time-study engineering.
A related field of engineering, human-factors engineering, also known as ergonomics,
received wide attention in the late 1970s and the '80s when the safety of nuclear reactors
was questioned following serious accidents that were caused by operator errors, design
failures, and malfunctioning equipment. Human-factors engineering seeks to establish
criteria for the efficient, human-centered design of, among other things, the large,
complicated control panels that monitor and govern nuclear reactor operations. Among
various recent trends in the engineering profession, licensing and computerization are the
most widespread. Today, many engineers, like doctors and lawyers, are licensed by the
state. Approvals by professionally licensed engineers are required for construction of public
and commercial structures, especially installations where public and worker safety is a
consideration. The trend in modern engineering offices is overwhelmingly toward
computerization. Computers are increasingly used for solving complex problems as well as
for handling, storing, and generating the enormous volume of data modern engineers must
work with.
The National Academy of Engineering, founded in 1964 as a private organization, sponsors
engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages new research, and is
concerned with the relationship of engineering to society.
Contributed By: Henry Stark
Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2004.
Unit 2
BRANCHES OF ENGINEERING
LEAD-IN
Discuss the following questions:
What is common and different between different branches of Engineering?
What branch of Engineering would you like to work in? Explain why.
What branches of Engineering are connected with safety at workplace and taking care
about the environment?
What procedures do specialists do to decrease the risk of negative influence of
manufacturing products?
READING
1. Read the text and explain the words and phrases in italics.
2. Match the titles with
the texts marked A, B,
C, D etc. below:
A
Chemical Engineering
B Sanitary Engineering
C Electronics
D Communications and Control
D1 Geological and Mining
Engineering
D2 Aeronautical and Aerospace
Engineering
D3 Civil Engineering
D4 Electric Power and
Machinery
E Nuclear Engineering
F Electrical and Electronics
G Naval or Marine
Engineering
H
Computers
Engineering
I
Industrial or Management
Engineering
J Safety Engineering
K Mechanical Engineering
L Military Engineering
FIELDS OF ENGINEERING
The main branches of engineering are discussed below in alphabetical order. The engineer who
works in any of these fields usually requires a basic knowledge of the other engineering fields,
because most engineering problems are complex and interrelated. Thus a chemical engineer
designing a plant for the electrolytic refining of metal ores must deal with the design of structures,
machinery, and electrical devices, as well as with purely chemical problems.
Besides the principal branches discussed below, engineering includes many more
specialties than can be described here, such as acoustical engineering, architectural
engineering, automotive engineering, ceramic engineering, transportation engineering, and
textile engineering.
A ____________
Aeronautics deals with the whole field of design, manufacture, maintenance, testing, and
use of aircraft for both civilian and military purposes. It involves the knowledge of
aerodynamics, structural design, propulsion engines, navigation, communication, and other
related areas. ___ engineering is closely allied to aeronautics, but is concerned with the
flight of vehicles in space, beyond the earth's atmosphere, and includes the study and
development of rocket engines, artificial satellites, and spacecraft for the exploration of
outer space.
B ____________
This branch of engineering is concerned with the design, construction, and management of
factories in which the essential processes consist of chemical reactions. Because of the
diversity of the materials dealt with, the practice, for more than 50 years, has been to
analyze chemical engineering problems in terms of fundamental unit operations or unit
processes such as the grinding or pulverizing of solids. It is the task of the ____ engineer to
select and specify the design that will best meet the particular requirements of production
and the most appropriate equipment for the new applications.
With the advance of technology, the number of unit operations increases, but of continuing
importance are distillation, crystallization, dissolution, filtration, and ex-traction. In each unit
operation, engineers are concerned with four fundamentals: (1) the conservation of matter;
(2) the conservation of energy; (3) the principles of chemical equilibrium; (4) the principles
of chemical reactivity. In addition, ___ engineers must organize the unit operations in their
correct sequence, and they must consider the economic cost of the overall process.
Because a continuous, or assembly-line, operation is more economical than a batch
process, and is frequently amenable to automatic control, ___ engineers were among the
first to in-corporate automatic controls into their designs.
C ____________
___ engineering is perhaps the broadest of the engineering fields, for it deals with the
creation, improvement, and protection of the communal environment, providing facilities for
living, industry and transportation, including large buildings, roads, bridges, canals, railroad
lines, airports, water-supply systems, dams, irrigation, harbors, docks, aqueducts, tunnels,
and other engineered constructions. The ___ engineer must have a thorough knowledge of
all types of surveying, of the proper-ties and mechanics of construction materials, the
mechanics of structures and soils, and of hydraulics and fluid mechanics. Among the
important subdivisions of the field are construction engineering, irrigation engineering,
transportation engineering, soils and foundation engineering, geodetic engineering,
hydraulic engineering, and coastal and ocean engineering.
D____________
The largest and most diverse field of engineering, it is concerned with the development and
design, application, and manufacture of systems and devices that use electric power and
signals. Among the most important subjects in the field in the late 1980s are electric power
and machinery, electronic circuits, control systems, computer design, superconductors,
solid-state electronics, medical imaging systems, robotics, lasers, radar, consumer
electronics, and fiber optics.
Despite its diversity, ____ engineering can be divided into four main branches: electric
power and machinery, electronics, communications and control, and computers.
D1 ______________
The field of electric power is concerned with the design and operation of systems for
generating, transmitting, and distributing electric power. Engineers in this field have brought
about several important developments since the late 1970s. One of these is the ability to
transmit power at extremely high voltages in both the direct current (DC) and alternating
current (AC) modes, reducing power losses proportionately. Another is the real-time control
of power generation, transmission, and distribution, using computers to analyze the data fed
back from the power system to a central station and thereby optimizing the efficiency of the
system while it is in operation.
A significant advance in the engineering of electric machinery has been the introduction of
electronic controls that enable AC motors to run at variable speeds by adjusting the
frequency of the current fed into them. DC motors have also been made to run more
efficiently this way.
D2 _____________
____ engineering deals with the research, design, integration, and application of circuits
and devices used in the transmission and processing of information. In-formation is now
generated, transmitted, received, and stored electronically on a scale unprecedented in
history, and there is every indication that the explosive rate of growth in this field will
continue unabated.
____ engineers design circuits to perform specific tasks, such as amplifying electronic
signals, adding binary numbers, and demodulating radio signals to recover the information
they carry. Circuits are also used to generate waveforms useful for synchronization and
timing, as in television, and for correcting errors in digital in-formation, as in
telecommunications.
Prior to the 1960s, circuits consisted of separate electronic devices—resistors, capacitors,
inductors, and vacuum tubes—assembled on a chassis and connected by wires to form a
bulky package. Since then, there has been a revolutionary trend toward integrating
electronic devices on a single tiny chip of silicon or some other semiconductive material.
The complex task of manufacturing these chips uses the most advanced technology,
including computers, electron-beam lithography, micro-manipulators, ion-beam
implantation, and ultraclean environments. Much of the research in electronics is directed
toward creating even smaller chips, faster switching of components, and three-dimensional
integrated circuits.
D3 _____________
Engineers in this field are concerned with all aspects of electrical communications, from
fundamental questions such as “What is information?” to the highly practical, such as
design of telephone systems. In designing communication systems, engineers rely heavily
on various branches of advanced mathematics, such as Fourier analysis, linear systems
theory, linear algebra, complex variables, differential equations, and probability theory.
Engineers work on control systems ranging from the everyday, passenger-actuated, as
those that run an elevator, to the exotic, as systems for keeping spacecraft on course.
Control systems are used extensively in aircraft and ships, in military fire-control systems, in
power transmission and distribution, in automated manufacturing, and in robotics.
Engineers have been working to bring about two revolutionary changes in the field of
communications and control: Digital systems are replacing analog ones at the same time
that fiber optics are superseding copper cables. Digital systems offer far greater immunity to
electrical noise. Fiber optics are likewise immune to interference; they also have
tremendous carrying capacity, and are extremely light and inexpensive to manufacture.
D4 _____________
Virtually unknown just a few decades ago, ____ engineering is now among the most rapidly
growing fields. The electronics of computers involve engineers in de-sign and manufacture
of memory systems, of central processing units, and of peripheral devices. Foremost
among the avenues now being pursued are the design of Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI) and new computer architectures. The field of computer science is closely related to
computer engineering; however, the task of making computers more “intelligent” (artificial
intelligence), through creation of sophisticated programs or development of higher level
machine languages or other means, is generally regarded as being in the realm of
computer science.
One current trend in ____ engineering is microminiaturization. Using VLSI, engineers
continue to work to squeeze greater and greater numbers of circuit elements onto smaller
and smaller chips. Another trend is toward increasing the speed of computer operations
through use of parallel processors, superconducting materials, and the like.
E _____________
This branch of engineering includes activities related to the discovery and exploration of
mineral deposits and the financing, construction, development, operation, recovery,
processing, purification, and marketing of crude minerals and mineral products. The ____
engineer is trained in historical geology, mineralogy, paleontology, and geophysics, and
employs such tools as the seismograph and the magnetometer for the location of ore or
petroleum deposits beneath the surface of the earth. The surveying and drawing of
geological maps and sections is an important part of the work of the engineering geologist,
who is also responsible for determining whether the geological structure of a given location
is suitable for the building of such large structures as dams.
F ____________
This field pertains to the efficient use of machinery, labor, and raw materials in industrial
production. It is particularly important from the viewpoint of costs and economics of
production, safety of human operators, and the most advantageous deployment of
automatic machinery.
G _____________
Engineers in this field design, test, build, and operate machinery of all types; they also work
on a variety of manufactured goods and certain kinds of structures. The field is divided into
(1) machinery, mechanisms, materials, hydraulics, and pneumatics; and (2) heat as applied
to engines, work and energy, heating, ventilating, and air conditioning. The _____ engineer,
therefore, must be trained in mechanics, hydraulics, and thermodynamics and must be fully
grounded in such subjects as metallurgy and machine design. Some ____ engineers
specialize in particular types of machines such as pumps or steam turbines. A _____
engineer designs not only the machines that make products but the products themselves,
and must design for both economy and efficiency. A typical example of the complexity of
modern _____ engineering is the design of an automobile, which entails not only the design
of the engine that drives the car but also all its attendant accessories such as the steering
and braking systems, the lighting system, the gearing by which the engine's power is
delivered to the wheels, the controls, and the body, including such details as the door
latches and the type of seat upholstery.
H _____________
This branch is concerned with the application of the engineering sciences to military
purposes. It is generally divided into permanent land defense and field engineering. In war,
army engineer battalions have been used to construct ports, harbors, depots, and airfields.
In the U.S., _____ engineers also construct some public works, national monuments, and
dams.
____ engineering has become an increasingly specialized science, resulting in separate
engineering subdisciplines such as ordnance, which applies ____ engineering to the
development of guns and chemical engineering to the development of propellants, and the
Signal Corps, which applies electrical engineering to all problems of telegraph, telephone,
radio, and other communication.
I ___________
Engineers who have the overall responsibility for designing and supervising construction of
ships are called naval architects. The ships they design range in size from ocean-going
supertankers as much as 1300 feet long to small tugboats that operate in rivers and bays.
Regardless of size, ships must be designed and built so that they are safe, stable, strong,
and fast enough to perform the type of work intended for them. To accomplish this, a naval
architect must be familiar with the variety of techniques of modern shipbuilding, and must
have a thorough grounding in applied sciences, such as fluid mechanics, that bear directly
on how ships move through water. Marine engineering is a specialized branch of
mechanical engineering devoted to the design and operation of systems, both mechanical
and electrical, needed to propel a ship. In helping the naval architect design ships, the
marine engineer must choose a propulsion unit, such as a diesel engine or geared steam
turbine, that provides enough power to move the ship at the speed required. In doing so,
the engineer must take into consideration how much the engine and fuel bunkers will weigh
and how much space they will occupy, as well as the projected costs of fuel and
maintenance.
J ____________
This branch of engineering is concerned with the design and construction of nu-clear
reactors and devices, and the manner in which nuclear fission may find practical
applications, such as the production of commercial power from the energy generated by
nuclear reactions and the use of nuclear reactors for propulsion and of nuclear radiation to
induce chemical and biological changes. In addition to designing nuclear reactors to yield
specified amounts of power, ____ engineers develop the special materials necessary to
withstand the high temperatures and concentrated bombardment of nuclear particles that
accompany nuclear fission and fusion. ____ engineers also develop methods to shield
people from the harmful radiation produced by nuclear reactions and to ensure safe storage
and disposal of fissionable materials.
K _____________
This field of engineering has as its object the prevention of accidents. In recent years _____
engineering has become a specialty adopted by individuals trained in other branches of
engineering. _____ engineers develop methods and procedures to safeguard workers in
hazardous occupations. They also assist in designing machinery, factories, ships, and
roads, suggesting alterations and improvements to reduce the likelihood of accident. In the
design of machinery, for example, the _____ engineer seeks to cover all moving parts or
keep them from accidental contact with the operator, to put cutoff switches within reach of
the operator, and to eliminate dangerous projecting parts. In designing roads the _____
engineer seeks to avoid such hazards as sharp turns and blind intersections, known to
result in traffic accidents. Many large industrial and construction firms, and insurance
companies engaged in the field of workers compensation, today maintain safety
engineering departments.
L _____________
This is a branch of civil engineering, but because of its great importance for a healthy
environment, especially in dense urban-population areas, it has acquired the importance of
a specialized field. It chiefly deals with problems involving water supply, treatment, and
distribution; disposal of community wastes and reclamation of useful components of such
wastes; control of pollution of surface waterways, groundwaters, and soils; milk and food
sanitation; housing and institutional sanitation; rural and recreational-site sanitation; insect
and vermin control; control of atmospheric pollution; industrial hygiene, including control of
light, noise, vibration, and toxic materials in work areas; and other fields concerned with the
control of environmental factors affecting health. The methods used for supplying communi-
ties with pure water and for the disposal of sewage and other wastes are de-scribed
separately.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2004.
3. Translate the following word expressions and use the phrases you need to talk
about your specialty:
branch
field
to receive professional training in pure and applied science
occupations are known as crafts or trades
the main branches of engineering
engineering fields
most engineering problems are complex and interrelated
the principal branches
to meet the particular requirements of production
to have a thorough knowledge of smth.
most diverse field of engineering
to be in operation
a significant advance in smth.
unprecedented in history
rate of growth
to perform specific tasks
a revolutionary trend
the most advanced technology
to be concerned with all aspects of smth.
from fundamental questions to the highly practical ones
ranging from the everyday to the exotic
to bring about revolutionary changes
creation of sophisticated programs or development of higher level machine languages
to employ tools
to be fully grounded in such subjects as
to specialize in
to have the overall responsibility for designing and supervising
to perform the type of work intended for them
to have a thorough grounding in applied sciences
to find practical applications
to yield specified amounts of power
materials necessary to withstand the high temperatures
nuclear particles that accompany nuclear fission and fusion
to develop methods to shield people from the harmful radiation
to ensure safe storage and disposal of fissionable materials
to keep smth. / smb. from accidental contact with smth. / smb.
alterations and improvements to reduce the likelihood of accident
procedures to safeguard workers in hazardous occupations.
the prevention of accidents
a healthy environment
dense urban-population areas
3. Discuss the questions with your partner. Use phrases from ex. 2 to help you.
What branch of Engineering would you like to work in and why?
Speak about positive and negative features of different types of Engineering.
Name the principle branches of Engineering.
WRITING
Write about your specialty. Explain why you think it is so important for our society and what
contribution to it you will make. Use from 100 to 120 words.
READING
1. Read text 1. Explain why the biodiversity and environmental integrity of the world's
food supply is important to our survival.
Mind the meaning of the following words:
genetically modified organisms – генетически модифицированные организмы genetic
pollution – генетическое загрязнение biodiversity – биологическое разнообразие
Biosafety Protocol - Протокол по биологической безопасности
Text 1
Genetic Engineering
While scientific progress on molecular biology has a great potential to increase our
understanding of nature and provide new medical tools, it should not be used as justification
to turn the environment into a giant genetic experiment by commercial interests. The
biodiversity and environmental integrity of the world's food supply is too important to our
survival to be put at risk.
What's wrong with genetic engineering (GE)?
Genetic engineering enables scientists to create plants, animals and micro-organisms by
manipulating genes in a way that does not occur naturally.
These genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can spread through nature and interbreed
with natural organisms, thereby contaminating non 'GE' environments and future
generations in an unforeseeable and uncontrollable way.
Their release is 'genetic pollution' and is a major threat because GMOs cannot be recalled
once released into the environment. Because of commercial interests, the public is being
denied the right to know about GE ingredients in the food chain, and therefore losing the
right to avoid them despite the presence of labelling laws in certain countries.
Biological diversity must be protected and respected as the global heritage of humankind,
and one of our world's fundamental keys to survival. Governments are attempting to
address the threat of GE with international regulations such as the Biosafety Protocol.
2. Read text 2. Tell about the work of a military engineer.
Mind the meaning of the following words:
military engineer – военный инженер Improvised Explosive Devices – самодельные
взрывные устройства
defensive minefields – оборонительные минные поля
flood control - борьба с наводнениями
sappers – сапёры
maintenance - техническое обслуживание
under fire – под огнем
Text 2
Military Engineer
A military engineer is a soldier whose occupation involves military engineering. According to
NATO, "Military Engineering is that engineer activity undertaken, regardless of component
or service, to shape the physical operating environment." Military Engineering incorporates
support to maneuvre and to the force as a whole, including military engineering functions
such as engineer support to Force Protection, Counter - Improvised Explosive Devices,
Environmental Protection, Engineer Intelligence and Military Search. Military Engineering
does not encompass the activities undertaken by those 'engineers' who maintain, repair and
operate vehicles, vessels, aircraft, weapon systems and equipment."
The military engineer is primarily responsible for the design and construction of offensive,
defensive, and logistical structures for warfare. Other duties include the layout, placement,
maintenance and dismantling of defensive minefields and the clearing of enemy minefields
and the construction and destruction of bridges. In some cases an engineer may be
required to destroy something that that same engineer designed and constructed. In many
armies the military engineers are al-so called pioneers or sappers. There are also many
modern armies that use the term combat engineer to describe the military engineer well
forward in battle and under fire. For more modern aspects of military engineering and tools
of the com-bat engineering corps, see combat engineering. The construction, management
and maintenance of infrastructure is another responsibility associated with the military
engineer.
In some countries, the modern military may comprise engineering units in weapon design or
procurement, or of non-military civil engineering (e.g. flood control and river navigation
works) which are not covered by this article.
3. Read text 3. Tell about the profession of a nuclear engineer. Mention an important
field of nuclear engineering and its subfields.
Mind the meaning of the following words:
fusion – слияние field – поле (область)
nuclear fuel cycles – ядерный топливный цикл
a myriad – множество
x-ray – рентгеновский луч
capability – способность (возможность)
pipeline – трубопровод
Text 3
Nuclear engineering
Nuclear engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the application of the
breakdown (fission) as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other
sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. In the sub-field of nuclear
fission, it particularly includes the interaction and maintenance of systems and components
like nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants, and/or nuclear weapons. The field also includes
the study of medical and other applications of (generally ionizing) radiation, nuclear safety,
heat/thermodynamics transport, nuclear fuel and/or other related technology (e.g.,
radioactive waste disposal), and the problems of nuclear proliferation.
Smaller elements and other particles including neutrons
The United States gets about 18 % of its electricity from nuclear power plants. Nuclear
engineers in this field generally work, directly or indirectly, in the nuclear power industry or
for national laboratories. Current research in the industry is directed at producing
economical, proliferation-resistant reactor designs with passive safety features. Although
government labs research the same areas as industry, they also study a myriad of other
issues such as nuclear fuels and nuclear fuel cycles, advanced reactor designs, and
nuclear weapon design and maintenance. A principal pipeline for trained personnel for US
reactor facilities is the Navy Nuclear Power Program.
Nuclear medicine and medical physics
An important field is medical physics, and its subfields nuclear medicine, radiation therapy,
health physics, and diagnostic imaging. From x-ray machines to MRI to PET, among many
others, medical physics provides most of modern medicine's diagnostic capability along with
providing many treatment options.
4. Read text 4. Tell about the profession of a mechanical engineer. What fields does
mechanical engineering overlap with and where do mechanical engineers may also
work?
Mind the meaning of the following words:
mechanical engineering – машиностроение
industrial revolution - промышленная революция
composites - композиционные материалы
transport phenomena – явление переноса soft tissue mechanics - механика мягких
тканей.
Text 4
Mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the principles of
engineering, physics and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and
maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the
production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and
operation of machines and tools. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering
disciplines.
The engineering field requires an understanding of core concepts including mechanics,
kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, and electricity.
Mechanical engineers use these core principles along with tools like computer-aided
engineering, and product lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing
plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport
systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and others.
Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the industrial revolution in Europe in the
18th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around
the world. Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of
developments in the field of physics. The field has continually evolved to incorporate
advancements in technology, and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments
in such fields as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology. Mechanical engineering
overlaps with aerospace engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, electrical
engineering, petroleum engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, and
other engineering disciplines to varying amounts. Mechanical engineers may also work in
the field of Biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena,
biomechatronics, bionanotechnology and modeling of bio-logical systems, like soft tissue
mechanics.
5. Read text 5. Tell about the profession of an electrical engineer. What fields does
electrical engineering overlap with and where do electrical engineers can work?
What degree is usually the minimum education required for entering this field?
Mind the meaning of the following words:
airline navigation systems – навигационные системы авиапредприятия
dedicate his/her time – посвящать свое время
figuring out the purpose of smth. – обозначить цель чего-либо
prototype – прототип
be proficient in the use of a wide array of smth. – быть профессионалом в использовании
широкого спектра чего-либо
Text 5 What Does an Electrical Engineer Do? An electrical engineer has many
potential job functions but most work on designing products that are powered by or
produce electricity. Sometimes, an electrical engineer will dedicate his or her time
to a single electrical product. While there are millions of potential products an
electrical engineer may work on, some examples include medical technology,
cellular phones, handheld gaming systems, and air-line navigation systems.
When beginning a project, an electrical engineer usually starts by figuring out the
purpose of the product. He or she will then plan the circuitry and wiring of the
electronic components. A prototype is generally built on which extensive tests are
conducted in order to make sure the plans work as designed, and that all of the
components work well together. An electrical engineer might also test broken
products in order to find out where they went wrong and how the design can be
altered to prevent its recurrence. He or she might be responsible for examining
existing products that have no known or significant problems simply to uncover
whether they can be improved.
Often working in a group with other engineers, an electrical engineer must be proficient in the use of a wide array of engineering and design software and a variety
of laboratory equipment. He or she must also be able to provide detailed
instructions for the manufacture and use of the final product. The engineer is often
responsible for overseeing the installation of the product to ensure it is installed
properly and safely.
In order to become an electrical engineer, one must have a thorough knowledge of
engineering and technological concepts. He or she must be experienced in the use
of computers and electronics, as well as have a strong background in mathematics, physics, design, production, and processing. The effective electrical
engineer must also be able to troubleshoot problems, be effective at adapting to
new situations as they arise, think critically about potential solutions to problems,
and show great attention to detail.
In the United States, a bachelor's degree is usually the minimum education required for entering this field, but many electrical engineers also have master's or
doctoral degrees. These degrees are typically in the fields of engineering, applied
science, technology, science, or engineering management. Either degree must be
accompanied by professional certification prior to practicing as an electrical
engineer in the United States or Canada.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-does-a-electrical-engineer-do.htm
SPEAKING
1. Explain the following diagram.
2. Make a similar diagram representing any branch of engineering and its
subfields. Describe the diagram to your class.
3. Make a presentation about any field of engineering and present it to your
class.
Unit 4
MODERN INVENTIONS
LEAD-IN
Discuss the following questions:
What is invention?
What makes Engineering modern?
Why are developing technologies so important for modern life?
Why should Engineers be honest and responsible?
READING
1. Read the following oaths of Engineers and say what the main idea of the
oath is:
AN ENGINEER'S HIPPOCRATIC OATH [1]
I solemnly pledge myself to consecrate my life to the service of humanity. I will give
to my teachers the respect and gratitude which is their due; I will be loyal to the
profession of engineering and just and generous to its members; I will lead my life
and practice my profession in uprightness and honor; whatever project I shall
undertake, it shall be for the good of mankind to the utmost of my power; I will keep
far away from wrong, from corruption, and from tempting others to vicious practice;
I will exercise my profession solely for the benefit of humanity and per-form no act
for a criminal purpose, even if solicited, far less suggest it; I will speak out against
evil and unjust practice wheresoever I encounter it; I will not permit considerations
of religion, nationality, race, party politics, or social standing to intervene between
my duty and my work; even under threat, I will not use my professional knowledge
contrary to the laws of humanity; I will endeavour to avoid waste and the
consumption of non-renewable resources. I make these promises solemnly, freely,
and upon my honor."
[1] In: Ch. SUSSKIND, Understanding Technology, Baltimore and London: The
John Hopkins University Press, 1973, p. 118.
http://courses.cs.vt.edu/professionalism/WorldCodes/Hippocr.Oath.html#fn0
2. Read one more text about the code of ethics for engineers and say why
responsibility of engineers is so important for the world:
The Engineering Code of Ethics
Fundamental Principles
Engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering
profession by:
1. using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare;
2. being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public, their employers
and clients;
3. striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession;
and
4. supporting the professional and technical societies of their disciplines.
Fundamental Canons
1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the
performance of their professional duties.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in a subjective and truthful manner.
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful
agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.
5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services
and shall not compete unfairly with others.
6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor,
integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession.
7. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their
careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those
engineers under their supervision.
American Society of Civil Engineers, UC Berkeley Chapter 335 Davis Hall
asce@server.berkeley.edu
http://courses.cs.vt.edu/professionalism/WorldCodes/ASCE.html
SPEAKING
Discuss with your partner what qualities an engineer should have.
APPENDIX 2
TEXTS FOR TRANSLATION
Инженерное дело
Инженерное дело, инженерия (от фр. ingénierie, также инжиниринг от англ.
engineering, исходно от лат. ingenium — изобретательность; выдумка; знания,
искусный) — область человеческой интеллектуальной деятельности
(инжиниринговая деятельность), дисциплина, профессия, задачей которой
является применение достижений науки, техники, использование законов и
природных ресурсов для решения конкретных проблем, целей и задач человечества.
Иначе инженерия — это совокупность работ (услуг) прикладного характера,
включающая предпроектные технико-экономические исследования и обоснования планируемых капиталовложений, необходимую лабораторную и
экспериментальную доработку технологий и прототипов, их промышленную
проработку, а также последующие инжиниринговые услуги и консультации.
Американский Совет инженеров по профессиональному развитию (англ.
American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD)) дал следующее определение термину «инженерия»:
«Творческое применение научных принципов для проектирования или разработки структур, машин, аппаратуры, производственных процессов, или
работа по использованию их отдельно или в комбинации; конструирование
или управление тем же самым с полным знанием их дизайна; предсказание
их поведения под определёнными эксплуатационными режимами».
Инженерное дело реализуется через применение как научных знаний, так и
практического опыта (инженерные навыки, умения) с целью создания (в
первую очередь проектирования) полезных технологических и технических
процессов и объектов, которые реализуют эти процессы. Услуги по инженерии могут выполнять как НПО, так и независимые инжиниринговые компании.
Такие организации предлагают комплекс коммерческих услуг (инжиниринговых услуг) по подготовке и обеспечению процесса производства и
реализации продукции, по обслуживанию и эксплуатации промышленных,
инфраструктурных и других объектов, который включает в себя инженерноконсультационные услуги исследовательского, проектно-конструкторского,
расчётно-аналитического характера, по подготовке технико-экономических
обоснований, выработке рекомендаций в области организации производства
и управления.
История инженерного дела
Несмотря на то, что инженерные задачи вставали перед человечеством ещё
на самых ранних этапах его развития, инженерная специальность как
обособленная профессия начала формироваться лишь в Новое время.
Техническая деятельность существовала всегда, но чтобы инженерному делу
выделиться среди прочих, человечеству пришлось пройти долгий путь раз
вития. Лишь разделение труда положило начало этому процессу, и только
появление специального инженерного образования зафиксировало
становление инженерной деятельности.
Тем не менее возможно рассматривать многие достижения прошлого как талантливо решённые инженерные задачи. Создание лука, колеса, плуга
требовало умственной работы, умения обращаться с орудиями труда,
использования творческих способностей.
Множество технических решений и изобретений создавали как материальную
базу для последующего развития, так и формировали передаваемые из
поколения в поколение навыки и умения, которые, накапливаясь, становились
основой для последующего теоретического осмысления.
Особенную роль играло развитие строительства. Возведение городов,
защитных сооружений, религиозных построек всегда требовало самых
передовых технических методов. Скорее всего именно в строительстве
впервые появляется понятие проекта, когда для осуществления замысла
требовалось отделить идею от непосредственного производства, чтобы иметь
возможность управлять процессом. Сложнейшие сооружения древности —
Египетские пирамиды, Галикарнасский мавзолей, Александрийский маяк —
требовали не только рабочей силы, но и умелой организации технического
процесса.
К первым инженерам можно причислить древнеегипетского зодчего Имхотепа,
древнекитайского гидростроителя Великого Юя, древнегреческого скульптора
и архитектора Фидия. Они выполняли как технические, так и организационные
функции, присущие инженерам. Однако вместе с тем их деятельность
опиралась большей частью не на теоретические знания, а на опыт, а их
инженерный талант был неразделен среди прочих талантов: каждый инженер
древности, это, в первую очередь, мудрец, который совмещал в себе
философа, учёного, политика, писателя.
Первой попыткой рассмотреть инженерное дело как особый род деятельности можно считать труд Витрувия «Десять книг об архитектуре» (лат. De
architectura libri decem). В нём делаются первые известные попытки описать
процесс деятельности инженера. Витрувий обращает внимание на такие
важные для инженера методы как «размышление» и «изобретение», отмечает необходимость создания чертежа будущего сооружения. Однако большей частью Витрувий основывается в своих описаниях на практическом
опыте. В античные времена теория сооружений находилась ещё в самом
начале своего развития.
Важнейшим этапом в инженерном деле стало применение масштабных
чертежей. Этот способ развился в XVII веке и оказал сильнейшее влияние на
дальнейшую историю инженерии. Благодаря ему появилась возможность
разделить инженерный труд на собственно разработку идеи и её техническое
воплощение. Имея перед собой на бумаге проект какого угодно большого
сооружения, инженер избавлялся от узости взгляда ремесленника, за-частую
ограниченного только той деталью, над которой он трудится в данный
момент.
В Эпоху Просвещения начинаются попытки подвести под назначение размеров конструкций различные теории. Возникает как наука «сопротивление материалов», закладываются теоретические основы прочности материалов.
XVII век можно считать веком, в который инженерное дело, наконец, начало
формироваться в отдельную профессию. В 1601 году французский король
Генрих IV назначает Максимильена де Бетюна главным начальником артиллерии и инспектором всех крепостей. В 1602 году де Бетюн создаёт специальную группу армейских офицеров и официально закрепляет за ними обязанность возведения и ремонта фортификационных сооружений.
В гражданском секторе цеховая организация труда могла обеспечить мастеру инженерного дела регулярный доход. Применение технических знаний и
умений становится единственным средством дохода для многих лиц, и всё
это может говорить об институционализации профессии. Однако не доставало ещё двух важнейших факторов, без которых не существуют полного
признания любой профессии: отсутствовала система образования, готовящая специалистов (инженеров), и не существовало системы проверки и контроля профессиональной компетенции.
Следующим этапом развития инженерного дела можно считать появление
мануфактурных производств. Множество специализированных производств:
текстильное, металлургическое, металлообрабатывающее, судостроительное, производство бумаги и стекла, кожевенное и прочие — требовали разнообразных инструментов и механизмов, станков и зданий. Разделение труда на каждой мануфактуре приводило к ещё большим потребностям.
Развитие фабричной промышленности и введение патентной системы приводит к всплеску инженерного творчества. Растущим производствам требовались всё новые и новые изобретения, и стоящая техническая идея была
способна принести изобретателю немалый доход. Дальнейшее развитие
приводит к соединению инженерного дела с научным прогрессом, без идей
которого современное инженерное дело невозможно.
Развитие инженерного дела в России
При царе Иване Грозном введены разряды для военных людей строительного дела:
высший разряд — военные архитекторы-систематики, которые разрабатывают типы укреплений, оборонительные сооружения;
второй разряд — строители, под руководством которых осуществляется
строительство;
низший разряд — все остальные строители.
В 1557 году учреждается Пушкарский приказ — орган военного управления,
для которого были определены и инженерные задачи: руководство постройкой оборонительных сооружений, составление инструкций воеводам, руководящим военным строительством или обороной, составление смет на
строительство, проверка отчётности.
Пушкарский приказ становится первым учреждением в России, которое осуществляет контроль и регулирование инженерной деятельности. Принимае
мые на службу в приказ подразделялись на категории от инженеров, что
имели право самостоятельно разрабатывать проекты, до подмастерий и
«чертежщиков». Впервые инженерная деятельность разбивается на специализированные занятия: как отдельные виды работ выделяются конструкторская деятельность, экономическая деятельность (составление смет), управленческую, метрологическую.
Началом новой эры в инженерном деле России можно считать правление
Петра I, который сумел за время своего царствования создать целый корпус
профессиональных инженеров и заложить условия для инженерного образования. Перенимая прогрессивный опыт Европы, Пётр проводит коренное
переустройство технической политики. Именно при Петре появляется высшее техническое образование в России, создаётся промышленное законодательство, создаются органы, способные контролировать деятельность
инженеров (Берг-коллегия, Мануфактур-коллегия), выделяется особый инженерный род войск.
APPENDIX 3
GLOSSARY
Design - дизайн,
Aircraft - авиация,
Fluid - жидкость,
Propulsion - импульс,
Guidance - руководство,
Operation - управление,
Operation - управление,
Deal - сделка,
Storage - хранение,
Relevant - уместный,
Applied - прикладной,
Essential - существенный,
Properties - свойства,
Petroleum - нефть,
Refining - рафинирование,
Fertilizer - удобрение,
Fibres - волокна,
Civil - гражданский,
Disposal - распоряжение,
Concerned - обеспокоенный,
Application - применение,
Branch - филиал,
Issues - вопросы,
Employ - устраивать на работу,
Mean - значение,
Development - развитие,
Petrol - топливо,
Solve problems - решение проблем,
Distribution - распределение,
Toxic materials - токсичные материалы,
Tools - инструменты,
Generated - вырабатывают,
Nuclear - ядерный,
Head office - главный офис,
Ware house - склад,
Branches - отрасли,
Stock - запасы,
Impersonal - безличный,
Caring - заботливый,
Appearance - внешний вид,
Power - мощность,
Hydropower - гидроэнергетика,
Windpower - ветроэнергетика,
Air messes - воздушные массы,
Wind turbine - ветрогенератор,
PowerStation - электростанция,
Dam - плотина,
Reservoir - водохранилище,
Solar energy - солнечная энергия,
Steam turbine - паровая турбина,
Electromagnetic solar radiation - электромагнитное солнечное излучение,
Geothermal energy - геотермическая энергия,
Thermal power plant - теплоэлектростанция,
Geysers - гейзеры,
Bioenergy - биоэнергетика,
Biofuels - биотопливо,
Methane - метан,
Pellets - топливные гранулы,
Petroleum - нефть,
Biodiesel - биодизель.