Immunisation for Pregnant
Women
Audience research with pregnant women
Prepared for the Ministry of Health
28 July 2015
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Contents
Preface
3
1.
Executive Summary
4
3.
Pregnant women’s beliefs about immunisation in pregnancy
11
4.
Pregnant women’s motivation to immunise in pregnancy
14
5.
Pregnant women’s awareness of immunisation entitlement
15
6.
Pregnant women’s access to immunisation
18
7.
Immunisation messages
21
8.
Communication channels
25
9.
Brochure test
26
10. Providerperspectives
28
11. Conclusions
31
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Preface
This report was prepared for the Ministry of Health by Sally Duckworth, Litmus.
Litmus acknowledges Lisa Davies and Neralee Mahuika (Kaipuke) and Catherine Poutasi, Odette FrostKruse and Analosa Veukiso-Ulugia (Integrity Professionals) for contributing to fieldwork and analysis,
and peer reviewing this report.
Litmus also acknowledges the guidance and support received from Bonnie Jones and Diana Murfitt
(Immunisation Team, Ministry of Health), Dr Nikki Turner (Immunisation Advisory Centre), Joan Carll
(Registered Midwife), and the New Zealand College of Midwives.
Finally, Litmus acknowledges the women and providers who contributed their perspectives, insights and
time to the research.
If you have any questions about this report, please contact Sally Duckworth, Sally@litmus.co.nz.
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1. Executive Summary
This report summarises 59 pregnant women and women who have given birth in the last 12 months’
beliefs about immunisation in pregnancy, their motivations and enabling factors to immunise and the
barriers to immunise in pregnancy. The research was conducted between February and April 2015. The
overall goal of the research was to target segments and tailor communications and interventions to
raise the uptake of vaccines during pregnancy.
Key findings
Pregnant women’s beliefs about immunisation in pregnancy
Most women are confident immunising their infants and themselves when they are not pregnant (e.g.
tetanus and travel vaccinations). However, they feel less comfortable immunising themselves when
they are pregnant. Women’s confidence to immunise stems from a range of beliefs about their
vulnerability to infection, the severity of infection and the benefits of immunisation. Women are
concerned about the safety of immunisation for their unborn baby.
Pregnant women’s motivations to immunise in pregnancy
Pregnant women’s motivations to immunise against influenza and whooping cough would be to protect
their unborn babies from the consequences of severe infection and give them the best possible start in
life. Pregnant women are less motivated to protect themselves from infection, unless they are
asthmatic and see immunisation as being important for their health and wellbeing.
Pregnant women’s awareness of immunisation entitlement
Most women’s key point of contact for pregnancy-related information and advice is from their Lead
Maternity Carer (LMC). The quality of the information and advice given by LMCs to pregnant women on
the availability of free immunisations against influenza and whooping cough is variable.
Approximately one half of women say they had a conversation with their LMC about immunisation
against influenza and/or whooping cough. Women more likely to recall having had a conversation about
immunisation in pregnancy with their LMC are Pākehā.
Women are more likely to be motivated to immunise against influenza and/or whooping cough if their
LMC recommends it as being important for protecting their unborn babies. Had they known they could
be immunised in pregnancy and it was recommended and safe for their unborn child, most women were
likely to have opted to be immunised.
4
Most pregnant women say they went infrequently to their general practice during pregnancy for their
own health needs and therefore had few opportunities to receive information about immunisation from
their general practice.
Pregnant women’s access to immunisation
The pathway for pregnant women receiving immunisation is not convenient and women face many
barriers accessing immunisation through their general practice. Māori and Pacific pregnant women face
more barriers to accessing immunisation through their general practice than Pākehā pregnant women.
These barriers include transportation, arranging childcare and time off work. Some women are also
reluctant to visit their general practice, if they owe money for consultations and prescriptions.
There is a strong preference amongst pregnant women for LMCs to deliver immunisations within routine
antenatal appointments. Women who went to their general practice to be immunised said they would
have found the process more convenient if their LMC could have administered the vaccination.
Free immunisation for pregnant women is a significant enabler, particularly for Māori and Pacific
women.
Immunisation messages
Messages that talk about immunisation protecting unborn babies from the consequences of infection
are more persuasive than messages that talk about immunisation being effective at protecting the
woman. Messages that say immunisation is safe in pregnancy provide reassurance. However, generic
vaccine safety messages are not compelling, and cause concern. Messages that say influenza is serious
for unborn babies make pregnant women take notice. Messages that say immunisation is free for
pregnant women resonate strongly with Māori and Pacific women.
Communicating immunisation content
Most pregnancy-related information provided by LMCs, general practices, and antenatal educators to
pregnant women is in print format (pamphlets, fact sheets and posters), and pregnant women feel
overwhelmed by the amount of print material they receive. There is a general feeling amongst pregnant
women that reaching them with pregnancy and health information almost exclusively through print is an
outmoded form of communication.
Most women are accessing information online to support and complement the verbal information they
receive from their LMC or in place of pamphlets. They are also using social media for pregnancy and
child-related health information. For Māori and Pacific women in particular, social media is a less
intimidating channel for receiving information and asking questions, and provides an opportunity for
receiving and sharing information in more interactive ways (e.g. photos, videos, and stories).
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Provider perspectives
A small number of providers (community midwives, hospital midwives, general practice nurses, and
antenatal educators) were interviewed as part of the main study to understand provider perspectives on
pregnant women’s attitudes to immunisation, and the enablers and barriers to immunisation. These
discussions suggest that with the exception of general practice nurses, providers often do not feel
informed, confident, or comfortable informing and discussing immunisation against influenza and
whooping cough with women, and therefore many women are missing out on important information.
Providers also support pregnant women’s views that immunisation delivered outside of antenatal
appointments is not convenient for women.
Conclusions
The findings from this research conclude that the most significant barrier to immunisation uptake in
pregnancy is a lack of accessible information and advice on immunisation from LMCs and structural
barriers for accessing services through general practices.
The research found that Māori and Pacific pregnant women face more barriers to immunisation in
pregnancy than Pākehā pregnant women. They are less likely to receive effective immunisation
information from their LMCs, and face more barriers accessing immunisation through general practices.
The challenges the researchers had finding Māori and Pacific pregnant women who had immunised for
this research also indicates that actual immunisation uptake is low for Māori and Pacific pregnant
women. Therefore the research concludes that segments that need to be targeted are Māori and Pacific
pregnant women and LMCs who work with these women.
The findings from the research conclude that persuasive messages that talk about immunisation
protecting unborn babies from the consequences of infection are persuasive. Messages that say
immunisation is safe in pregnancy provide reassurance to pregnant women who are concerned about
the safety of vaccines for their unborn babies. Messages that say influenza is serious for unborn babies
make pregnant women who do not consider influenza serious to take notice. Messages that say
immunisation is free for pregnant women resonate particularly strongly with Māori and Pacific pregnant
women.
The findings from this research also conclude that traditional print media is not cutting through to all
pregnant women and social media tools need to be considered for sharing relevant immunisation
content.
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2. Background
Influenza and whooping cough
Influenza circulates in New Zealand seasonally each year. Pregnant women and their babies are at
increased risk of severe disease and complications from influenza. Pregnant women are up to 18 times
more likely to go to hospital because of problems from getting sick with influenza than non-pregnant
women1. Women who catch influenza when they are pregnant have higher rates of pregnancy
complications, such as premature birth, still birth and poor baby growth during pregnancy2.
Whooping cough epidemics occur in New Zealand every three to five years3. If a baby gets whooping
cough it can cause severe, prolonged attacks and lead to serious problems, including pneumonia and
brain damage. Babies can catch whooping cough from their parents or older siblings. Babies are not
fully protected against whooping cough until they have had the first three immunisations. Pregnant
women who are immunised against whooping cough can help protect their babies through passing on
some of their immunity to their babies4.
Pregnant women have been able to access fully funded influenza and whooping cough vaccines during
pregnancy since 2010 and 2012 respectively. It is not possible to quantify the number of pregnant
women currently being immunised against influenza and/or whooping cough, because pregnancy is not
defined as a category on the National Immunisation Register. Furthermore, no research has been
published in New Zealand on pregnant women’s knowledge, attitudes and behaviour to immunisation in
pregnancy.
1
Schanzer, D.L., J.M. Langley, and T.W.S. Tam, Influenza-attributed hospitalization rates among pregnant women
in Canada 1994- 2000. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2007. 29(8): p. 622.
2
Shiota, K. and J.M. Opitz, Neural tube defects and maternal hyperthermia in early pregnancy: Epidemiology in a
human embryo population. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 1982. 12(3): p. 281-288.
Griffiths, P.D., C.J. Ronalds, and R.B. Heath, A prospective study of influenza infections during pregnancy. Journal of
Epidemiology and Community Health, 1980. 34(2): p. 124-128.
Irving, W.L., et al., Influenza virus infection in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy: a clinical and
seroepidemiological study. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 2000. 107(10): p. 12821289.
3
Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd. 2013. Pertussis Report: Oct–Dec 2013. URL:
https://surv.esr.cri.nz/PDF_surveillance/PertussisRpt/2013/PertussisreportOct-Dec2013.pdf (accessed 18 January
2014).
4 Amirthalingam, G et al., Effectiveness of maternal pertussis vaccination in England: an observational study. The
Lancet, 2014. 384 (9953) : p. 1521–1528.
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Audience research
The Ministry of Health commissioned Litmus Ltd to undertake audience research on pregnant women to
understand their knowledge, attitudes and behaviour with respect to immunisation in pregnancy. The
overall goal of the research was to target segments and tailor communications and interventions
effectively to raise the uptake of vaccines during pregnancy.
The research explored pregnant women’s beliefs and attitudes about immunisation and their skills and
confidence to immunise during pregnancy. It also investigated the role of family/whānau, maternity and
health providers in immunisation, and environmental factors that enable or act as barriers to women
immunising in pregnancy. The research also tested potential messages aimed at encouraging pregnant
women to immunise. Focus groups and interviews were conducted with 59 pregnant women and
women who had given birth in the last 12 months. Fifteen supporting interviews were also undertaken
with maternity and health providers. The research was conducted February to April 2015.
Research questions
The key research questions were as follows:
1. What are pregnant women’s knowledge, feelings and opinions about the influenza and
whooping cough vaccines?
2. What are the key factors that motivate pregnant women to immunise against influenza and
whooping cough?
3. What are the key factors that enable pregnant women to immunise against influenza and
whooping cough?
4. What are the key factors that act as barriers to pregnant women immunising against influenza
and whooping cough?
Method and sample
Focus groups and interviews with pregnant women and women who had given birth in the
last 12 months
Seven focus groups and 16 in-depth interviews were conducted with Pākehā, Māori and Pacific women
living in urban and provincial areas with both higher and lower rates of whooping cough. Focus groups
were structured by ethnicity and immunisation status. Fieldwork was conducted in Counties Manukau,
Waikato (Hamilton and Tokoroa), MidCentral (Palmerston North, Bulls and Linton), Capital and Coast
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(Wellington, Paraparaumu and Raumati), Nelson Marlborough (Nelson, Richmond and Motueka), and
Canterbury District Health Board (Christchurch city and suburbs) catchment areas. Women were
recruited for the research from qualitative research panels, health, education and social services NGOs,
Student Job Search and by asking recruited participants to nominate other eligible women.
The sample was designed to include pregnant women who had been immunised against influenza
and/or whooping cough, and women who had not received either of these vaccines in pregnancy.
Women who rejected immunisation for religious or moral grounds either for themselves or their
children were excluded from the research.
Finding Māori and Pacific women who had been immunised in pregnancy was challenging, with many
Māori and Pacific women contacted to take part in the research saying they did not know about the
vaccines, and had not been given information on the vaccines by their LMC or general practice. In some
cases, Māori and Pacific women were unsure whether they had been immunised for influenza and/or
whooping cough. Conversely, finding Pākehā women who had not been immunised against influenza
and/or whooping cough during pregnancy was also challenging. The final sample interviewed was 44
women who had not been immunised during pregnancy against influenza and/or whooping cough and
15 women who had received at least one of these vaccines in pregnancy.
Table 1: Women who participated in the research
District Health Board
Ethnicity
Whooping
cough only
Influenza
only
Whooping cough and
influenza
Nonimmunised
Total
Capital and Coast
Nelson
Marlborough
MidCentral
Christchurch
Counties Manukau
Waikato
TOTAL
Pākehā
Pākehā
3
1
2
2
1
8
6
15
8
1
3
9
5
7
9
44
10
8
8
10
59
Māori
7 Māori and 1 Pacific
Pacific
Pacific
4
1
1
4
7
Focus groups and in-depth interviews were conducted face-to-face in community meeting rooms,
qualitative meeting rooms, and women’s homes. Focus groups lasted two hours and in-depth
interviews lasted 60 minutes. Women received a koha to acknowledge their time and contribution to
the research.
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Interviews with maternity and health providers
Fifteen interviews were conducted with maternity and health providers (community and hospital
midwifes, general practice nurses and antenatal educators) across the same six District Health Boards to
understand providers’ views on women’s attitudes to immunisation in pregnancy and the enablers and
barriers pregnant women face to immunisation. Providers were recruited for the research from public
online directories and from providers nominating other eligible providers. Interviews were conducted
by telephone and lasted 20-30 minutes.
Table 2: Maternity and health providers who participated in the research
District Health Board
Counties Manukau
Waikato
MidCentral
Capital and Coast
Nelson Marlborough
Christchurch
TOTAL
Community
and hospital
midwives
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
General
Practice Nurses
Antenatal
Educators
Total
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
3
3
3
2
2
2
15
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Analysis
All focus group and interview data was analysed to find patterns and themes to answer the research
questions. This involved reviewing transcripts and field notes to identify common patterns in
knowledge, feelings, opinions and behaviour with respect to immunisation in pregnancy, building an
argument for selecting the themes and their relative weighting, and selecting supporting evidence
(quotes and examples) to include in the report. The fieldwork team also participated in analysis
workshops to interpret the data and draw conclusions.
Caveats
The information contained in this report represents the views of 59 women and 15 maternity and health
providers in Counties Manukau, Waikato, MidCentral, Capital and Coast, Nelson Marlborough and
Canterbury District Health Board catchment areas. Given the research was qualitative, the research
findings cannot be generalised to the wider population of pregnant women and providers. However, key
research themes described in this report were consistent across the focus groups and interviews,
increasing the dependability and rigour of the findings.
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3. Pregnant women’s beliefs about
immunisation in pregnancy
Most women are confident immunising their infants and themselves when they are not pregnant (e.g.
tetanus and travel vaccinations). However, they feel less comfortable immunising themselves when
they are pregnant. Women’s confidence to immunise when they are pregnant stems from a range of
beliefs about their vulnerability to infection, the severity of infection and the benefits of immunisation.
Women’s concerns about the safety of immunisation to their unborn babies also contribute to their
views of immunising in pregnancy.
Beliefs over their vulnerability to infection
Most pregnant women living in areas that have outbreaks of whooping cough believe their babies are
susceptible to whooping cough. Pregnant women do not understand that immunity to whooping cough
gets weaker over time, and most Pākehā and some Pacific pregnant women assume that if they were
immunised against whooping cough as a child they are immunised against the infection for life. Most
women do not understand that babies are not protected from whooping cough until they have had their
first three immunisations.
Pregnant women also feel vulnerable if they have had a personal experience of whooping cough. For
example, two women immunised against whooping cough as they had a family member with whooping
cough, and another one immunised because she remembers having whooping cough as a child. Some
women are also motivated to immunise after reading or hearing local tragedies involving parents and
children who were not immunised against whooping cough.
‘Not long before I immunised I read something in the paper. A father had whooping cough and
he passed it onto the baby and the baby may have passed away. This was a huge motivator to
me.’ (Pacific, Canterbury)
Most pregnant women believe they are healthy and do not understand that their immune system is
compromised in pregnancy, and therefore susceptible to influenza. They believe influenza mainly
affects older people and chronically ill people. However, the case in Nelson Marlborough of a pregnant
women dying from influenza was poignant and resulted in local women feeling vulnerable.
‘There was a young pregnant woman here in Nelson who died of flu. It was two or three years
ago now, and it was around the time I had the flu jab. She had been encouraged to get the
immunisation but she didn’t and she died in bed at home at 32 weeks pregnant. They (doctors)
aren’t saying that the immunisation would have saved her life, but they might have had.
Reading this makes you think more about the vaccines.’ (Pākehā, Nelson Marlborough)
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Some Māori women also doubt the necessity of immunisation against whooping cough and/or influenza,
as they didn’t immunise in their previous pregnancies and their babies were healthy. Another view that
was raised was that previous generations (including their mothers) had not immunised and their babies
were fine.
‘Back in the day my ancestors didn’t have immunisations.’ (Māori, Canterbury)
Beliefs there are consequences to infections
Most pregnant women consider whooping cough is a serious infection, particularly for infants. Videos of
infants with whooping cough struggling to breathe are particularly effective at reminding pregnant
women of the seriousness of the infection, and the importance of immunising their infants. Women
with asthma believe there are maternal consequences to infection.
With the exception of Pākehā pregnant women living in Nelson Marlborough, most do not consider
there are serious consequences to influenza. Most pregnant women (particularly Māori) believe if they
are unfortunate to contract influenza, they just need to suffer and get over it.
Beliefs over the benefit to immunisation
Pregnant women tend to have high trust in the efficacy of the whooping cough vaccine and women have
either immunised or intend to immunise their infants against whooping cough to protect them from
infection. On the other hand most pregnant women have low trust in the efficacy of the influenza
vaccine. Some women believe it is not as effective as other immunisations, meaning it does not reliably
prevent influenza, and other women believe the vaccine can give people influenza.
‘I wouldn’t do it. It makes you sick before you get better. Both midwife and my doctor
suggested it. Nah you get over the flu.’ (Māori, MidCentral)
‘I know if you get the flu vaccine you can get the flu as a result of the injection.’ (Pākehā,
Nelson Marlborough)
Safety concerns
Women commonly believe that they cannot be immunised in pregnancy, as it may be unsafe for their
unborn baby.
12
Some Pākehā pregnant women are concerned that if they were immunised, they would not be able to
tell if their unborn babies experienced side effects from the immunisations, and seek help or provide a
remedy. A few Pākehā pregnant women would be fearful of getting sick from the influenza vaccine,
which could harm their unborn babies and mean they would be less able to care for their older children.
‘It wasn’t mentioned to me until about two weeks from my due date. I had heard of people
getting sick from it. I thought what if it happens to me and I just drop. Being that pregnant all
you want to do is sit on the couch, and you don’t want to have to deal with a cold and feeling
miserable as well.’(Pākehā, Nelson Marlborough)
Some Māori and Pākehā women are skeptical of the ‘newness’ of immunisation in pregnancy, and
believe they are being treated as guinea pigs, or that the long term effects of immunisation on pregnant
women and their unborn babies are not known.
Desire for a healthy pregnancy
All pregnant women desire a healthy pregnancy, and women often take a number of steps to achieve
this, including watching what they eat, keeping fit, avoiding alcohol, reducing caffeine, taking care of
their emotional health, and being careful about using medicines and supplements. Some women feel
that injecting vaccines in pregnancy goes against their views of wanting to do the right thing for their
unborn baby.
‘I mostly controlled my diet. I cut everything out, coke, takeaways. At restaurants I made sure
everything was well cooked. I didn’t want to put something in my body that I couldn’t control.’
I didn’t know exactly what the vaccine was. I know that they say it is completely safe, but I’m a
bit funny when I am pregnant. (Pākehā, Capital and Coast)
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4. Pregnant women’s motivation to immunise
in pregnancy
Pregnant women’s motivation to get immunised against influenza and whooping cough would be to
protect themselves so their unborn babies could be protected from the consequences of severe
infection and to give them the best possible start in life.
Most pregnant women would not be motivated to immunise if it was for personal protection and did
not result in protecting their unborn babies. However, a few pregnant women who are asthmatic
immunised against influenza as they saw it as important for their health and wellbeing. However,
before immunising these women sought assurance from their LMC or general practice that
immunisation was safe for their unborn baby.
‘For me the protection of my baby was more important than me getting influenza. My
motivation was to protect her.’ (Pākehā, Capital and Coast)
‘I wasn’t told about it for any of my 5 kids and I have a 2 and a 3 year old. If I had information I
would have forced myself to do it. I don’t get into that sort of stuff for myself but I would have
done it for my tamariki. I would have pushed myself to do it for my babies. (Māori,
Canterbury)
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5. Pregnant women’s awareness of
immunisation entitlement
Information provided by LMCs5
Pregnant women trust their LMC to impart information that is of relevance to their pregnancy, and to
steer them with decisions that are in the best interest of their and their unborn baby’s health and
wellbeing. The role of LMCs in imparting immunisation information is critical and can either facilitate or
prevent uptake.
Women who had a conversation with their LMC about immunisation
Approximately one half of women say they had a conversation with their LMC about immunisation
against influenza and/or whooping cough for pregnant women with their LMC. Women more likely to
have had a conversation about immunisation in pregnancy with their LMC are mainly Pākehā and Pacific.
Very few women who had a conversation with their LMC about immunisation in pregnancy were aware
they could get immunised against both infections. While seasonality may be a factor in knowledge of
immunisation against influenza, it is not known why women knew about the availability of the influenza
vaccine but not the whooping cough vaccine.
In most cases the conversation was initiated by the LMC and in a few cases the conversation was
initiated by the woman, as she had seen a poster, pamphlet or seen or heard an advertisement
promoting immunisation for pregnant women.
Some of these women experienced informed conversations with their LMC about their susceptibility to
infection, the severity of the infection and its impact on their unborn babies and the benefits of
immunisation. In these cases, LMCs recommended immunisations. As a result, these women thought
immunisation was important for the health of their unborn baby, and were motivated to take the next
steps to make an appointment with a general practice for immunisation.
‘My midwife was great. She has experience with lots of different people and cultures and a
good worldview on things. I felt I could definitely trust her advice on the vaccines. She gave
me the information I needed. The thing I liked was that she explained the importance of it, but
5
All 59 women had an LMC. In all but three cases, women’s LMCs were community midwives.
15
she didn’t make me feel pressured. She didn’t push her own opinions. She just gave me the
information so I could ask questions if I needed to.’ (Pacific, Canterbury)
In other cases, women reported that LMCs gave them information on immunisation without explaining
their susceptibility and severity of infection and the benefits of immunisation. They presented
immunisation as an option they might like to consider, without recommending it.
‘The context that the midwife gave the information was that that you needed them if you were
high risk – poor diet, poor housing or pre-existing condition.’ (Pākehā, Nelson Marlborough)
Some Pacific women who have large families said their LMCs didn’t fully explain things to them when
they were pregnant, as their LMCs may have assumed they knew everything. These women felt their
midwives did not fully explain how immunisation protects their unborn babies, and therefore thought it
was to protect the woman. As a result, in spite of being told of the availability of the free vaccines,
these women were not motivated to take the next steps to make an appointment with a general
practice for immunisation.
‘Sometimes I feel like because it is my seventh baby it’s like ‘oh you are alright you know
everything’. You have had so many babies so we don’t need to go over everything again. It
would have been helpful if I was told that this was important, as it would help me make better
informed decisions.’ (Pacific, Waikato)
‘My midwife gave me heaps of pamphlets and said ‘you need this and this and this’. However,
when we talked about the injections it didn’t seem like I needed them. They didn’t seem
important because she didn’t enforce it. I basically got a pamphlet for me to read myself. If she
had spoken to me for a little longer about how important they are for my baby, because I don’t
care about myself, I would have considered it. (Pacific, Waikato)
Women who did not have a conversation with their LMC about immunisation
Most Māori women say they were not provided with information about immunisation from their LMC,
and are disappointed that their LMC did not disclose this information to them. By far the majority of
these women indicate that had they been provided with information about the benefits of immunisation
during pregnancy they would have wanted to be immunised. Effective targeting of this group with
accessible information would likely lead to an increased uptake of immunisation.
‘I feel like I didn’t get told anything. If I had of, I would have done it. It would have been good
to have an option.’ (Māori, Canterbury)
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Information provided by general practices
Most pregnant women say they went infrequently to their general practice during pregnancy for their
own health needs and therefore had few opportunities to receive information about immunisation from
their general practice. Māori were the least likely group of pregnant women to visit a general practice
for their own health needs. Most women said they engaged with their general practice to confirm their
first pregnancy, but were less likely to engage with their general practice to confirm later pregnancies.
Occasionally, pregnant women engaged with their general practices when they were sick or injured.
A few first-time pregnant women who visited their general practice in early pregnancy recall their
doctors being proactive in recommending immunisation against influenza and/or whooping cough later
in pregnancy. However, they couldn’t recall their general practices reminding them about
immunisation.
Pregnant women often visited their practice because their older children were sick or needed
immunising. None of these women who visited their practice because of their children recall being
informed about the vaccines.
Information provided by others
A few pregnant women were recommended by an older member of their family/ whānau to be
immunised against influenza. One woman spoke of receiving information from family/ whānau about
eligibility to the whooping cough vaccine for pregnant women. However no family/ whānau mentioned
the immunisations were to protect the woman to protect her baby.
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6. Pregnant women’s access to immunisation
Receiving immunisation from a general practice
In most instances, pregnant women are required to get their immunisations from their general practice.
This pathway for immunisation is not convenient and women (particularly Māori and Pacific) face many
barriers to accessing immunisation. These include transportation to their general practice, arranging
childcare and time off work. Furthermore, some women do not have a general practice, live in different
towns from their general practice, or would be reluctant to visit their practice, if they owe money for
consultations and prescriptions. A number of women (particularly Māori) also identified that having to
take a number of children to their general practice and the waiting prior to and after the immunisation
is a disincentive. Due to the above challenges, women have a strong preference for their LMC to be able
to deliver immunisations, during routine antenatal appointments.
‘It would be great if the midwife could do the vaccine right then and there at the antenatal
appointment. I have five children so I am pretty busy and have to try and squeeze the vaccines
in.’ (Pākehā, Nelson Marlborough)
Pregnant women who overcame these logistical barriers and immunised were mainly Pākehā. They
were more confident to take their LMC’s advice, had stable relationships with general practice, and
experienced fewer practical difficulties accessing services than women who were not immunised in
pregnancy. Most women received appointments within a few days of request, and the immunisations
were performed professionally.
Opportunistic immunisation
Two Pākehā pregnant women were immunised opportunistically at their general practice. The first
woman received the whooping cough vaccine when her practice nurse recommended the vaccine during
a dressing change and the second woman received both vaccines shortly after visiting her doctor
because she was sick. A third Pākehā woman who had a high risk pregnancy received both vaccines at a
hospital appointment. All three women found the process of immunisation more convenient, than
women who made a specific appointment for immunisation at their general practice.
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Employer initiated immunisation
A few Pākehā, one Māori and one Pacific pregnant woman received immunisation against influenza
through a work based programme. Women were immunised because their employers were promoting
it, because their colleagues were being immunised, because the vaccinators came to their workplace and
because it was free. Women did not get immunised because they felt vulnerable to the seriousness
of influenza infection in pregnancy. Some women questioned with the vaccinator whether it was safe to
immunise in pregnancy, and were reassured it was safe. Women found the process of immunisation
convenient and say they would be unlikely to proactively seek immunisation against influenza from their
general practice.
‘There were no barriers to getting the immunisations. I did it one day at work. It was very
convenient.’ (Māori, MidCentral)
Home visits
A number of Māori women, especially in Canterbury, noted that an “in-home” service had vaccinated
their children, which was far more convenient than taking a number of young children to their general
practice. These women would find a similar service for immunisations in pregnancy more convenient.
‘What made it easier for me was the convenience, you are already there and you just do it.’
(Māori, Canterbury)
Free immunisation
Māori and Pacific women express that being told by the LMC or general practice nurse that
immunisations were free played an important part in their decision to get immunised, and those who
did not immunise say that free immunisations would enable them to get immunised. These women are
not working or on low incomes, and spending money on their own health needs is neither feasible or
a priority. Immunisation for pregnant women being free signals to all women that immunisation is
recommended, and is an entitlement that all pregnant women are eligible for.
‘Having it free made it an easier decision.’ (Māori, MidCentral)
Women who got their partners and other family members immunised were generally those who could
afford to, and in a few cases Pacific women stretched their family’s finances so partners could be
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immunised. Māori women in particular feel that immunisation for whānau members (in particular Dads)
should also be free and that women should be able to get immunised after they have given birth for a
specified time (such as while they are breast feeding).
‘I’ve always got the kids immunised as it does protect them. My midwife bought it up at about
25 weeks and encouraged me to get it done around 30 weeks at local doctors. There was no
charge. My midwife encouraged us to get husband immunised as well because he’s a teacher.
He had to pay $40.’ (Māori, Canterbury)
While immunisation is fully funded, some women experienced costs getting to their general practice for
immunisation (petrol, parking, and bus fares), and in at least one case a woman paid a surcharge on top
of her vaccine.
In spite of most immunised women having to make a specific appointment for immunisations at their
general practice, all but one woman (who believes the influenza vaccine gave her the flu) says they
would get immunised in future pregnancies.
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7. Immunisation messages
Messages to encourage women to immunise in pregnancy were tested with women to see which ones
are most effective6. Messages tested included protecting pregnant women and unborn/newborn babies
from infection, vaccine safety and efficacy and immunisation access.
Protection messages
1. ‘If you’re pregnant, influenza can be particularly risky. Immunisation is a great way to protect
you and your baby. It will also give some protection to your new-born baby.’
This influenza-specific message has universal appeal and comes across as positive and friendly.
While influenza is not an everyday term, most women know what it is, and it sounds more
serious than “flu”. This message introduces the idea that the influenza infection can be
particularly severe for pregnant women. The second sentence resonates strongly, as it taps into
women’s desire to protect their unborn/newborn babies from infection. Pacific women think
the message should be shortened, as they feel the second and third sentences are saying the
same thing.
‘This message stands out to me the most. It’s just the way it is worded and letting me know that
she is protected before and after her first immunisation is due to roll around.’ (Māori,
MidCentral)
‘This message gives you just the right amount of information and it doesn’t use too many words
like vaccine and vaccinated. It gives you the information that you need to know. It tells you that
vaccinations are a good way to protect your baby. And it also tells you that it gives them
protection after they are born.’ (Pacific, Counties Manukau)
2. ‘Using whooping cough and influenza vaccines in pregnancy are an effective way of reducing
the risks to mother and baby of these diseases.’
Most women like this message, as it is authentic. It talks about reducing the risk of infection,
rather than overselling immunisation. This message also highlights that immunisation in
6
The Ministry of Health developed the messages for the purpose of message testing. The Immunisation Advisory
Centre (IMAC) also contributed to the wording of the messages tested.
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pregnancy benefits both mother and child. However, this message is more distant and does not
speak directly to pregnant women.
‘I like the way it says “an effective way of reducing risks”. It makes it sound like there is a
definite risk whether you vaccinate or not, but vaccinating reduces the risk.’ (Pākehā, Capital
and Coast)
3. ‘Immunisation helps to protect your baby, before and after they are born, your family and our
community.’
Most women had to read this message several times to understand it. It doesn’t say
immunisation is given to pregnant women, so women are unsure how immunisation is going to
protect their baby before he/she is born. Furthermore, the link between immunisation and
protecting the community is not well understood.
‘The whole thing doesn’t make sense to me, especially the part that says ‘our community.’ Why
would the community be interested in whether I am immunised?’(Pacific, Waikato)
‘I had to read it a few times to think…how is it going to make my community safer?’ (Māori,
MidCentral)
4. ‘Pertussis and influenza can be serious when you’re pregnant. For best protection, talk to
your midwife or family doctor about immunisations.’
This message is weak. Most women do not know what pertussis is, and coupled with the
unfamiliar term influenza, this message sounds medical/technical. Pacific women say they
would ‘skip over’ pertussis if they saw it on a poster or in a pamphlet. This message doesn’t
resonate, as it implies protection is for the pregnant woman, not for her unborn/newborn baby.
While the second sentence of this message gives women ‘permission’ to bring up immunisations
with their midwife or doctor, due to the medical terminology, most Pacific women would not
feel confident bringing it up with their midwife or doctor.
5. ‘Pregnant women and new-born babies are at particularly high risk of severe outcomes from
influenza.’
Women consider this message is serious. It introduces the fact that influenza is severe for
pregnant women and unborn babies. While this message catches women’s attention, it is seen
negatively, in that some women (particularly Pacific) find it scary and others find it
scaremongering.
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6. ‘You need two MMR vaccinations to be protected against Measles, Mumps and Rubella. Talk
to your family doctor about immunisation BEFORE you get pregnant.’
Women consider this message important, as Measles, Mumps and Rubella are considered
serious. This message is also considered to impart good advice, as most women would prefer to
immunise before they are pregnant or after they give birth, rather than when they are pregnant
due to safety concerns. However, the reality is that while some women plan their pregnancies
and can take advantage of this advice, many do not plan their pregnancies.
Vaccine safety and efficacy messages
7. ‘The influenza vaccine has an excellent safety record and has been proven to provide effective
protection both for most vaccinated people, including pregnant women and their unborn or
new-born babies’.
Some women like the positive and reassuring statement “excellent safety record”. However,
this message misses the mark, as it doesn’t alleviate most women’s concerns about vaccine
safety in pregnancy. Some Māori and Pacific women found this message too long and wordy,
and that it wasn’t talking to them personally. Some Pākehā women who made a conscious
decision not to immunise in pregnancy say this message oversells the safety of immunisation
and therefore doubt this message’s authenticity. In spite of this message’s weakness in regard
to safety, most women like the positive efficacy sentiment of this message.
‘This message is too wordy. Providing effective protection for pregnant women is confusing.
It’s also not talking to you. It’s talking to others.’ (Māori, MidCentral)
‘Excellent safety record’ sounds more definitive and scaremongering. It makes me shut my
mind off.’ (Pākehā, Capital and Coast)
8. ‘Vaccines against influenza and whooping cough are used internationally safely in pregnancy.’
While this message aims to tackle women’s concerns over vaccine safety in pregnancy, its
international framing, and its lack of mention of the safety of the unborn baby makes this
message weak. Women are more interested in knowing whether immunisation in pregnancy is
proven to be safe for the unborn baby in New Zealand and Australia, and are less interested in
knowing what happens internationally. For some women, this message infers that
immunisation in pregnant women is used in other countries, which is welcomed.
‘It doesn’t give me the information I need in that it doesn’t say it protects my baby and is going
to be safe. I don’t care that overseas people getting it. I care more about what is happening
here with our people.’ (Pacific, Waikato)
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Access message
9. ‘The immunisations you need when you’re pregnant are free. Talk to your midwife, family
doctor or nurse about getting immunised.’
This message resonates strongly with women on low incomes and/or with big families. It
therefore has high resonance amongst Māori and Pacific women. Being free also signals that
immunisation is recommended in pregnancy, and is an entitlement that all pregnant women are
eligible for. The second sentence gives women more confidence to ask for their free
immunisation from their midwife or doctor. While being free is a powerful message, women also
want to know that immunisation is important for protecting their unborn babies/newborns
against infection and safe in pregnancy. This message is not popular with all women, however.
The words “the immunisations you need when you’re pregnant” is not liked by women who
made a conscious decision not to immunise in pregnancy. The term family doctor is not familiar.
‘This message would probably make me pick up the phone and talk to my midwife and say “can
I organise a free immunisation”?’ (Pacific, Counties Manukau)
‘I really don’t like the word “need”. Who says we need it? Do we need it, or is it for the baby?
Where is the evidence that we really need it?’ (Pākehā, Capital and Coast)
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8. Communication channels
Print information
Most pregnancy-related information provided by LMCs, general practices and antenatal educators to
pregnant women is in print format (pamphlets, fact sheets and posters), and pregnant women feel
overwhelmed by the amount of print material they receive. There is a general feeling amongst pregnant
women that reaching them with pregnancy and health information almost exclusively through print is an
outmoded form of communication.
While some women (particularly Pākehā women pregnant with their first child) read most of what they
receive, other women are more selective over what they read, and women who have low English
literacy read little of the information they receive. Most Māori and Pacific pregnant women feel
particularly overloaded with the amount of written information they receive.
Online information and social media
Most women are accessing information online to support and complement the verbal information they
receive from their LMC or in place of pamphlets. They are also using social media for pregnancy and
child-related health information.
For Māori and Pacific women in particular, social media is a less intimidating channel for receiving
information and asking questions, and provides an opportunity for receiving and sharing information in
more interactive ways (e.g. photos, videos, and stories). Some of these women lack trust in public
health information, or immunisation advice given to them by LMCs and general practices, and have a
history of poor experience of maternity and health services. Women who use this channel note that the
‘anti-immunisation’ perspective is strong while the ‘pro-immunisation’ perspective is silent.
‘I wouldn’t read it [a pamphlet]. I don’t want to read it now. If I was handed this – It would go
in the car and I wouldn’t read it. Why don’t they make a YouTube video? Everyone watches
YouTube.’ (Māori, Canterbury)
‘If you make your own channel about immunisations, you can see it. Instant. Quick fix.
Facebook and YouTube and Snapchat. On demand. I would tag all my pregnant friends.’
(Māori, Canterbury)
‘On Facebook I’ve seen a lot of stuff on certain sites; a lot of controversy that immunising your
kids and adults is not good.’ (Pākehā, Mid Central)
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9. Brochure test
‘Immunisation for Pregnant Women’ draft pamphlet
Pregnant women were asked to read and provide feedback on a draft pamphlet developed by the
Ministry of Health titled ‘Immunisation for Pregnant Women’. The pamphlet is an early draft, and
contains information on immunisation before women become pregnant and when they are pregnant.
The draft pamphlet also mentions immunisation in children. The draft is not formatted and has no
pictures.
Most women comment that information about immunisation before pregnancy and immunisation in
pregnancy should not be combined in the one pamphlet. Pregnant women who are not immunised
against Rubella and Chickenpox became distressed on finding out that it is too late for them to be
immunised against these infections. Often pregnancy is not planned, and therefore women cannot take
advantage of this advice. However, brief information about Rubella and Chickenpox immunisations
could be put at the end of the pamphlet for women to consider after they have given birth.
The draft pamphlet lacks a prominent and compelling ‘call to action’ (instruction) for women to act e.g.
“Protect your unborn baby from whooping cough, call your doctor today and ask for your free
immunisation.”
The draft pamphlet contains important messages that encourage women to immunise. Women
particularly like the influenza content that informs them of the seriousness of influenza in pregnancy
(increased likelihood of hospitalisation, premature birth and stillbirth) and that the vaccine will not harm
their unborn baby. However, key messages such as immunisation being free are not prominent.
Most women (particularly Māori and Pacific) consider the pamphlet is too long for what they need to
know to immunise in pregnancy, and do not find it engaging. While women understand it is a draft
pamphlet without pictures, women have a strong preference for the final pamphlet to contain pictures,
shorter paragraphs and key facts/statistics rather than lengthy text.
‘This is too long. You would probably give it to your kids to play and make an airplane with.’
(Pacific, Counties Manukau)
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‘Avoiding Flu during Pregnancy’ pamphlet
Women were also given a copy of the National Influenza Specialist Group’s ‘Avoid Flu during Pregnancy’
pamphlet for their information at the end of the interview. None of the women had seen this pamphlet
before.
While this pamphlet was not formally tested, feedback is positive. Women like the engaging pictures of
the pregnant woman and child. They also like the bold headings, the short paragraphs and the bulleted
text. Contributing to this positive feedback is the fact that the pamphlet effectively ‘nails’ many of the
key messages for encouraging women to immunise in pregnancy e.g. ‘pregnant women are more
susceptible to influenza’, ‘influenza is severe for pregnant women and their unborn babies’,
‘immunisation against influenza is effective protection against infection’, ‘immunisation in pregnancy is
safe’ and ‘immunisation is free’. The pamphlet also has a good ‘call to action’ on the front page ‘Avoid
Flu during pregnancy, make sure you get your free influenza vaccine.’
‘The whole thing is great. It answers heaps of questions, and there is stuff in here that I didn’t
know. It’s direct and has key points. I like the bullet point page. It’s really simple.’ (Pākehā,
Capital and Coast)
‘The attractive thing about the pamphlet was the picture. It was nice and colourful and bold. I
especially like the one on the inside which had a likable picture. It was nicer. The information
was good too.’(Pacific, Canterbury)
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10. Provider perspectives
A small number of interviews were undertaken with community midwives, hospital midwives, general
practice nurses, and antenatal educators across the same six District Health Boards to confirm or expand
on the experiences of pregnant women in regards to immunisation in pregnancy.
Informing women on immunisation
Amongst the four community midwives spoken to, two actively encourage their clients to be immunised
against influenza (in season) and whooping cough, while the other two are more reactive and refer
clients to do their own research, if their clients bring it up with them. Midwives mention that their
clients’ main concern is whether immunisation in pregnancy is safe. They also worry about whether the
influenza vaccine will make them sick, and some clients don’t like needles. In general, midwives say they
don’t follow up whether their clients have received the immunisations, so they are not sure who has and
has not had them.
‘I tell them that the vaccine is recommended and that it will protect the baby before the
immunisation programme starts, and that Wellington is endemic with whooping cough.’
(Community midwife, Capital and Coast)
‘It’s a controversial subject. I would prefer not to be involved. I would want further training
on immunisation and vaccines to be able to say yes vaccination is OK.’ (Community midwife,
Waikato)
‘We have ‘pro immunisation’ posters up and get enquiries from women asking what they should
do, but I say ‘it’s your choice, it’s your baby, check the information and make the decision
based on what is right for you.’ (Community midwife, MidCentral)
Hospital midwives working with women who don’t have a LMC or have a high risk pregnancy say there is
information on immunisation in waiting rooms. However, due to the high needs of many of these
women, and the relatively limited time midwives have to engage with them they focus conversations
around matters they consider most important, such as breastfeeding, nutrition, quitting smoking, family
violence, and immunisation in pregnancy is rarely mentioned.
‘The key messages I give to pregnant women when I speak to them are about smoking,
screening for domestic violence, dietary advice because many of them have poor nutrition,
promoting breastfeeding, safe sleeping. Information about immunisation may be in the DHB
leaflet we give to them, or in pamphlets and posters in waiting rooms.’ (Hospital midwife,
Counties Manukau)
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Amongst the six general practice nurses spoken to, all are confident having discussions with patients in
early pregnancy that immunisation against influenza and whooping cough is available and
recommended, and most say they remind women when their immunisations are due. However, general
practice nurses confirm they mainly have contact with first time pregnant women and have less contact
with women who have been pregnant before who go directly to LMCs.
The few antenatal educators spoken to confirm that they don’t include information on immunisation for
pregnant women in their classes. There are many reasons for not including this information, including
not feeling informed enough to discuss immunisation, not wanting to talk about it in a group setting (as
they feel it is controversial), not wanting to be asked their opinion on immunisation in pregnancy (if they
are opposed), or because their programme is full.
‘I don’t make a big thing of immunisation because it’s very controversial. What I am trying to
avoid is the situation where you get heated debate with parents on opposing views. I think it’s a
private decision that people should draw on their own experience, values and philosophies.
Immunisation for pregnant women is relatively new and I’m not required to talk about it.’
(Antenatal educator, MidCentral)
Accessing immunisation
Midwives confirm that pregnant women receiving immunisations through their general practice is not
convenient. Midwives acknowledge that there are obstacles that would need to be overcome if
immunisations were provided outside of general practice (e.g. transporting vaccines and conducting
immunisations in a safe environment). However, they consider other ways to deliver immunisations
need to be considered to make it more convenient for women e.g. LMCs providing vaccination, or
placing services where women go for blood tests or scans.
General practice nurses believe that making a specific appointment with a general practice for
immunisation in pregnancy is a structural barrier, as women often need to arrange transport, childcare
and time off work. They also believe some women will be put off attending a practice for immunisations
if they have debts with the practice.
‘Another barrier is that women owe money to the practice and receptionists sometimes target
these women for unpaid bills. They may need to pay $10 despite immunisation being free. I
can imagine women not coming because of that.’ (General practice nurse, Waikato)
General practice nurses give priority to pregnant women who want to be immunised, do not make
women wait long for an appointment, and immunise women without an appointment. General practice
nurses also opportunistically immunise women, if they visit the practice for another matter.
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‘This practice is staunch on immunisation. At our practice everything gets dropped for an
immunisation, even when patients do not have an appointment.’ (General practice nurse,
Waikato)
Providers endorse that free immunisations, particularly for low income women, is a significant enabler
for pregnant women receiving immunisations.
Messages and communication
Midwives, general practice nurses and antennal educators confirm that pregnant women are
overwhelmed by the quantity of print information provided and most women do not read everything
they are given, particularly women with low literacy. Providers confirm that messages to encourage
pregnant women to immunise against influenza and whooping cough need to be short, positive and
friendly. They believe messages that tap into women’s desires to protect their unborn babies will be
most compelling. They confirm that pregnant women generally put their baby’s wellbeing above their
own, and providers working in low socio-economic areas confirm that women often don’t place value on
their own protection from infection, and therefore messages about maternal health and wellbeing are
likely to be less compelling.
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11. Conclusions
The findings from this research conclude that the most significant barrier to immunisation uptake in
pregnancy is a lack of accessible information and advice on immunisation from LMCs and structural
barriers for accessing services through general practices.
Most pregnant women say that had their LMCs informed them about the benefits of immunisation, their
susceptibility to infection, the severity of the infection and its impact on their unborn babies, and that
immunisation in pregnancy was safe they would have opted to be immunised. Furthermore, if women’s
LMCs could have administered the vaccination this would have made the process of immunisation more
convenient.
Māori and Pacific pregnant women face more barriers to immunisation in pregnancy than Pākehā
pregnant women. They are more likely to say they did not receive effective information on
immunisation from their LMCs, and face more barriers accessing immunisation through general
practices. The challenges the researchers had finding Māori and Pacific pregnant women who had
immunised for this research indicates that actual immunisation uptake is low for Māori and Pacific
pregnant women.
The overall goal of the research was to target segments and tailor communications and interventions
effectively and raise the uptake of vaccines during pregnancy. The research concludes that segments
that need to be targeted are Māori and Pacific pregnant women and LMCs who work with these women.
The findings from the research conclude that persuasive messages that talk about immunisation
protecting unborn babies from the consequences of infection are persuasive. Messages that say
immunisation is safe in pregnancy provide reassurance to pregnant women who are concerned about
the safety of vaccines for their unborn babies. Messages that say influenza is serious for unborn babies
cause pregnant women who do not consider influenza serious to take notice. Messages that say
immunisation is free for pregnant women resonate particularly strongly with Māori and Pacific pregnant
women.
The findings from this research also conclude that traditional print media is not cutting through to all
pregnant women and social media tools need to be considered for sharing relevant immunisation
content.
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