THE
LATINO
EDUCATION
CRISIS
IN THE U.S.
Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
Bachelor Thesis - May 2014
Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
Abstract
This paper investigates the Latino education crisis in the U.S. Hispanics are the largest and fastest growing
minority group in the United States and constitute 16 % of the total U.S. population. Hispanics are also the
youngest ethnic minority group and account for 25 % of the public school students. In 2050 Hispanic
students are expected to exceed the number of white students in U.S. schools. Therefore, the educational
outcomes of Hispanics will affect the future of America. However, Hispanic students are lagging far behind
academically as they have a high high school dropout rate, a low high school completion rate as well as a
low college graduation rate. Failure to graduate high school and to get a college degree result in Hispanics
not achieving socioeconomic mobility. This paper will investigate what the reasons behind this Hispanic
achievement gap are and look at programs and educational reforms that have been implemented to
improve the educational achievement of Hispanic students. Furthermore, this paper investigates the effects
of these programs and educational reforms to Hispanic education. The method used in this paper is a
literature methodology, which draws on the works and research of different scholars and researchers in the
field of education literature in a critical way
The Hispanic achievement gap can be ascribed to many different factors. In this paper I have found the
reasons to be family related, school related and community related as well as due to low motivation. Family
related reasons include poverty, financial responsibilities, language other than English spoken in the home
and low educational level of Hispanic parents. School related reasons include no preschool, inadequate
school facilities, inadequate curriculum and instructional offerings and inadequate teachers. Community
related reasons include segregation and lack of community role models. As a result, educational success is
harder to achieve for Hispanics. As the Latino education crisis can be attributed to many reasons, there is
not one single program that solves the problems. A few of the programs include Head Start, Success for all,
Mother-Daughter programs and Puente. Other programs that respond to the Latino education crisis,
especially for English language learners (ELLs), are bilingual programs and English-only programs. There has
been a lot debate surrounding these programs. The general public, researchers and politicians do not agree
on what is the best educational practice of how to teach English to ELLs, and whether or not the outcome
of the education of ELLs should be fast acquisition of English or academic achievement in all subjects. Since
the equality of education for Hispanics and ELLs has not been protected by federal policies, this has opened
up for more restrictive and oppressive local policies such as Proposition 227 in California. English-only
programs include submersion, ESL Pull Out, ESL Push-in and structured immersion. All programs are shortterm and primarily taught in English and the goal is proficiency in English and to exit into a mainstream
English classroom. Problems with the programs include falling behind academically in all other subjects
than English, because of not receiving instruction in the native language, and the short-term duration of the
Page 3 of 31
Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
program which does not consider that it takes 5-7 years to become fully proficient in a second language.
Proponents of English-only programs argue that it is the fastest way to acquire English proficiency and that
bilingual education will tear the nation apart politically. Bilingual education programs include early-exit and
late-exit transitional bilingual programs and two-way bilingual programs. Bilingual programs are taught
both in Spanish and English and the goal is bilingualism. The positive effects of being bilingual are cognitive
benefits, linguistic interdependence and economic advantages in a globalized world. Proponents of
bilingual education argue that bilingual education is the best way to learn English and keep on gradelevel in
other subjects, and they argue that English proficiency is acquired as well as in English-only programs.
Opponents, however, argue that bilingual education delays the acquisition of English. Evidence, on the
other hand, shows that bilingual education does not slow the acquisition of English, and reseachers
generally agree that the use of a student’s native language result in higher long-term academic
achievement. Seeing that many Hispanic students become monolingual English speakers, it suggests that if
Hispanics who grow up in the U.S. become bilingual, it will raise the overall achievement scores of
Hispanics, and thereby result in higher Hispanic educational success. Furthermore, this suggests that a
move away from language restrictive policies is necessary as well as further implementation of effective
and high-quality bilingual programs in order to reduce the Hispanic achievement gap.
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................................. 7
1.2 Method and Theory ................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3 Delimitation ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.4 Structure .................................................................................................................................................. 8
1.5 Definition of Hispanics ............................................................................................................................. 8
1.6 History of Hispanic Migration and Hispanic Influence ............................................................................ 8
2. Understanding the Hispanic Educational Achievement Gap ....................................................................... 11
2.1 Statistics for Hispanic Educational Attainment ..................................................................................... 11
2.2 Reasons for Low Hispanic Educational Attainment ............................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Family Related Reasons .................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.2 School Related Reasons .................................................................................................................. 13
2.2.3 Segregation and Other Community Related Reasons .................................................................... 14
2.2.4 Low Aspirations .............................................................................................................................. 15
2.3 Sub Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 15
3. Programs that Respond to the Latino Education Crisis ............................................................................... 16
3.1 Preschool Program - Head Start ............................................................................................................ 16
3.2 K-8 Program – Success for All ................................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Mother-Daughter Programs .................................................................................................................. 16
3.4 Puente.................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Sub Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 17
4. English-only Immersion and Bilingual Education ........................................................................................ 18
4.1 Short History of the Teaching of English Language Learners ................................................................ 18
4.2 English-only Education .......................................................................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Proposition 227 in California .......................................................................................................... 20
4.3 Bilingual Education ................................................................................................................................ 21
4.4. Effectiveness and Outcomes of English-Only and Bilingual Programs and Sub Conclusion................. 23
5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 27
6. Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. 29
Page 5 of 31
Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
1. Introduction1
In 2004 Harvard professor Samuel Huntington published an article in the journal Foreign Affairs called “the
Hispanic Challenge”. Huntington claimed that the persistent inflow of Hispanic immigrants was a threat to
American culture and society as it threatened to divide the country into two cultures and two languages
(Huntington, 2004). The article caused considerable debate in the U.S. (Gándara & Contreras, 2009). People
in the academic community were quick to either support or refute Huntington’s claims. Huntington argued
Hispanics failed to assimilate into the mainstream culture in a number of areas such as language,
occupation, intermarriage and education (Huntington, 2004). Subsequent research has suggested that
Huntington’s fears are mainly groundless (Gándara & Contreras, 2009), yet he was right in pointing out the
urgency of the Hispanic education gap.
Today Hispanics are the largest and fastest growing minority group in the U.S. In 2010 they constituted 16
% of the U.S. population, with a 43 % increase from 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). The Hispanics are also
the youngest ethnic minority group in the nation. The Hispanic student growth is expected to continue and
by 2050 there will be more school-aged Hispanic children than school-aged white students in the nation’s
schools (Bedolla, 2012). The educational outcomes of Hispanics will therefore be crucial to the future of
America. Hispanic students, however, lag dangerously far behind academically. The dropout rate for
Hispanics is more than twice the national average (Bedolla, 2012). The Latino college graduation rates have
not increased for more than 20 years, while the percentage of all other groups has increased (Gándara &
Contreras, 2009). Latinos also have the lowest college attendance rate of all ethnic groups in America
(Bedolla, 2012). Failure to graduate high school and getting a college degree has lifelong negative
consequences for Hispanics in achieving socioeconomic mobility as well as affecting the future of the nation
(Soto, 2011). As the majority of Hispanic students are native born and the native born Hispanic population
is growing faster than the Hispanic immigrant community, the low Hispanic educational attainment cannot
only be ascribed to factors in relation to immigration. Instead, it is the result of circumstances found inside
the U.S. (Gándara & Contreras, 2009). America cannot afford to create a permanent Latino underclass as
the economic success of America is closely tied to the economic success of Hispanics (Excelencia in
Education, 2012) and because education is the most effective method of incorporating the growing
Hispanic population into the U.S. economy and society (Gándara & Contreras, 2009) something urgently
needs to be done to reduce the educational achievement gap between Hispanics and the rest of the
population.
1
The name of this paper, “The Latino Education Crisis”, is inspired by the book of the same name by Gándara &
Contreras, 2009.
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
1.1 Problem Statement
One of the biggest problems for the largest, fastest growing and youngest minority group in the U.S., the
Hispanics, is their growing educational achievement gap. Seeing that this problem is directly linked to the
future of America, I want to investigate this issue. My problem statement is therefore as follows:
What are the reasons for the low educational attainment by American Hispanic minorities? What is being
and has been done to improve the educational achievement of Hispanic students? What are the effects of
these programs and educational reforms to Hispanic education?
1.2 Method and Theory
The method used in this paper is a literature methodology where I draw on the works, research and
arguments of different scholars and researchers in the field of education literature in a critical way in order
to answer my problem statement. The paper only includes statistical analysis to a lesser extent as the paper
will draw on statistical material. However, I will not go into a complete analysis of the statistics. My
approach to the analysis of the data is interpretive seeing that I will interpret the works and research by
different scholars from a subjective standpoint. The literature used in this paper is on the subjects of
education, education of English language learners and the question of language and bilingualism. I draw
extensively on the book The Latino Education Crisis by Gándara and Contreras, 2009. The book is
referenced by many researchers and the works of Gándara is highly acknowledged in the field of education
literature. Another book referenced in this paper is Educating Emergent Bilinguals by García and Kleifgen,
which is used to answer the second and third question of the problem statement. This book is also
referenced by other scholars in the field of research on bilingualism. Other sources in this paper include
reports by the PEW Hispanic Center, a highly accepted nonpartisan think tank that provides trustworthy
information on social issues and demographic changes. I also use several research papers that investigate
the issues of Latino education and the education of English language learners in order to investigate what
approach is the best in order to educate English language learners and close the achievement gap.
1.3 Delimitation
Seeing that Hispanics are now the largest minority group in the U.S., there is a burgeoning amount of
research and debate about Hispanics and their position in American society. Today the perhaps most
polemical question is in relation to illegal immigration and immigration reform. This issue will not be
explored in this paper. Neither will this paper look into the Hispanic group concerning the Hispanic
electorate, their political affiliation or the Hispanics as a consumer group.
As there are many different programs that try to help further Hispanic educational achievement, I will not
go into detail with all programs. Neither will I write about affirmative action nor the effects of the No Child
Page 7 of 31
Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
Left Behind. I have decided to focus mainly on the type of education given to Hispanic English learners.
These programs include English-only immersion and bilingual education programs. The debate in the U.S.
mostly revolves around these specific programs and many researchers have studied their effects. These
programs are relevant to investigate, as it is also a political and ideological question of what should be the
outcome of education for English learners and whether or not bilingualism is seen as an asset or a deficit
when learning English. As many Hispanic students come from a Spanish-speaking home, education of
English language learners can also be applied to them.
1.4 Structure
In chapter 2 I will try to understand what is meant by the Latino Education Crisis. First, I will look at statistics
for high school dropout rates and college completion. Then I will look at the various reasons for the low
Hispanic educational achievement such as reasons related to family, community and school. In chapter 3 I
will investigate a few of the programs that have been implemented, that have affected the Hispanic
educational outcome and the effects of these. I will go into detail with English-only programs and bilingual
programs in chapter 4 and try to investigate what program is the most effective. I will conclude my paper
with a conclusion that answers the problem statement
1.5 Definition of Hispanics
The U.S. Census bureau defines Hispanics as follows:
“Hispanic or Latino” refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or
other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011, p. 2). Hispanics can be of any
race. Most Hispanics prefer to be classified as a variety of ethnic groups, instead of just one (Etzioni, 2002).
However, for the purpose of this paper I have chosen to use the wide definition of Hispanics by the U.S.
Census Bureau. The terms “Hispanic” and “Latino” will be used interchangeably.
1.6 History of Hispanic Migration and Hispanic Influence
Hispanics are a very diverse group as they come from more than 20 different countries (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2011). Some have come to the U.S. because of war or persecution, others in pursuit of a job and
some were already in the country when the nation was founded. The Hispanic population has grown from 4
million in 1950 to 35.2 in 2000 (Rumbaut R. G., 2006) and 50.5 million in 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
The U.S. Census Bureau has projected that by 2050 there will be an estimated 103 million Hispanic people
living in the U.S. and they will account for 25% of the population. Their social, cultural, political and
economic impact is great and more profound because of large concentration in a few states (Rumbaut R.
G., 2006).
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
The history of Hispanic migration is long and dates back to before the nation was founded with Spanish
settlers coming in 1513 (Rumbaut R. G., 2006). Mexicans are the largest and oldest of Hispanic ethnic
groups in the U.S. The majority of Mexicans have come for work while others have been in the country
since the annexation as part of the treaty that ended the Mexican-American War. Toward the end of the
19th century and the beginning of the 20th century Mexican labor was highly sought-after as they were
sources of cheap labor. The period from 1965 to 1985 is labeled the era of undocumented migration
(Rumbaut R.G., 2006). The bracero program functioned as a de facto guest worker program where many
young male Mexican laborers were brought into the country legally. When the program ended, illegal
immigration started (Rumbaut R. G., 2006). Puerto Ricans distinguish themselves from other Hispanics as
they were granted U.S. citizenship in 1948 and can travel freely between the island and the mainland. In
the 1950’s Puerto Ricans constituted the largest inflow of “immigrants” to the U.S. Most of them went
looking for work and many settled in New York (Rumbaut R. G., 2006). The largest waves of Cuban
immigrants came in the 1960’s where many exiles fled the island after the communist take-over. The U.S.
welcomed the refugees and helped them flee. Many Cubans settled in Miami (Rumbaut R. G., 2006).
Mexicans, Puerto Ricans and Cubans are the largest groups of Hispanics in the U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau,
2011). Countries with large immigration to the U.S. since the 1980’s include the Dominican Republic, El
Salvador and Guatemala (Balkaran, 2013).
The presence of Hispanics has shaped America and will continue to do so. Both America’s socioeconomic
and political future is tied to the future of Hispanic Americans. Hispanics’ political power is growing as the
Hispanic electorate is increasing. Both political parties are redefining their political agenda as they are
becoming increasingly aware of the power of the Hispanic vote (Balkaran, 2013). In the two previous
presidential elections Hispanics played a vital role in electing Barack Obama. Furthermore, how both parties
decide to handle the ongoing debate on immigration reform will have a serious impact on Hispanic political
behavior and future presidential elections (Balkaran, 2013). Hispanics will also affect the prosperity of the
U.S. economy as it rests significantly on Hispanics’ buying power. This buying power is expected to be
greater than that of whites, blacks and Asians over the next 18-year period (Balkaran, 2013). Hispanics have
also had a large influence on American culture (Balkaran, 2013). Mexican food chain restaurants can be
found all over the country and Hispanic artists have now become mainstream artists such as Ricky Martin
and Jennifer Lopez. In Hollywood and the TV industry the Hispanic presence is also felt as for example the
portrayal of Gloria in Modern Family.
Even though the Hispanics have a clear and expanding influence, they are often marginalized and the
surges of immigrants have spurred anti-immigrant movements. Some, as for example Huntington, say that
Hispanics fail to assimilate into the American culture politically, educationally, socially and language wise.
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
Instead, they maintain their own culture, thus creating two cultures inside the country instead of a united
U.S. culture, or in other words an Anglo culture. Others see the Hispanic immigrants, both illegal and legal,
as an economic burden on the native population.
The debate surrounding bilingual education and English-only programs is highly polemical and was at its
height in the 1990’s and 2000’s. One prominent flashpoint in the debate is the fear that Spanish will replace
English. The general public, researchers and politicians do not agree on what is the best educational
practice to teach English to English language learners. The debate is very much political and influenced by
federal policy shifts, court rulings and state propositions. In 1981 Ronald Reagan said:
“It is absolutely wrong and against the American concept to have a bilingual education program that is now
openly, admittedly, dedicated to preserving their native language and never getting them adequate in
English so they can go out into the job market.” (Clines, 1981). The history of the marginalization of
Hispanics in the U.S., the history of educational policies for English language learners and fear of the nation
divided into two languages is what have shaped public opinion on bilingual education. The debate is now
more political and cultural rather than what is educationally sound for English language learners.
The problems that Hispanics face as for example low educational attainment, lack of naturalization and low
occupational status will affect the future of America if these problems are not solved. With the economic
and political power of Hispanics, America’s future is closely tied to the future of Hispanics and the presence
of Hispanics cannot be silenced or ignored.
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
2. Understanding the Hispanic Educational Achievement Gap
In this chapter I will answer the first question of my problem statement: What are the reasons for the low
educational attainment by American Hispanic minorities? First I will look at statistics. Thereafter, I will look
at the family, school, segregation and community related reasons for the low Hispanic educational
attainment.
2.1 Statistics for Hispanic Educational Attainment
According to the Census Bureau, Hispanics constituted 25% of public school students nationwide in 2012
(Fry & Lopez, 2013). The majority of Hispanic public school students (84%) were born in the U.S. and more
than half of all Hispanics were enrolled in public schools in only two states, Texas and California (Fry &
Gonzales, 2008).
In order to define Hispanics’ educational attainment, I will look at indicators which are commonly used in
education literature: dropout rate, completion rate and college enrolment (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009).
The dropout rate is the share of youths who have not received a high school diploma and are not enrolled
in school or college (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009). The National Center for Education Statistics reported in
2011 the high school dropout rate for 16-to 24-year old Hispanics to be 14%. This is half the dropout rate of
Hispanics in 2000 (28%). In comparison, in 2011 the high school dropout rate for black youths was 7% and
5% for whites (Fry & Taylor, 2013). The high dropout rate for young Hispanics is mainly due to the foreign
born. In 2009 32.9% of the foreign-born Hispanics were high school dropouts, but only 9.9% of the nativeborn Hispanics, while the overall dropout rate for Hispanics was 17%. The dropout rate for native-born
Hispanics was similar to the rate of blacks, but still almost double the rate of whites (Pew Hispanic Center,
2009).
The completion rate measures the high school completion rate for youths ages 18 to 24. Statistics from
March 2009 showed that 77.2% of Hispanic youths had graduated high school (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009),
an increase from 64% in 2000 (Fry & Taylor, 2013). However, Latinos are still trailing behind the rate of all
youths completing high school with a rate of 89.7%. The foreign born Latinos are also the prime explanation
that the completion rate for all Hispanics is below average. The completion rate for foreign-born Hispanics
is only 60.3%, whereas the rate for native-born Hispanics is 87%. This is closer to the average. It is,
however, still lower the rate of whites, which is 93.5% (Pew Hispanic Center, 2009).
The college enrollment rate is the share of those who have finished high school and are enrolled in college
(Pew Hispanic Center, 2009). The first year a greater share of recent Hispanic high school graduates
enrolled in college than whites was 2013. According to the Census bureau 49% of 18-to 24-year old
Hispanics who had graduated high school were enrolled in college, and 47% of whites. However, since
Hispanics have a higher high school dropout rate, only 37.5% of all Hispanics are enrolled in college
Page 11 of 31
Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
compared to 42.1% of whites (Fry & Lopez, 2013). Despite more Hispanics enrolled in college, they are still
lagging behind other groups. Hispanic college students are less likely than whites to enroll in a four-year
college, to attend a selective college, to be enrolled in college full time and to complete a bachelor’s degree
(Fry & Taylor, 2013).
2.2 Reasons for Low Hispanic Educational Attainment
The reasons for low Hispanic educational attainment are multiple and diverse seeing that the Hispanic
group is of different origins, of different generations in America and of different socioeconomic status. I will
therefore give a broad explanation to some of the general reasons for the low educational attainment.
2.2.1 Family Related Reasons
Five risk factors can place a child at risk of not succeeding academically: poverty, a single-parent household,
a mother unmarried at the time of the child’s birth, a mother with less than a high school education, a
primary language other than English. Hispanic children are more likely than white and Asian children to
experience two or more of these risk factors (Gándara & Contreras, 2009, p. 67).
Poverty: Hispanic children are far more likely to live in poverty than white children. According to the Census
Bureau 28% of Hispanics under the age of 18 lived in poverty compared to only 14% of whites in 2005
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Family structure: There are two risk factors related to family structure: a single-parent household and a
mother unmarried at the time of the child’s birth. Births out of wedlock are increasing at a faster rate for
Hispanics than other ethnic groups. Studies also show that Hispanic children are less likely to live with both
biological parents. Single-parent-homes are of concern because single-parent women are more likely to be
poor and to experience depression and stress, which are factors that affect the child’s development
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009, p. 67). Living in a family with both biological parents reduces the probability of
dropping out to only 5%, positively affects the child’s GPA and motivates the child to pursue a higher
education (Rumbaut & Portes, 2001).
Parental education: According to the U.S. Department of Education, “children’s academic performance
increases as a function of its mothers’ education across all ethnic groups” ( cited in Gándara & Contreras,
2009, p. 19). Even modest differences in a parent’s educational level can make a big difference in the child’s
future educational attainment (Gándara & Contreras, 2009). Parental education is crucial as it is tied to
class, and class privilege is tied to social and cultural capital. Cultural capital is to know how things work.
Social capital is to have access to important social networks such as informed colleagues and friends. This
knowledge is essential in order to help a student succeed academically. Hispanic parents with a low
educational level have less cultural and social capital to pass on to their children. They know less about how
the American school system works and which courses prepare the child for college. Middle-class parents
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
have a clear advantage as they have much more cultural and social capital to aid their children in their
education (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Language: 70% of Hispanic students speak a language other than English at home (Fry & Gonzales, 2008).
Spanish-speaking parents tend to be less educated and are more likely to be poor (Schneider, Martinez, &
Owens, 2006). An important factor in determining a child’s success in school is the level of parent
participation in a child’s education before entering kindergarten. Reading to children is proved to enhance
children’s language acquisition, reading ability and later success in school. Hispanic parents who only speak
Spanish are less likely to read to their children. As a consequence, this will result in the Hispanic children
already trailing behind the white children when entering school (Schneider, Martinez, & Owens, 2006).
Another issue that hinders young Hispanics in finishing high school and getting a college education is
financial commitments to their family. Young Hispanics are more likely to have financial commitments to
support their family, either in the U.S. or in their country of origin. This results in young Hispanics either
dropping out of high school or not pursuing a college education (Lopez, 2009). A survey has showed that
Hispanics know less about their options for financial aid than other ethnic groups. As a consequence, young
Hispanics do not apply for college or choose to go to a two-year community college instead of a four-year
selective, which in turn limits the possibility of finishing college (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
2.2.2 School Related Reasons
Hispanics are more likely to go to schools that are highly segregated, where resources are weaker, teachers
less skilled and classes overcrowded as well as being assigned to classes where standards are lower
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009). The schools highly influence the academic achievement of its students.
Gándara and Contreras list in their book The Latino Education Crisis (2009) a number of school related
issues that result in young Hispanics not receiving an equitable education and performing lower
academically.
No preschool: Brain researchers have found that preschool is crucial to the intellectual development of the
child. However, most Latino children do not attend preschool. In turn, Hispanic children lag behind
academically when they start school (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Inadequate school facilities: Schools in California and Texas, which have a large Hispanic student body, are
underfunding education. Poor schooling conditions lead to difficulty in learning and high teacher turnover
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Inadequate curriculum and instructional offerings: Two problems are linked to this issue. The first is
grouping by ability. In elementary school, children are grouped by their reading ability and those in the lowlevel reading group will read less material. Many Hispanic students are placed in low-level curriculum
groups, whereas students with college educated parents will be in high-level curriculum groups. This
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Mariane N. Pedersen
MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
classification happens even when the test scores of the students from different socioeconomic
backgrounds are identical. When the Hispanic student is in the low-level curriculum, it is hard to change
groups and catch up with the other group as the curriculum is less extensive and the teachers expect less of
them (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
The second problem is that the high school determines whether a student can take college preparation
courses. The schools that serve middle- and high-income students have 50% more Advanced Placement
courses than the schools that serve low-income students. When Hispanic students do not get access to
college preparatory courses, they are not able to meet college requirements (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Furthermore, because of the low educational level of Hispanic parents, the students do not know what
consequences taking specific courses have for college options (Schneider, Martinez, & Owens, 2006).
Inadequate teachers: Studies show a clear relationship between the quality of teachers and the students’
achievement. Hispanic students are more likely to attend schools with low-quality teachers. Teachers
unconsciously affect their students’ achievement through their expectations of the students (Gándara &
Contreras, 2009). Teachers can both motivate students to do better (Conchas, Oseguera, & Vigil, 2012) as
well as diminish motivation and engagement in school by their perception of the student’s ability.
Unfortunately some teachers base their perception of a student’s ability on the student’s ethnicity
(Schneider, Martinez, & Owens, 2006). Another problem is that the lack of Hispanic teachers (Gándara &
Contreras, 2009) leads to teacher’s not being able to understand the Hispanic students’ social background.
This also makes it harder for Hispanic students to identify with their teachers and see them as role models
(Schneider, Martinez, & Owens, 2006).
2.2.3 Segregation and Other Community Related Reasons
Hispanic students are more segregated both in the community and at the school level. Community contexts
and resources are important factors in relation to the success of the students. Segregation in the
neighborhood results in the social and cultural capital among the families to not increase over time
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Children need role models and neighborhoods can provide them with such. The role model needs to be an
example of educational and occupational success and can help guide and support the children in the
community towards a similar future, when parents cannot do so. However, Hispanic children often lack
such role models as they tend to live in low-income communities, where few people have succeeded
academically. Segregation in Hispanic communities also result in lack of peer support for school
achievement as there is a culture of low achievement among young Latinos (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Segregation at the school level also has severe consequences for Hispanic students. Hispanics tend to go to
school with students from the same ethnic group. In turn, they become isolated as they do not interact
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with majority students and are not exposed to different aspirations and expectations of other ethnic groups
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009). Another effect of segregation is that it limits the possibility for Hispanic
English Learners to practice and interact in English and thereby slows the acquisition of English (Gándara &
Contreras, 2009).
2.2.4 Low Aspirations
Another reason for the low educational attainment for Hispanics is low aspirations. Many studies have
shown that Hispanic students have lower expectations after high school than other ethnic groups as they
tend to know less about their possibilities and financial aid, and do not think it possible to get a college
degree (Gándara & Contreras, 2009). In today’s globalized world a college degree is a prerequisite for
belonging to the middle class (Gándara & Contreras, 2009), but when Hispanics fail to graduate college,
socioeconomic mobility is almost impossible.
2.3 Sub Conclusion
The Latino education problem can be defined by three factors: high high school dropout rate, low high
school completion rate and low college enrollment rate. Although the dropout rate for Hispanics has
decreased substantially and the completion rate has increased, the rates are still significantly lower than
other ethnic groups. This is mainly due to the foreign born Hispanics. The college enrollment rate for
Hispanics was in 2013 higher than that of whites. However, Hispanics are still less likely to enroll in a four
year institution and complete a bachelor’s degree. Reasons for the Latino educational achievement gap are
family related, school related, community related and due to low aspirations. Family related reasons
include poverty, financial responsibilities, language other than English spoken in the home and low
educational level of Hispanic parents. School related reasons include no preschool, inadequate school
facilities, inadequate curriculum and instructional offerings, and inadequate teachers. Finally, community
related reasons include segregation and lack of community role models. As a result, educational success is
harder to achieve for Hispanics.
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3. Programs that Respond to the Latino Education Crisis
In this chapter I will answer the second question of my problem statement: What is being and has been
done to improve the educational achievement of Hispanic students? The programs that respond to the
Hispanic achievement gap are multiple and diverse as the problem cannot only be ascribed to one single
reason. Seeing that there are many programs, I will give a brief overview of some of the programs, both
federal and nongovernmental programs, which operate at different times during public schooling.
3.1 Preschool Program - Head Start
As many Hispanic children do not attend preschool, they will already be academically behind their white
peers when they start kindergarten. Therefore, early intervention is crucial. Head Start is one of the few
federal programs that exist and it seeks to help low-income and minority children. It is implemented
throughout the nation. The primary goal is to prepare underprivileged children for school. Focus is on
health education and services, and pre-academic skills. Head Start programs have shown to have small
positive effects on pre-writing, vocabulary and child literacy skills for 3-to 4-year olds as well as increasing
the time parents use with their children on educational activities. Even though some studies have found
Head Start to increase cognitive scores, these effects are usually lost by the end of first grade. Most argue
this to be caused by public schools failing to sustain the initial gains made by the program (Gándara &
Contreras, 2009). Therefore, Head Start has not showed to have any long term effect on Hispanic
educational achievement.
3.2 K-8 Program – Success for All
Success for All focuses on the earlier grades and targets both the achievement of the individual as well as
whole school reform. It operates in 48 states. The program tries to enhance literacy, mathematical,
scientific, listening and social skills from first to sixth grade. The program collaborates with parents,
students, school staff and teachers. It also tries to give better resources and preparation to teachers in
order for them to raise the achievement of the students. Success for All has both a bilingual English-Spanish
curriculum as well as an English-only curriculum. A comparative study of the two curriculums found
additional achievement advantages for the students who attended the Success for All bilingual program. An
evaluation of Success for All from 2002 showed that the students scored higher on reading and math
standardized exams (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
3.3 Mother-Daughter Programs
Mother-Daughter programs are programs that prepare and guide young Hispanic female students to enroll
in college. Arizona State University Hispanic Mother-Daughter Program is an example of this type of
program. The program works with the mother and daughter from eight through twelfth grade and their
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services include academic advice, workshops and tours of the university campus. A similar program at the
University of Texas had positive outcomes and found that participants were less likely to drop out of school
or get pregnant, as well as being more likely to take Advanced Placement courses and earn higher grades.
The large majority of students participating in the longitudinal study went to college (Nuñez, Hoover,
Pickett, Vazquez, & Stuart-Carruthers, 2012).
3.4 Puente
The Puente program is a community-based program that focuses on Hispanic students. The goal of the
program is to prepare Hispanics for college. The program includes three elements: a two-year intensive
college-preparatory English class, personal counseling and mentoring. The two-year English class has
emphasis on Hispanic literature, sociopolitical circumstances and intensive writing instruction. The mentors
and counselors in the program are typically Hispanics with the same background as the students. This
allows them to be role models for the Hispanic students (Gándara & Contreras, 2009), (Nuñez, Hoover,
Pickett, Vazquez, & Stuart-Carruthers, 2012). The Puente program works together with high schools and
help them provide and develop high-quality teachers. A comprehensive evaluation of the Puente program
found Puente students to have lower dropout rates, have a higher desire to be a good student, be better
prepared for college and be enrolled in college at double the rate of the control students. The Puente
program did not have an effect on GPA, but it doubled the rate of students attending four-year colleges
(Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
3.5 Sub Conclusion
The Latino education crisis is a complex problem. Therefore, there is not solely one program that responds
to the problem. Head Start, a federal sponsored program, is a program for pre-kindergarten low-income
children. The effects of the program are not long-term. Success for All is a non-governmental program that
works with children in grades 1 to 6 on increasing their literacy, mathematical and scientific skills. Students
from Success for All have been found to do better on reading and math standardized exams. MotherDaughter programs prepare Hispanic female students for college. The program at the University of Texas
resulted in students being less likely to drop out of school and get pregnant, more likely to take AP courses
and earn higher grades. The Puente program also tries to increase the college-going rate for Hispanics. The
program has showed to be successful in this aspect.
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4. English-only Immersion and Bilingual Education
In this chapter I will further try to answer the second as well as the third question of my problem
statement: What is being and has been done to improve the educational achievement of Hispanic
students? What are the effects of these programs and educational reforms to Hispanic education?
I will do so by looking at two practices: English-only immersion and Bilingual Education. First, I will give a
short history of the teaching of English to English language learners (ELLs), then I will describe each of the
practices and go on to discuss the educational outcomes and effects of the programs, in order to come to a
conclusion which is most successful. English-only immersion and bilingual education are mostly used to
educate ELLs to teach them English. However, bilingual education can also be used to educate young
Hispanics who are not specifically ELLs. Seeing that many Hispanics grow up in a Spanish-speaking
household, bilingual education can also benefit them. There is considerable polemic and controversy
surrounding theses two educational practices. Many conservatives are against bilingual education, because
they fear it hinders or slows the acquisition of English. The question of what educational practice is best to
teach English to ELLs has turned into a political debate more than an educational, and depends on whether
the knowledge of Spanish is seen as an asset or a handicap.
4.1 Short History of the Teaching of English Language Learners
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968, Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, came in the
wake of The Civil Rights Act of 1964. The goal of the Act was to assist limited English-speaking students to
acquire English as quickly as possible, in order for them to move on to mainstream classrooms (García &
Kleifgen, 2010). Congress gave financial assistance to school districts, so the districts could carry out
practices that assisted ELLs (García & Kleifgen, 2010). At first, the act only included poor students. However,
with the reauthorization of the Bilingual Education Act in 1974, the educational services were offered to all
students with limited English-speaking abilities, no matter the socioeconomic status (García & Kleifgen,
2010). The Bilingual Education Act of 1964 was relatively weak as it only provided the schools with limited
guidelines, so the actual implementation of the programs was left to the individual schools (Handbook of
Latinos and Education, 2010). The Act did not require bilingual education. However, in the 1970’s many
states responded to the Act by passing laws that mandated bilingual education programs for ELLs (Chin,
Daysal, & Imberman, 2012).
The Supreme Court ruling in Lau v. Nichols in 1974 became important in support for bilingual education.
The court stated that the schools should not only provide ELLs with the same curriculum and facilities as
English-speaking students. However, the court did not offer guidelines as to how equitable education to
ELLs could be obtained. Instead, the Federal Office of Civil Rights was called upon to provide the guidelines.
These guidelines were to be known as the Lau Remedies, 1975. It instructed school districts to give bilingual
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education to ELLs at the elementary level and English as a second language programs at the secondary
level. The guidelines were later withdrawn in 1981 by the Reagan Administration (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
In 1978 Congress stated that bilingual education was only to be used in order for ELLs to achieve proficiency
in English and it was not to be used to achieve literacy in the students’ primary language. This statement
led many schools to stop using bilingual education (Gándara & Contreras, 2009) and with the
reauthorization of the Bilingual Education Act in 1984, it opened up for the funding of English-only
programs (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
In the 1990’s anti bilingual political campaigns were mounted first in California, and then in Arizona,
Colorado and Massachusetts. Never before had the voting public had to vote on an educational strategy
(Handbook of Latinos and Education, 2010). California Proposition 227 was passed in 1998 and came in the
wake of the public discontent with the bilingual education of ELLs in California public schools. The
proposition restricted the use of Spanish in the classroom and ELLs were to be taught in English. They
would be placed in an English-only immersion class for one year, but were after that required to join a
mainstream class. Similar initiatives were passed in Arizona, 2003, and in Massachusetts, 2002. It was,
however, stopped in Colorado, where voters voted no because a successful counter initiative campaign was
launched against the proposition (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
Education policy has changed dramatically over the past four decades, from bilingual education to Englishonly education. The recent shift has to do with misinformation and lack of knowledge in the public about
bilingual education, and “cultural politics that has little to do with what is educationally sound for the
students” (García & Kleifgen, 2010, p. 28). The current tensions in Latino education are due to the historical
process of numerous court decisions and shifts in federal policy. The equality of education for Hispanics has
not been well protected by federal policy. In turn, this has created more restrictive and oppressive local
policies as seen in the case of California, Arizona and Massachusetts, where the notion language seen as a
resource is unrecognized (Handbook of Latinos and Education, 2010, p. 406).
4.2 English-only Education
There are different types of models for teaching English to ELLs mainly using English, also called English as a
second language (ESL) programs. The goal of the programs is linguistic assimilation (proficiency in English).
The programs are: submersion, ESL Pull Out, ESL Push-in and structured immersion (García & Kleifgen,
2010).
Submersion, also called “sink or swim”, is where schools provide the ELLs with the same educational
services as they provide monolingual speakers. The ELLs are put in mainstream classes where all instruction
is in English. The teachers are not qualified for teaching ELLs. This approach was mainly used in the 1970’s.
However, it is still used in many parts of the country (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
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ESL Pull Out is 90-100% taught in English. The students are in a mainstream classroom, but are pulled out of
their mainstream classes 30-45 minutes a day in order to receive ESL instruction (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
Because the students are pulled out of their classroom, they lose valuable instruction time, which their
mainstream monolingual peers, on the other hand, receive. The primary focus of this program is on
grammar, vocabulary, reading, speaking and writing in English. Although this model is the most
implemented, it is also the least effective model and the most expensive to operate (Lara-Alecio, Galloway,
Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004).
In ESL Push-in programs, ELLs are placed in a mainstream classroom. Instead of being pulled out of classes
to receive ESL instruction, the ESL teacher is pushed into the mainstream classroom and works with the
subject teacher (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
Structured English immersion is where students are grouped for instruction. The program is tailored to the
needs of ELLs. After 1 to 3 years in a structured English immersion class, they are expected to assimilate
into a mainstream classroom. This model is less successful for ELLs’ long-term academic achievement, than
the students who receive instruction in their native language (García & Kleifgen, 2010), (Lara-Alecio,
Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004).
Problems with all these programs are that while ELLs are learning English, they are not given instruction in
their native language in other subjects in order to keep up academically with their monolingual peers. As a
result, they fall behind in other subjects, which create an achievement gap (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby,
Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004). Another point of critique is that the programs do not take into account how
long it takes to develop cognitive Academic Language Proficiency. Research shows that it takes 5 to 7 years
to become fully proficient in another language. The English-only programs provided to ELLs do not give
enough time for them to become academically proficient in English (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
Proponents of English-only programs argue that English-only programs are the most effective way to teach
English to ELLs. They also claim that by using other languages than English, the nation will tear apart
politically as English is what unites the multicultural U.S. However, seeing that English is a valuable
economic asset and all immigrants want to learn it, the fear that bilingual education will divide the nation
into two languages has little ground in reality (Gándara & Contreras, 2009).
4.2.1 Proposition 227 in California
California Proposition 227 is an example of a structured English immersion program. The student is in the
program for one year and thereafter assimilates into a mainstream English classroom. There is a parental
waiver process, so if the parents request it, the student can be placed in a bilingual program (Handbook of
Latinos and Education, 2010, pp. 407-408).
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The long-term effects of the proposition have not been positive. An analysis of graduation rates in 2004
from Los Angeles City schools showed that 73% of the ELLs who were enrolled in ninth grade in 2000 did
not graduate with their class (Gándara & Contreras, 2009). Supporters of the proposition argue that the
program has been successful as test score rose in the following years. However, the test scores rose for all
students, presumably because of reduction in class sizes, better teachers and increased investment in
education. Nevertheless, the achievement gap between ELLs and native English speakers have stayed the
same (Gándara & Contreras, 2009), even though the implementation of Proposition 227 was supposed to
reduce the gap.
4.3 Bilingual Education
There are different types of bilingual programs operating in the U.S. They defer from English-only programs
in that the students’ native language is used for instruction, in order for the students to learn English. The
programs vary in duration and amount of Spanish and English used in instruction. With bilingual education,
students are able to stay on grade level in other subjects while acquiring English proficiency (García &
Kleifgen, 2010).
Transitional bilingual programs use the native language of the students as a temporary bridge to Englishonly instruction. Students gradually exit the transitional program and enter mainstream English-only
classes. There are two types of transitional bilingual programs: early-exit and late-exit. Early-exit
transitional bilingual programs last 1 to 3 years and usually end by second grade. Initial instruction is given
in the native language, but quickly phased out. A late-exit transitional bilingual program, also called
developmental program, last from kindergarten through sixth grade. Initial instruction is 90% in the native
language, but by fourth grade it will have decreased to 50%. Other programs use 50/50 instruction from the
beginning. Early-exit transitional programs are the least effective bilingual program as students are
emerged into mainstream classrooms before they are fully proficient in academic English (Lara-Alecio,
Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004), (García & Kleifgen, 2010). Students in early-exit programs do
not develop proficiency in the native language and do not develop any long-term cognitive benefits
(Gándara & Hopkins, 2010). Researchers, as Thomas and Collier, 2002, have found students in early-exit
transitional programs to be doing better academically than students in ESL Pull Out programs, but trailing
academically behind the students in late-exit developmental programs and two-way bilingual programs
(Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004). Students in late-exit programs do develop
stronger bilingual and biliteracy skills. However, many students lose these skills as a result of bilingual
education not being continued in upper elementary grades (Gándara & Hopkins, 2010).
Two-way bilingual immersion (TWI) has a different goal than transitional bilingual programs and Englishonly programs: bilingualism and biliteracy as well as promoting language equity. The students both acquire
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Bachelor Thesis
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academic language proficiency in English while maintaining proficiency in their native language. Most
programs end after sixth grade, but a few also persists through twelfth grade. The instructional time in TWI
programs varies. However, there are two common models: 90/10 and 50/50. The programs incorporate
both ELLs and English speakers into the same classroom and both groups come out bilingual. By this means,
TWI is an inclusive model as it does not segregate the ELLs from the majority students (Lara-Alecio,
Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004). TWI creates equal status environments and can promote
positive intergroup relationships, reduce prejudice and promote cross-cultural awareness and friendships
(Gándara & Hopkins, 2010). However, an important critique of TWI is that it ignores the preexisting
inequalities in social status that exist between the minority and the majority students (Gándara &
Contreras, 2009). Other bilingual and TWI program challenges include dependence on support from
stakeholders, benefits differing for individual students, challenge to function within a hostile social and
political environment and challenge to educate students of different SES (Gándara & Hopkins, 2010).
Despite challenges to TWI programs, research shows this type of program to be perhaps the most efficient
program for ELLs (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004).
English students in TWI programs learn to have more positive attitudes towards non-English languages and
cultures (Gándara & Contreras, 2009). This is a crucial asset to possess in a multicultural and multilingual
U.S. and a globalized world.
A study by Thomas and Collier, 1997 (cited in Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004) found
six factors that need to be present in order for a TWI program to be successful: “1) Students participate for
at least 6 years; 2) There is a balanced ratio of speakers of each language; 3) A separation of language exists
for instructional purposes ; 4) Emphasis is on the minority language in the early grades; 5) Core academics
are emphasized as well as instructional excellence; and 6) Parents have a positive relationship with the
program” (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004, p. 39). In 2001 Lindholm-Leary added
three more factors to the list: “(a) effective leadership and support by administrators and instructors; (b) a
positive environment composed of an additive bilingual environment; and (c) high-quality instructional
personnel and staff training” (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby, Rodriguez, & Gómez, 2004, p. 39). If all these
factors are not present, the two-way program will not have successful outcomes.
When advocating bilingual education, it is important to consider the benefits that comes from being
bilingual. Cognitive benefits include a greater metalinguistic awareness (knowing two language systems
result in a more analytic approach to language), more creative thinking (bilinguals have two ways of
describing the world) and more communicative sensitivity (bilingual children are used to evaluating
communicative situations) (García & Kleifgen, 2010). Another important benefit is linguistic
interdependence. Students who are proficient in one language can transfer this knowledge to the other
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Bachelor Thesis
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language, which will result in greater academic achievement in the second language (Genesee, LindholmLeary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005). This linguistic interdependence is stronger when languages share
lingustic feautures, which is the case with Spanish and English (García & Kleifgen, 2010). According to
Gándara and Contreras (2009) “learning is most efficient when it builds on prior learning, and knowledge
acquired in one language is transferred to other languages once the corresponding vocabulary and
linguistic structures have been learned” (p. 309).
Other benefits of bilingual education are the economic advantages. As we live in a global world, the
adaptability and flexibility that bilinguals posess will allow them to be able to do bussiness with other
nations in that nation’s native language, and also have a deeper understanding of the culture surrounding
that language (Varghese & Park, 2010).
Proponents of bilingual education argue that instruction in Spanish, while acquiring English proficiency is
the best way to learn English while not trailing behind in other subjects. This puts emphasis on general
academic achievement, rather than only focusing on the acquisition of English (Gándara & Contreras,
2009). Opponents, on the other hand, say that instruction in the native language delays English language
acquisition (Slavin, Madden, Calderón, Chamberlain, & Hennessy, 2010). The Lobby organization ProEnglish
opposes bilingual education as they argue that it fails to teach students English language and literacy, and
segregates by language. This results in social isolation and may contribute to high dropout rates. They also
argue that bilingual education does not lead to faster or better acquisition of English, better learning of
school subjects and does not enhance the students’ self-esteem (ProEnglish, n.d.).
4.4. Effectiveness and Outcomes of English-Only and Bilingual Programs and Sub
Conclusion
Much research has been done on different programs for ELLs in order to decide which program is most
effective. Around the world, researchers generally agree that the use of a student’s native language in
schooling results in higher long-term academic achievement. On the other hand, research in the U.S.
comparing the different programs, can be seen as contradictory as the discourse surrounding bilingual
education is more political than considering what is educationally sound for the ELLs, which has affected
research outcomes. However, much research conducted in the U.S. supports bilingual education over
monolingual education (García & Kleifgen, 2010).
An example of a large-scale evaluation is the research conducted by Ramírez from 1992 (cited in García &
Kleifgen, 2010, p. 47). The research involved 554 kindergartners from five states, including California and
Texas, which he followed up to sixth grade in structured English immersion, early-exit transitional bilingual
program and late-exit developmental bilingual program. The research found the late-exit developmental
biligual program to be more effective, where the native language was used for 5 to 6 years. No difference
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Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
could be found between programs by third grade, but by sixth grade the students in late-exit
developmental programs did better in mathematics, English language arts and English reading than
students in the other programs.
Thomas and Collier released a longitudinal study in 2002. It is one of the most extensive studies ever done
and highly acclaimed among researchers in the field of the education of ELLs. The study explored the
effectiveness of eight different types of programs for ELLs. The programs included in the study were 90/10
and 50/50 two-way bilingual education, 90/10 and 50/50 late-exit developmental program, 90/10 and
50/50 early-exit transitional program, ESL and submersion. The study included 210,054 students from five
different school districts over the country and included both newly arrived immigrants and students with a
Spanish-speaking heritage. The study found submersion to be the program that had the largest number of
dropouts. Those who remained in school and finished eleventh grade were behind students in all other
programs in both English reading and math.
The study found that 90/10 and 50/50 developmental bilingual programs and two-way bilingual programs
were the only programs where students reached the 50th percentile in both their primary language and
English in all subjects. The fewest dropouts also came from these programs. In conclusion, students who
received bilingual education outperformed students who received English-only education. The 90/10
bilingual programs were more effective than the 50/50 bilingual programs. The study also found that the
native English speakers in the TWI program did equally or better than their monolingually schooled
comparisons.
When looking at students with low socioeconomic status (SES) the study ascertained that TWI was better at
reducing the negative effects of SES than students who had received English-only instruction.
The strongest predictor of student achievement in the second language was found to be the amount of
formal schooling in the students’ primary language. The students who had received bilingual education for
4-7 years outperformed comparable monolingually schooled students in academic achievement in all
subjects. The ELLs in English-only programs initially outperformed the bilingually schooled students.
However, by middle school, the students receiving bilingual education did as well as the monolingually
schooled students and during the high school years they outperformed them. Thomas and Collier
concluded that short-term, remedial and ineffective programs are not successful in closing the achievement
gap and should be avoided (Thomas & Collier, 2002). By saying that, they are suggesting that the education
provided to ELLs by Proposition 227 is not effective as it is short-term and remedial.
In 2006 Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders and Christian published a synthesis of research evidence in the
education of ELLs. They found that “almost all evaluations conducted at the end of elementary school and
in middle and high school showed that the educational outcomes of bilingually educated students,
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especially in late-exit and two-way programs, were at least comparable to, and usually higher than, their
comparison peers” (Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005, p. 375). The study also found
most long-term studies to report that the longer the students stayed in the bilingual programs the better
outcomes in reading, math, GPA, better attendance, higher high school completion and better attitudes
toward school and self. The students in late-exit and two-way bilingual programs outperformed the
students who only received short-term instruction in their native language. The study also found bilingual
proficiency and biliteracy to be positively related to academic achievement in both languages as bilingual
Hispanic students had higher achievement scores, GPAs, and expectations to their education than their
monolingual English-speaking Hispanic peers (Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2005).
A recent study by Marian, Shook and Schroeder from 2013 found that “bilingual Two-Way Immersion (TWI)
programs benefited both minority-language and majority-language students. Minority-language students in
TWI programs outperformed their peers in Transitional Programs of Instruction, while majority-language
students in Two-Way Immersion outperformed their peers in Mainstream monolingual classrooms”
(Marian, Shook, & Schroeder, 2013, p. 167). They also found that TWI enhanced reading and math skills in
English for both English and Spanish speakers. All the programs analyzed in the study followed the same
curriculum, but only differed in language of instruction (Marian, Shook, & Schroeder, 2013).
In conclusion, evidence suggests that the two-way bilingual programs are the most effective. They best
reduce the negative effects of low socioeconomic status, which many Hispanics students suffer under, it is
a long-term program, which has showed to best increase school performance, and students in this program
outperformed students in other programs in almost all studies conducted. The arguments of the opponents
of bilingual education are refuted seeing that two-way bilingual programs do not segregate by language or
ethnicity as it is an inclusive model. Bilingual programs lead to as fast acquisition of English as structured
English immersion programs (Slavin, Madden, Calderón, Chamberlain, & Hennessy, 2010) and the argument
that it slows the acquisition of English is thereby refuted. In addition, bilingual education does lead to
better learning of school subject, seeing that it builds on prior knowledge. The perhaps most important
finding is the fact that bilingual Hispanic students had higher achievement scores, GPAs, and expectations
to their education than their monolingual English-speaking Hispanic peers. Seeing that many Hispanics
students become monolingual English speakers, it suggests that if Hispanics who grow up in the U.S.
become bilingual, it will raise the overall achievement scores of Hispanics and thereby result in higher
Hispanic educational achievement. Nationwide implementation of two-way bilingual programs is not very
likely or very possible, seeing that not all local schools will be able to implement it, as not all language
majority communities wish to have their children schooled bilingually and with Hispanics students (García &
Kleifgen, 2010). Other reasons for not implementing the program include language attitudes, the
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MP94037/302764
The Latino Education Crisis in the U.S.
Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
perception that it is more expensive to operate these programs and the lack of qualified teachers (Gándara
& Hopkins, 2010). However, where it is possible to implement these programs, the evidence would suggest
that it will be a good idea to do so. Bilingualism and biculturalism encourage Hispanic students to keep their
cultural heritage while being part of the American society and it does not push Hispanic students to shed
their language. Evidence from a study conducted by Rumberger and Tran also “support the argument that
state policies and school practices restricting the use of native-language instruction could limit the ability of
states and schools to reduce the EL achievement gap” (Rumberger & Tran, 2010, p. 100). Language
restrictive policies do not, as the goal of initial implementation promised, reduce the achievement gap. In a
country where these policies are prevalent and thriving, this suggests that a move away from these policies
is necessary, in order to close the achievement gap between Hispanics and other ethnic groups.
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Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
5. Conclusion
The Latino education crisis is undeniable and cannot be ignored. Hispanics have a high high school dropout
rate, a low high school completion rate as well as a low college completion rate. Although the rates have
improved over the last 10 years, Hispanics are still lagging behind other ethnic groups. The achievement
gap can be attributed to many factors and the reasons are family related, school related and community
related. Combining all of these reasons makes educational success for Hispanics much more challenging
and exigent. There are many different programs and policies that have tried to respond to the crisis, in
order to improve the educational achievement for Hispanics. A few of these programs are federal,
however, most programs responding to the Latino crisis are non-governmental. The highly implemented
programs do not specifically try to help Hispanic students, but help low-income students of all ethnicities.
Since Hispanics have many risk factors, the programs responding to the Hispanic achievement gap need to
take all of these risk factors as well as reasons for low Hispanic educational attainment into account, when
implementing a program specifically designed to help Hispanic students.
It is a known fact that there are many disparities in the U.S. educational system and since many Hispanic
students attend highly segregated and underfunded public schools, Hispanics suffer under these disparities.
Therefore, programs are not sufficient in order to decrease the Hispanic achievement gap. This would
suggests that federal and state funding should also be increased in order to improve school facilities, school
curriculum and instructional offerings, as well as providing better prepared and equipped teachers. Another
issue of improvement would be to create less segregated schools, so Hispanic students can get more social
and cultural capital knowledge from majority students.
Research has proven that English-only policies in California and other states, which were supposed to
reduce the achievement gap, have failed to do so. The debate surrounding English-only or bilingual policies
has been highly political rather than acknowledging the major research findings, that have found bilingual
education to not hinder the acquisition of English. In turn, bilingual programs, especially TWI programs,
have been found to have the best academic results for Hispanics. Bilingual students have higher
achievement scores, GPAs, and expectations to their education than their monolingual English-speaking
Hispanic peers. This is an important finding as it suggests that if more Hispanics were taught bilingually, the
achievement gap would decrease and more Hispanic students would gain educational success.
Responding to the Latino education crisis is crucial. Therefore, programs and policies need to be
implemented to improve the educational achievement of Hispanics. However, ignoring the cognitive and
social benefits of bilingual education, and the educational gains made by bilingually taught Hispanics
hinders the potential Hispanic educational success and contributes to sustaining the low Hispanic
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Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
educational achievement. Ignoring the benefits of bilingual education has much to do with the fear of the
U.S. being divided into two languages as well as the prejudice and the marginalization of Hispanics.
The evidence found in this paper suggests that federal policies on bilingual education should be
implemented and that state policy programs that are short-term and remedial, such as Proposition 227,
should be rejected. These policies do not lead to faster acquisition of English, they harm the acquisition of
knowledge in other subjects and have the worst academic results. Changing the public and political view on
bilingual education will not happen overnight. However, the growing implementation of TWI programs in
the U.S. (Gándara & Hopkins, 2010) suggests that in some places people are realizing the benefits of
bilingualism.
The findings of this paper suggest that further implementation of effective and quality bilingual programs
could seemingly decrease the Hispanic educational achievement gap and raise the educational gains made
by Hispanics. Reducing the Hispanic achievement gap is crucial in order to secure the future of Hispanics in
the U.S. as well as securing the economic future of the nation itself. Consequently, the U.S. cannot continue
to ignore the Latino education crisis as it will have devastating results.
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Bachelor Thesis
May 2014
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