Midterm report for SPP 1448 subproject
‘Oil and social change in Niger and Chad’
March 2011 – Mai 2012
Collective field research in Chad from 2 – 14 October 2011 (ECRIS)
1. Project title:
Significations of Oil in Niger and Chad.
An Anthropological Cooperative Research Project on Technologies, Signification and
Processes of Creative Adaption in Relation to African Oil Production
2. Location:
University of Halle-Wittenberg
University of Göttingen
University of Mainz
3. Cooperating Countries
Germany
Niger
Chad
4. Project Members
Dr. Andrea Behrends
Prof. Dr. Nikolaus Schareika
Prof. Dr. Thomas Bierschenk
Prof. Dr. Mahaman Tijani Alou
Prof. Dr. Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan
Dr. Hadiza Moussa
Remadji Hoinathy
Jannik Schritt
Oubandoma Salissou (Master’s Student)
Saadi Amar (Master’s Student)
Aboubakar Attahirou (Master’s Student)
5. Summary of research problem for the first project phase (04-2011 to 03-2013)
The first project phase addressed the increasingly important role of crude oil as a prime
source of far-reaching societal and cultural transformation in Africa: Due to the diminishing
availability of crude worldwide, hitherto untapped reserves are now exploited by the world’s
most influential oil companies. Using this moment of upheaval as a methodological chance,
the project follows the PP’s theoretical outlook in order to develop a distinctly anthropological
and ethnographic perspective on the early formation phase of new oil states in Africa
(Behrends & Schareika 2010, 2011). Oil-induced change is studied as in the making, at the
level of concrete processes of social and political interaction that occur in manifold forms in
various places and institutional environments, but that are clearly structured by the presence
of oil. The project starts with the well-established knowledge provided by political economy
studies of oil and uses it for conceptual guidance; but it then seeks to supplement this
knowledge by focussing on practice as framed by particular institutions and significations and
leading to contingent, locally specific outcomes.
We define five fields of order thus generated by practice, namely 1) central governance and
finance, 2) local governance, 3) resistance, 4) emerging oil zone communities, and 5) rural
people’s responses to activities within the oil zone. The dynamics in these spheres of sociopolitical practice in the new African oil states are subsumed within a comprehensive
framework and analytically prepared for comparison between Chad and Niger. In order to
bring together theoretical, methodological and regional expertise from various sources, to
intensify the cooperation between and among African studies centres in Germany and West
Africa and to contribute to capacity building, the project is jointly executed by a
German/Chadian/Nigerien research cooperative.
Internal Cooperation
Responding to the structural aims of the Priority Programme, the project has brought
together researchers from several German Africa-oriented research institutions, notably the
Seminar für Ethnologie, Halle/Saale (A. Behrends), the Institut für Ethnologie, Göttingen (N.
Schareika) and the Institut für Ethnologie und Afrikastudien, Mainz (Th. Bierschenk). All three
2
research institutions combine a marked interest in general anthropological and sociological
theory with a distinctly empirical preoccupation with processes of transformation in modern
Africa. The Germen research institutions are joined by two important cooperating research
centres in Africa: the Laboratoire d’Études et de Recherche sur les Dynamiques Sociales et
le Développement Locale (LASDEL) in Niamey, Niger (M. Tijani Alou and J.P. Olivier de
Sardan) and the Centre de Recherche en Anthropologie et Sciences Humaines (CRASH) in
N’Djamena, Chad (R. Hoinathy).
Methods
The project started with the idea of using ethnographic methods of participant observation,
situational analysis and extended case study in order to develop a processual view on
technologies of governing and the manifold transformations that are characteristic of African
oil states. Two newcomers to the world of oil, namely Niger and Chad, were selected in order
to elucidate the decisive early moments in the reordering of social and political arrangements
in an African oil state. Building upon already existing expertise on both African oil and the
countries of Niger and Chad, five work packages were defined to cover the nodal points of oil
production in Africa. The project’s five work packages correspond to the five fields of
research mentioned above. They serve a heuristic purpose and have possibly to be
rearranged according to realities encountered in the field. Upon completion of the project, the
work packages will not be kept in their rigid form. In the first place they helped to clearly
define loci of empirical research and organize issues to be studied. In the second place they
serve as a basis for comparing oil-induced processes of change in the two countries Niger
and Chad.
6. Empirical work
The entire research team carried out two weeks of refining basic research concepts and
collective field research in Chad from 2 – 14 October 2011. The collective study was multisited and research was conducted in N’Djamena (the capital), Douguia and Djermaya (near
the oil refinery) and Bongor (a newly developing oil region). Based on the ‘Rapid Collective
Inquiry for the Identification of Conflicts and Strategic Groups’ (ECRIS) a framework of
questions was developed by the team and the research carried out collectively. This
procedure allowed the research team to quickly establish a common point of departure and
to sketch in broad approximation the empirical contours of oil age society in Niger and Chad
(it was e.g. possible to determine relevant strategic groups and prevailing discourses on oil).
The data was analysed also collectively by the whole project team and put in perspective
according to the research-guiding work packages.
3
Jannik Schritt (PhD candidate, Göttingen) carried out nine months of field research in Niger,
both in the oil state’s metropolis (Niamey) and in emerging oil cities (Zinder and Diffa) and
communities (Bakin Birgi). In Niamey he conducted three months of field research in March,
May, June and October 2011. This research was based on problem-centred interviews with
representatives in state ministries and administrative bodies, in media stations and civil
society associations. Jannik Schritt thus combined research on work package one “central
governance and finance” with research on work package four “local governance” and work
package three “emerging oil zone communities” that he carried out mainly in Zinder (where
the Nigerien oil refinery has been newly opened) and partly in Diffa. He conducted six
months of field research in Zinder (April 2011 and November – March 2012) and one week in
Diffa (May 2011). His research on work package four “local governance” was based on
problem-centred and biographic narrative interviews with local politicians, businessmen, civil
society groups, media representatives and youth gangs. Jannik Schritt combined the classic
ethnographic methods of participant observation and interviewing with the data collection
method of participant audition in a local committee of civil society associations that worked
on the topic of oil. The research on work package three “emerging oil zone communities” was
conducted in the city of Zinder, in villages neighbouring to the oil refinery (Bakin Birgi) and in
the city of Diffa. The data collection was based on narrative interviews about work
experiences with oil workers and security agents and on daily experiences with villagers
living close to the oil refinery.
Remadji Hoinathy (PhD candidate, project partner in Chad) carried out four months of
fieldwork research in Chad in 2011 and 2012 on work package three “emerging oil zone
communities”. His research started in the villages around the first oil extraction site in Chad
(Canton Béro), where the American based multi-national ExxonMobil’s influence is most
evident. After completion of his PhD thesis in February 2012 he now continues to do
research in the newly developed oil extraction site of Bongor – specifically among oil workers
and in spontaneous settlements around the Chinese oil developments in Koudaloua, Chad
(thus contributing to work package three “emerging oil zone communities”). Remadji
Hoinathy was also instrumental in co-organising the group’s workshop in N’Djamena,
Douguia and Djermaya and preparing the group’s collective research in Bongor.
Oubandoma Salissou (Master’s student, Niger) carried out one week of preliminary field
research in November 2011 in the villages of Bakin Birgi and Olelewa in the vicinity of the oil
refinery. His research contributes to findings on work package three “emerging oil zone
communities”. He participated as VIP among high ranking Nigerien politicians, foreign state
representatives and Chinese company representatives in the festive celebration of the oil
4
refinery’s inauguration ceremony on 28th November 2011.1 He observed the “festivilisation” of
Niger becoming an oil producing country. His findings contributed to work package one
“modes of central governance and finance”. Salissou Oubandoma reviewed literature in
preparation for his master’s thesis and prepared for further field research. Due to delays in
the transfer of research funds, further empirical research is only starting now.
Sa-âdi Amar (Master’s student, Niger) carried out two months of preliminary field research in
N’gourti, Niger’s oil extracting region, on work package five “transformation of rural
livelihoods and traditional chieftaincy in regions with oil extraction”. In his research he
focused on traditional chiefs of ethnic Tubu and Arab who predominantly inhabit the region.
He conducted participant observation and problem-centred interviewing with royal families
and analyzed transformations in inter-ethnic relations between Tubu, Arab (and Fula people)
as a result of administrative changes and high expectations to participate in the windfall
gains of oil.
Mahamidou Aboubacar Attahirou carried out 40 days of field research between 26 February
and 7 April 2012 in N’gourti, Diffa region. Corresponding to Sa-âdi Amar’s research,
Mahamidou Aboubacar Attahirou conducted research on work package five “transformation
of rural livelihoods and traditional chieftaincy in regions with oil extraction” in the
administrative department of N’gourti. He analysed the transformation of rural livelihoods in
regard to the social (education, health and water supply) and the economic sector (trade,
livestock farming and employment) using interviewing, focus group discussions and
participant observation as his main methods. Mahamidou Aboubacar Attahirou reviewed the
existing literature in preparation for his master thesis.
Andrea Behrends (Principal Investigator and research group coordinator, Halle University)
co-taught seminars on oil in Mainz (with Thomas Bierschenk) and Göttingen (with Nikolaus
Schareika) and was main organiser of the inaugural meeting in Chad with the help of
Remadji Hoinathy. After that meeting, she proceeded to her research site in Eastern Chad to
continue her previous work on oil-related resistance movements, work package 2
“resistance”, and the ‘wider’ effects of oil and significations of oil in a region that is far remote
from the actual extraction sites, but central for resistance activities (Behrends 2011). In her
findings, development and local governance turned out to be key aspects of her research,
which thus also contributes to work package 4 “modes of local governance, local politics and
regional development”. In July 2011, she invited two key informants from Eastern Chad to
Jannik Schritt also participated in the oil refinery’s inauguration ceremony among the public crowd. His findings
will be included in work package 4 “modes of local governance, local politics and regional development”.
1
5
Halle and Berlin for an intensive two-week workshop/ research meeting on ‘social change in
eastern Chad’. She supervises Remadji Hoinathy’s PhD thesis.
Nikolaus Schareika (Principal Investigator, Göttingen University) taught two Master’s level
seminars on oil (one with A. Behrends). He spent one month in south-western Chad in order
to start empirical research on the social impact of oil production in the Koudalwa area where
boreholes are owned and operated by the Chinese National Petroleum Company (CNPC).
Research focused on the impact of oil production and oil rents upon rural populations
including pastoralists and the relationship of local merchants with the sites of oil production.
His work corresponds to work package five on the “transformation of rural livelihoods and
traditional chieftaincy in regions with oil extraction”. His research made it particularly evident
that this work package will, in the future, include actors that do not directly “belong” to the oil
community, but act in its wider field of service provision. It also calls into question the
immediate applicability of the enclave concept that has come to be widely accepted as
suitable for analysing global oil.
Mahaman Tijani Alou (Senior Project Partner, Niamey University and LASDEL) is dean of
legal studies at the University of Niamey and advisor to the Nigerien president. His previous
research on Nigerien political institutions and his insights into governmental policies
particularly enriched the inaugural project meeting. As his research contribution to the project
he proceeds to collect legislative texts and policy documents relating to the governmental
and financial sector in Niamey, going back to 2008, which covers the significant planning
phase of the oil project in Niger (including far-reaching changes in the arena of national
politics, finance and governance). He also follows press debates on the fuel price fix in Niger,
related to the opening of the Chinese-run refinery in Zinder. His work contributes to work
package 1 “modes of central governance and finance”. A group research with M. Tijani Alou
and the research coordinator of LASDEL, Dr. Hadiza Moussa, plus the three Master’s
students is scheduled for August 2012.
Thomas Bierschenk (Principal Investigator, Mainz University) has taught two classes on the
anthropology of oil at Mainz University. After his participation at the research group’s
inaugural workshop in Chad, he conducted a short-term research on a meeting of
government agents, oil company representatives and potential investors in N’Djamena, Chad
(in October 2011). Based on his previous studies on the African state, he continues to reflect
about the local effects of rent-economies, in particular those based on oil, and the
mystification of oil or oil’s magic.
6
Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan (EHESS Marseille and LASDEL), based on his extensive
previous research on local government practices in Niger, focuses his research on the
effects of oil rents on authoritarian states, particularly on their modes of governance and the
continuous modification of what he calls ‘practical norms’, that is the incorporation of oil
revenues into existing governmental practices (Olivier de Sardan 2011). His findings
correspond to work package four “modes of local governance, local politics and regional
development”.
7. First results
Our preliminary results show that oil not only induces substantial transformations in the
socio-political arenas of new African oil states, but completely restructures them. Some
preliminary results pertain to the following:

Rural communities experienced massive spatial and social re-ordering
influenced by the disappropriation and restructuring of land in relation to the
direct material oil-related technologies around the construction of oil wells,
pipelines, roads, power stations, refineries etc. Likewise, social and political
institutions of rural communities significantly changed following the influx of
money due to temporary and selectively paid compensations (for land loss)
and short term employment. The changes can be summarised under the
headlines ‘monetisation of social relations’, ‘de-agriculturation’ and the
creative development of strategies to ‘participate in the oil rent’ (Hoinathy
2012).

Compensation payments and land expropriations lead to a new distribution of
power in local webs of social relations. The positioning and re-assembling of
existing political groups that we observed (oil company employees, local
administration, chiefs, village populations, lawyers etc.) illustrates the opening
of new spaces of disorder and re-ordering in the wake of oil production.

We observed the secondary effects of oil. They relate, for instance, to the fact
of rising security measures by central governments: newly armed police
officers turn against pastoralists and contribute to large scale cattle theft –
which in turn leads nomads to change transhumant routes, fleeing security
forces back and forth through the country and across the border to the Central
African Republic.
7

In a similar way, due to oil revenues at the central government’s (of Chad, in
this case) disposal, international development aid is significantly reduced.
Regions that for the last decades built their economy on development aid and
related services (construction, trade etc.) thus lose a decisive form of income
without direct replacement.

Oil has a catalytic effect, particularly in the emerging oil-state of Niger, on the
political re-ordering on a regional level, where political affiliation is
reassembled along significatory practices in relation to oil. Oil, here, serves to
stabilise opposing positions between supporters of the former, ousted
president of Niger, who stylised himself as the “father of Nigerien oil” and his
follower, who similarly uses oil as his main political argument for democracy
and development. Furthermore, to mobilise resistance against the current
regime, new technologies and travelling models are creatively adapted from
the Arab Spring (chain SMS, renaming of central square, using media for
resistance movements).

To confront changes caused by the existence of oil not only new formations
emerge, but old concepts of dealing with group conflict are also re-configured.
Nomadic groups in Niger’s oil extraction zone of N’gourti put internal conflicts
on hold to form a “tribal coalition” to give further weight to their claims of
participating in oil revenue distributions.

Comparison between the two countries proved to be of greatest value to
single out similarities and specific differences between Niger and Chad: our
research in Chad, as the ‘older’ oil producer, made it possible to follow up on
first, a phase of resistance and civil war, and second, a new phase of national
construction and consolidation of central authority. In Niger, we could observe
the first oil-related changes as in the making.
8. Re-focusing the research question
With respect to these preliminary findings, some minor changes and amendments have been
made and will affect the remaining project phase (until April 2013):

While we anticipated focusing on American oil companies in Chad and
Chinese companies in Niger, we now include new Chinese oil developments
8
in Chad. A new focus will be on service providers, like African traders and on
significations of ‘China’ (Schareika, Hoinathy). This expansion of the oil zone
community calls into question established concepts like ‘enclave economies’
as not including some of the more encompassing adaptations to oil extraction
in a particular area.

The focus on ‘resistance’ (Behrends) will include the on-going effects of the
recent peace agreement between Sudan and Chad, which resulted in the
instalment of a joint Chadian-Sudanese military force, the (temporal) cessation
of direct rebel activities and violence and the withdrawal of international
military missions (UN Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad,
MINURCAT) as well as large parts of humanitarian aid.

The research around the oil refinery of Zinder has also been amended in the
following ways: it proved important to include civil society groups and their
political activism as an essential element of social disorder as well as
practices of re-ordering (Schritt 2012). While it was initially foreseen to include
both, the production sites of N’Gourti (some 450 km to the north-west of
Zinder) and the refinery into one package, they now have come to be
regarded as two separate arenas of research.

The focus on central and on local governance will further elaborate on the
technologies of governing, which includes the practice of consolidating power
in the hands of a very small circle (particularly in Chad). This will include the
effects of the Libyan revolution, into which Chadian as well as Nigerien forces
were involved. The particular forms of adapting communication technologies
as models travelling from Arab Spring movements into Niger will also be
considered along these lines.
9. Subject-related, regional, theoretical and methodological proximity or contrast to
other PP sub-projects
During the two priority program meetings in Berlin (12/2011) and Mainz (05/2012) and a
workshop on ‘Spheres of Exchange Unlimited’ (organizers A. Behrends, N. Schareika, S.J.
Park and Th. Bierschenk) at the German Anthropological Association’s (DGV) conference in
Vienna (09/2011) as well as during individual encounters with researchers from other subprojects we elaborated the following lines of mutual theoretical proximity and bases for future
cooperation with some of the PP’s sub-projects:
9
Cooperation with subproject ‘Translating Adaptation to Climate Change’
Significations of climate change as well as oil production display a distinct relation to future
scenarios. People talk about and make use of concepts that evoke the negative impact of
climate change when it is not yet an observable reality. Similarly, great hopes for
development and economic growth thrive where oil production has not yet started. This belief
in oil’s positive capabilities is closely related to the construction of existing oil reserves (‘how
much oil is still there?’), a discourse that links economic interests and public fears in regard
to high prices for crude oil derivates. On the other hand, both climate change and oil
translate into a strategy of naming, blaming and claiming, which essentially re-orders beliefor social reference systems. While, for instance, certain strategic groups might previously
have signified a drought as “God’s punishment” following e.g. dispute within the local
community, the climate change discourse is appropriated in order to externalise the question
of ‘who’s guilty?’ and, thus, prepares and legitimizes struggles of claiming compensation
payments from the industrialized world. In the field of oil one can observe various groups that
name or signify oil in various ways – as ’the nation’s wealth’, ‘a local community’s asset’, ‘a
cursed resource’, “a risk of health”, or “a means to development” – in order to set blames
against strategic opponents and formulate claims for benefits from oil rents.
Both research groups share an interest in societal negotiations about resources and their
appropriation. These negotiations are about who has the authority to signify an element of
‘nature’ as a resource, who may claim a right to use it, and under which conditions. In the
case of oil, its character as a resource is quite obvious, whereas in the case of climate
change it is not the climate as such, but the international financial programs to support
adaptation to climate change that have to be considered as a newly created resource. The
two research projects agreed to jointly work on the connections between a) significatory
practices in the domain of environmental and resource issues, b) the moral sphere of
constructing blames and c) the political sphere of making and justifying claims. It is planned
to hold a workshop at the end of 2012 with the aim of exchanging empirical results and
further developing the theoretical concept.
Cooperation with subproject ‘Entrepreneurial Chinese Migrants’
The idea of blaming also relates our research to the project on Entrepreneurial Chinese
Migrants. We found that rumours about Chinese’ mistreatment of workers, low wages, and
racial prejudices were found in entrepreneurial / market situations as well as in relation to
Chinese oil exploration. We further identified as common to both projects the influence of
particular external actors on spatial re-ordering. K. Giese and L. Marfaing have looked at the
10
establishment of Chinese settlements and related economic activities. To them our project’s
focus on the micro- as well as meso level re-ordering in relation to Chinese as opposed to
American oil companies is of great interest. Their results about Chinese and African
merchants’ mutual adaptation of trade practices (without direct cooperation) runs parallel to
our findings concerning African traders adapting to Chinese oil workers’ needs in a newly
created oil worker settlement in Chad.
A systematic follow-up and exchange of data concerning our respective findings is
anticipated for the remaining months of the first research phase. In a possible second phase,
direct research cooperation shall enhance this exchange: we identified the interest in African
‘Images of China’ in contrast to Chinese ‘Images of Africa’. While we collected numerous
rumours and images of China among Chadian and Nigerien bureaucrats, villagers or oil
workers – and could thus reconstruct their significations of China, we did not succeed in
accessing the Chinese side. For a second project phase, K. Giese offered his expertise to
trace Chinese oil workers who had been to Chad and Niger (via their ‘QQ’ communications)
in China and possibly interview them about the impressions they gathered while working for
oil companies in Chad. These findings would greatly enhance our understanding of the “new
merchants and entrepreneurs of the global south” and the encounters we observed and
analysed. The two subprojects agreed to exchange knowledge, expertise and contacts that
are needed to elucidate the political processes in China that define and strategically address
China’s economic, social and cultural appearance in Africa, particularly concerning the
development of oil production.
Cooperation with subproject ‘Roadside and Travel Communities’ / ‘Translating Global Health
Technologies’
Spatial reordering is a key term in relation to K. Beck’s and G. Klaeger’s project on African
Roads that gives special attention to the notion of truck stops as “mediating institutions” or
boundary- and translation zones between road and village. For roadside communities, this
spatial re-ordering is true on a longer-term basis. Comparable to these “mediating
institutions” we have studied spontaneous villages of (mainly Nigerian and Cameroonian)
migrants who look for work opportunities with (Chinese and American) oil companies. The
work of Remadji Hoinathy shows, how these villages initiate social re-ordering with new
styles of dressing, possibilities to spend incomes also accompanied by prostitution and a
higher risk of attracting SCD like HIV AIDS. Quite similar to K. Beck’s truck stops, the
spontaneous villages mediate change between oil ‘enclaves’ and the oil regions’ villages.
11
Cooperation with African Political Cultures
We developed a direct link to the ‘political culture’ concept that is the focus of G. Klute’s, E.
Macamo’s and T. von Trotha’s subproject. Jannik Schritt’s research on oil politics in Zinder
asks, if the production of disorder could not be interpreted as the result of ordering processes
(e.g. anti-government destabilization versus power-consolidating governance technologies)
that are embedded in social logics of negotiation, gift-giving, solidarity, predatory authority
and redistributive accumulation that renders politics cultural and culture political (Schritt
2012c). T. Hüsken’s research directly links up with our project, as he intends to include the
effect of the renewed oil production within the area of his research. In preliminary talks, we
found that it is of particular interest to both our projects to compare the political, economic
and social significations of oil and their effects on practice within regions of Libya, as one of
the oldest African petro-states, and the newcomer petro-states of Chad and Niger.
10. Further Cooperation and Exchange
Direct lines of content-related cooperation between the PP’s sub-projects have been made
explicit above.
Our project’s contributed to cooperation within the PP in the following ways:

The oil project’s three principal investigators, Andrea Behrends, Nikolaus
Schareika and Thomas Bierschenk cooperatively organised a panel at the
German Anthropological Association’s (DGV) meeting with Sung-Joon Park
(Global Health) in Vienna 2011

Our project partner Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan (LASDEL Niger) will discuss
eight PhD projects from various sub-projects (Global Health, Political Cultures,
Climate Change, Policing, and Urban Planning) at the up-coming meeting of
the German African Studies Association’s (VAD) meeting in Cologne 2012
funded by the central project (Rottenburg)

Invited presentation of preliminary results in Bayreuth (A. Behrends, N.
Schareika)

Presentation of results during panels organised by our project group (S. J.
Park, K. Beck)
12

Exchange during PP meetings in Berlin and Mainz (A. Behrends, N.
Schareika, Th. Bierschenk, R. Hoinathy)
External cooperating partners:

Christine Fricke (Mainz)

Annika Witte (Göttingen)

Stephen P. Reyna (U of Manchester, UK)

Saulesh Yessenova (U of Calgary, CA)

Veronica Davidov (U of Leiden, NL)

Gisa Weszkalnys (U of Exeter, UK)

Tanya Richardson (U of Waterloo)
References
Behrends, Andrea 2011. ‘Fighting for oil when there is no oil yet. The Darfur-Chad border.’ In
Andrea Behrends, Stephen P. Reyna and Günther Schlee (eds.) Crude Domination. An
Anthropology of Oil, 81-106. Oxford, New York: Berghahn.
Behrends, Andrea & Nikolaus Schareika 2010. ‘Significations of oil in Africa or what (more)
can anthropologists contribute to the study of oil?’ Suomen Antropologi: Journal of the
Finnish Anthropological Society 35 (1): 83-86.
Behrends, Andrea & Nikolaus Schareika 2011. ‚Öl, Staat, Ressourcenfluch’. In: Auf dem
Boden der Tatsachen. Festschrift für Thomas Bierschenk, eds. Nikolaus Schareika, Eva
Spies and Pierre-Yves Le Meur. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, 465-476.
Hoinathy, Remadji 2012. ‘Pétrole et Changement Sociale. Rente pétrolière, déagriculturation et monetisation des interaction sociale dans le Canton Béro au sud du
Tchad’. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Seminar für Ethnologie, University of HalleWittenberg.
Olivier de Sardan 2011. ‘Auth-rent States, bureaucratic mode of governance and practical
norms, in West Africa and beyond.’ Unpublished contribution to the conference on
Governance Beyond the Centre. Informality, Institutions and Contested Power
Structures in Authoritarian Contexts. Berlin, 9-10.2.2012.
13
Schritt, Jannik 2012. An Ethnography of the resource curse in Niger. Oil politics and the
production of disorder in Zinder. http://blog.spp1448.de/2012/07/an-ethnography-of-theresource-curse-in-niger-oil-politics-and-the-production-of-disorder-in-zinder/#more-378
14