From chapter 2, 'The Nature of Moral Disagreement Today and the Claims
of Emotivism', pp. 6-11:
The most striking feature of contemporary moral utterance is that so
much of it is used to express disagreements; and the most striking feature of the
debates in which these disagreements are expressed is their interminable
character. I do not mean by this just that such debates go on and on and on —
although they do — but also that they apparently can find no terminus. There
seems to be no rational way of securing moral agreement in our culture.
Consider three examples of just such contemporary moral debate framed in
terms of characteristic and well-known rival moral arguments:
1 (a) A just war is one in which the good to be achieved outweighs the
evils involved in waging the war and in which a clear distinction can be made
between combatants —whose lives are at stake —and innocent noncombatants.
But in a modern war calculation of future escalation is never reliable and no
practically applicable distinction between combatants and noncombatants can
be made. Therefore no modern war can be a just war and we all now ought to be
pacifists.
(b) If you wish for peace, prepare for war. The only way to achieve peace
is to deter potential aggressors. Therefore you must build up your armaments
and make it clear that going to war on any particular scale is not necessarily
ruled out by your policies. An inescapable part of making this clear is being
prepared both to fight limited wars and to go not only to, but beyond, the nuclear
brink on certain types of occasion. Otherwise you will not avoid war and you will
be defeated.
(c) Wars between the Great Powers are purely destructive; but wars
waged to liberate oppressed groups, especially in the Third World, are a
necessary and therefore justified means for destroying the exploitative
domination which stands between mankind and happiness.
2 (a) Everybody has certain rights over his or her own person, including
his or her own body. It follows from the nature of these rights that at the stage
when the embryo is essentially part of the mother's body, the mother has a right
to make her own uncoerced decision on whether she will have an abortion or
not. Therefore abortion is morally permissible and ought to be allowed by law.
(b) I cannot will that my mother should have had an abortion when she
was pregnant with me, except perhaps if it had been certain that the embryo was
dead or gravely damaged. But if I cannot will this in my own case, how can I
consistently deny to others the right to life that I claim for myself? I would break
the so-called Golden Rule unless I denied that a mother has in general a right to
an abortion. I am not of course thereby committed to the view that abortion
ought to be legally prohibited.
(c) Murder is wrong. Murder is the taking of innocent life. An embryo is
an identifiable individual, differing from a newborn infant only in being at an
earlier stage on the long road to adult capacities and, if any life is innocent, that
of an embryo is. If infanticide is murder, as it is, abortion is murder. So abortion
is not only morally wrong, but ought to be legally prohibited.
3 (a) Justice demands that every citizen should enjoy, so far as is possible,
an equal opportunity to develop his or her talents and his or her other
potentialities. But prerequisites for the provision of such equal opportunity
include the provision of equal access to health care and to education. Therefore
justice requires the governmental provision of health and educational services,
financed out of taxation, and it also requires that no citizen should be able to buy
an unfair share of such services. This in turn requires the abolition of private
schools and private medical practice.
(b) Everybody has a right to incur such and only such obligations as he or
she wishes, to be free to make such and only such contracts as he or she desires
and to determine his or her own free choices. Physicians must therefore be free
to practice on such terms as they desire and patients must be free to choose
among physicians; teachers must be free to teach on such terms as they choose
and pupils and parents to go where they wish for education. Freedom thus
requires not only the existence of private practice in medicine and private
schools in education, but also the abolition of those restraints on private practice
which are imposed by licensing and regulation by such bodies as universities,
medical schools, the A.M.A. and the state.
These arguments have only to be stated to be recognized as being widely
influential in our society. They have of course their articulate expert spokesmen:
Herman Kahn and the Pope, Che Guevara and Milton Friedman are among the
authors who have produced variant versions of them. But it is their appearance
in newspaper editorials and high-school debates, on radio talk shows and letters
to congressmen, in bars, barracks and board-rooms, it is their typicality that
makes them important examples here. What salient characteristics do these
debates and disagreements share?
They are of three kinds. The first is what I shall call, adapting an
expression from the philosophy of science, the conceptual incommensurability of
the rival arguments in each of the three debates. Every one of the arguments is
logically valid or can be easily expanded so as to be made so; the conclusions do
indeed follow from the premises. But the rival premises are such that we possess
no rational way of weighing the claims of one as against another. For each
premise employs some quite different normative or evaluative concept from the
others, so that the claims made upon us are of quite different kinds. In the first
argument, for example, premises which invoke justice and innocence are at odds
with premises which invoke success and survival; in the second, premises which
invoke rights are at odds with those which invoke universalizability; in the third
it is the claim of equality that is matched against that of liberty. It is precisely
because there is in our society no established way of deciding between these
claims that moral argument appears to be necessarily interminable. From our
rival conclusions we can argue back to our rival premises; but when we do arrive
at our premises argument ceases and the invocation of one premise against
another becomes a matter of pure assertion and counter-assertion. Hence
perhaps the slightly shrill tone of so much moral debate.
But that shrillness may have an additional source. For it is not only in
arguments with others that we are reduced so quickly to assertion and counterassertion; it is also in the arguments that we have within ourselves. For
whenever an agent enters the forum of public debate he has already presumably,
explicitly or implicitly, settled the matter in question in his own mind. Yet if we
possess no unassailable criteria, no set of compelling reasons by means of which
we may convince our opponents, it follows that in the process of making up our
own minds we can have made no appeal to such criteria or such reasons. If I lack
any good reasons to invoke against you, it must seem that I lack any good
reasons. Hence it seems that underlying my own position there must be some
non-rational decision to adopt that position. Corresponding to the
interminability of public argument there is at least the appearance of a
disquieting private arbitrariness. It is small wonder if we become defensive and
therefore shrill.
A second, equally important, but contrasting, characteristic of these
arguments is that they do none the less purport to be impersonal rational
arguments and as such are usually presented in a mode appropriate to that
impersonality. What is that mode? Consider two different ways in which I may
provide backing for an injunction to someone else to perform some specific
action. In the first type of case I say, 'Do so-and-so'. The person addressed
replies, 'Why should I do so-and-so?' I reply, 'Because I wish it.' Here I have given
the person addressed no reason to do what I command or request unless he or
she independently possesses some particular reason for paying regard to my
wishes. If I am your superior officer — in the police, say, or the army — or
otherwise have power or authority over you, or if you love me or fear me or want
something from me, then by saying 'Because I wish it' I have indeed given you a
reason, although not perhaps a sufficient reason, for doing what it is that I enjoin.
Notice that in this type of case whether my utterance gives you a reason or not
depends on certain characteristics possessed at the time of hearing or otherwise
learning of the utterance by you. What reason-giving force the injunction has
depends in this way on the personal context of the utterance.
Contrast with this the type of case in which the answer to the question
'Why should I do so-and-so?' (after someone has said 'Do so-and-so') is not
'Because I wish it', but some such utterance as 'Because it would give pleasure to
a number of people' or 'Because it is your duty'. In this type of case the reason
given for action either is or is not a good reason for performing the action in
question independently of who utters it or even of whether it is uttered at all.
Moreover the appeal is to a type of consideration which is independent of the
relationship between speaker and hearer. Its use presupposes the existence of
impersonal criteria — the existence, independently of the preferences or
attitudes of speaker and hearer, of standards of justice or generosity or duty. The
particular link between the context of utterance and the force of the reasongiving which always holds in the case of expressions of personal preferences or
desire is severed in the case of moral and other evaluative utterances.
This second characteristic of contemporary moral utterance and
argument, when combined with the first, imparts a paradoxical air to
contemporary moral disagreement. For if we attended solely to the first
characteristic, to the way in which what at first appears to be argument relapses
so quickly into unargued disagreement, we might conclude that there is nothing
to such contemporary disagreements but a clash of antagonistic wills, each will
determined by some set of arbitrary choices of its own. But this second
characteristic, the use of expressions whose distinctive function in our language
is to embody what purports to be an appeal to objective standards, suggests
otherwise. For even if the surface appearance of argument is only a masquerade,
the question remains 'Why this masquerade?' What is it about rational argument
which is so important that it is the nearly universal appearance assumed by
those who engage in moral conflict? Does not this suggest that the practice of
moral argument in our culture expresses at least an aspiration to be or to
become rational in this area of our lives?
A third salient characteristic of contemporary moral debate is intimately
related to the first two. It is easy to see that the different conceptually
incommensurable premises of the rival arguments deployed in these debates
have a wide variety of historical origins. The concept of justice in the first
argument has its roots in Aristotle's account of the virtues; the second
argument's genealogy runs through Bismarck and Clausewitz to Machiavelli; the
concept of liberation in the third argument has shallow roots in Marx, deeper
roots in Fichte. In the second debate a concept of rights which has Lockean
antecedents is matched against a view of universalizability which is recognizably
Kantian and an appeal to the moral law which is Thomist. In the third debate an
argument which owes debts to T.H. Green and to Rousseau competes with one
which has Adam Smith as a grandfather. This catalogue of great names is
suggestive; but it may be misleading in two ways. The citing of individual names
may lead us to underestimate the complexity of the history and the ancestry of
such arguments; and it may lead us to look for that history and that ancestry only
in the writings of philosophers and theorists instead of in those intricate bodies
of theory and practice which constitute human cultures, the beliefs of which are
articulated by philosophers and theorists only in a partial and selective manner.
But the catalogue of names does suggest how wide and heterogeneous the
variety of moral sources is from which we have inherited. The surface rhetoric of
our culture is apt to speak complacently of moral pluralism in this connection,
but the notion of pluralism is too imprecise. For it may equally well apply to an
ordered dialogue of intersecting viewpoints and to an unharmonious melange of
ill-assorted fragments. The suspicion — and for the moment it can only be a
suspicion — that it is the latter with which we have to deal is heightened when
we recognize that all those various concepts which inform our moral discourse
were originally at home in larger totalities of theory and practice in which they
enjoyed a role and function supplied by contexts of which they have now been
deprived. Moreover the concepts we employ have in at least some cases changed
their character in the past three hundred years; the evaluative expressions we
use have changed their meaning. In the transition from the variety of contexts in
which they were originally at home to our own contemporary culture 'virtue'
and 'justice' and 'piety' and 'duty' and even 'ought' have become other than they
once were. How ought we to write the history of such changes?
It is in trying to answer this question that the connection between these
features of contemporary moral debate and my initial hypothesis becomes clear.
For if I am right in supposing that the language of morality passed from a state of
order to a state of disorder, this passage will surely be reflected in — in part
indeed will actually consist in — just such changes of meaning. Moreover, if the
characteristics of our own moral arguments which I have identified — most
notably the fact that we simultaneously and inconsistently treat moral argument
as an exercise of our rational powers and as mere expressive assertion — are
symptoms of moral disorder, we ought to be able to construct a true historical
narrative in which at an earlier stage moral argument is very different in kind.
Can we?
One obstacle to our so doing has been the persistently unhistorical
treatment of moral philosophy by contemporary philosophers in both the
writing about and the teaching of the subject. We all too often still treat the
moral philosophers of the past as contributors to a single debate with a relatively
unvarying subject-matter, treating Plato and Hume and Mill as contemporaries
both of ourselves and of each other. This leads to an abstraction of these writers
from the cultural and social milieus in which they lived and thought and so the
history of their thought acquires a false independence from the rest of the
culture. Kant ceases to be part of the history of Prussia, Hume is no longer a
Scotsman. For from the standpoint of moral philosophy as we conceive it these
characteristics have become irrelevances. Empirical history is one thing,
philosophy quite another. But are we right in understanding the division
between academic disciplines in the way that we conventionally do? Once again
there seems to be a possible relationship between the history of moral discourse
and the history of the academic curriculum.
From chapter 6, 'Some Consequences of the Failure of the Enlightenment
Project', pp. 66-74:
[i}t is clearly necessary to understand not only that the [Enlightenment]
project [of justifying the rules of morality abstractly, universally and nontelologically] fails, but why it fails, and to do this it is necessary to examine one
such attempt in a little detail. The example which I have chosen is that made by
Alan Gewirth in Reason and Morality (1978). I choose Gewirth's book because it
is not only one of the most recent of such attempts, but also because it deals
carefully and scrupulously with objections and criticisms that have been made of
earlier writers. Moreover Gewirth adopts what is at once a clear and a strict view
of what reason is: in order to be admitted as a principle of practical reason, a
principle must be analytic; and in order for a conclusion to follow from premises
of practical reason, it must be demonstrably entailed by those premises. There is
none of the looseness and vagueness about what constitutes 'a good reason'
which had weakened some earlier analytic attempts to exhibit morality as
rational.
The key sentence of Gewirth's book is: 'Since the agent regards as
necessary goods the freedom and well-being that constitute the generic features
of his successful action, he logically must also hold that he has rights to these
generic features and he implicitly makes a corresponding rights-claim' (p.63).
Gewirth's argument may be spelled out as follows. Every rational agent has to
recognize a certain measure of freedom and well-being as prerequisites for his
exercise of rational agency. Therefore each rational agent must will, if he is to
will at all, that he possess that measure of these goods. This is what Gewirth
means when he writes in the sentence quoted of 'necessary goods'. And there is
clearly no reason to quarrel with Gewirth's argument so far. It turns out to be the
next step that is at once crucial and questionable.
Gewirth argues that anyone who holds that the prerequisites for his
exercise of rational agency are necessary goods is logically committed to holding
also that he has a right to these goods. But quite clearly the introduction of the
concept of a right needs justification both because it is at this point a concept
quite new to Gewirth's argument and because of the special character of the
concept of a right.
It is first of all clear that the claim that I have a right to do or have
something is a quite different type of claim from the claim that I need or want or
will be benefited by something. From the first — if it is the only relevant
consideration — it follows that others ought not to interfere with my attempts to
do or have whatever it is, whether it is for my own good or not. From the second
it does not. And it makes no difference what kind of good or benefit is at issue.
Another way of understanding what has gone wrong with Gewirth's
argument is to understand why this step is so essential to his argument. It is of
course true that if I claim a right in virtue of my possession of certain
characteristics, then I am logically committed to holding that anyone else with
the same characteristics also possesses this right. But it is just this property of
necessary universalizability that does not belong to claims about either the
possession of or the need or desire for a good, even a universally necessary good.
One reason why claims about goods necessary for rational agency are so
different from claims to the possession of rights is that the latter in fact
presuppose, as the former do not, the existence of a socially established set of
rules. Such sets of rules only come into existence at particular historical periods
under particular social circumstances. They are in no way universal features of
the human condition. Gewirth readily acknowledges that expressions such as 'a
right' in English and cognate terms in English and other languages only appeared
at a relatively late point in the history of the language toward the close of the
middle ages. But he argues that the existence of such expressions is not a
necessary condition for the embodiment of the concept of a right in forms of
human behavior; and in this at least he is clearly right. But the objection that
Gewirth has to meet is precisely that those forms of human behavior which
presuppose notions of some ground to entitlement, such as the notion of a right,
always have a highly specific and socially local character, and that the existence
of particular types of social institution or practice is a necessary condition for the
notion of a claim to the possession of a right being an intelligible type of human
performance. (As a matter of historical fact such types of social institution or
practice have not existed universally in human societies.) Lacking any such social
form, the making of a claim to a right would be like presenting a check for
payment in a social order that lacked the institution of money. Thus Gewirth has
illicitly smuggled into his argument a conception which does not in any way
belong, as it must do if his case is to succeed, to the minimal characterization of a
rational agent.
I take it then that both the utilitarianism of the middle and late nineteenth
century and the analytical moral philosophy of the middle and late twentieth
century are alike unsuccessful attempts to rescue the autonomous moral agent
from the predicament in which the failure of the Enlightenment project of
providing him with a secular, rational justification for his moral allegiances had
left him. I have already characterized that predicament as one in which the price
paid for liberation from what appeared to be the external authority of traditional
morality was the loss of any authoritative content from the would-be moral
utterances of the newly autonomous agent. Each moral agent now spoke
unconstrained by the externalities of divine law, natural teleology or hierarchical
authority; but why should anyone else now listen to him? It was and is to this
question that both utilitarianism and analytical moral philosophy must be
understood as attempting to give cogent answers; and if my argument is correct,
it is precisely this question which both fail to answer cogently. Nonetheless
almost everyone, philosopher and non-philosopher alike, continues to speak and
write as if one of these projects had succeeded. And hence derives one of the
features of contemporary moral discourse which I noticed at the outset, the gap
between the meaning of moral expressions and the ways in which they are put to
use. For the meaning is and remains such as would have been warranted only if
at least one of the philosophical projects had been successful; but the use, the
emotivist use, is precisely what one would expect if the philosophical projects
had all failed.
Contemporary moral experience as a consequence has a paradoxical
character. For each of us is taught to see himself or herself as an autonomous
moral agent; but each of us also becomes engaged by modes of practice, aesthetic
or bureaucratic, which involve us in manipulative relationships with others.
Seeking to protect the autonomy that we have learned to prize, we aspire
ourselves not to be manipulated by others; seeking to incarnate our own
principles and stand-point in the world of practice, we find no way open to us to
do so except by directing towards others those very manipulative modes of
relationship which each of us aspires to resist in our own case. The incoherence
of our attitudes and our experience arises from the incoherent conceptual
scheme which we have inherited.
Once we have understood this it is possible to understand also the key
place that three other concepts have in the distinctively modern moral scheme,
that of rights, that of protest, and that of unmasking. By 'rights' I do not mean
those rights conferred by positive law or custom on specified classes of person; I
mean those rights which are alleged to belong to human beings as such and
which are cited as a reason for holding that people ought not to be interfered
with in their pursuit of life, liberty and happiness. They are the rights which were
spoken of in the eighteenth century as natural rights or as the rights of man.
Charactistically in that century they were defined negatively, precisely as rights
not to be interfered with. But sometimes in that century and much more often in
our own positive rights — rights to due process, to education or to employment
are examples — are added to the list. The expression 'human rights' is now
commoner than either of the eighteenth-century expressions. But whether
negative or positive and however named they are supposed to attach equally to
all individuals, whatever their sex, race, religion, talents or deserts, and to
provide a ground for a variety of particular moral stances.
It would of course be a little odd that there should be such rights
attaching to human beings simply qua human beings in light of the fact, which I
alluded to in my discussion of Gewirth's argument, that there is no expression in
any ancient or medieval language correctly translated by our expression 'a right'
until near the close of the middle ages: the concept lacks any means of
expression in Hebrew, Greek, Latin or Arabic, classical or medieval, before about
1400, let alone in Old English, or in Japanese even as late as the mid-nineteenth
century. From this it does not of course follow that there are no natural or
human rights; it only follows that no one could have known that there were. And
this at least raises certain questions. But we do not need to be distracted into
answering them, for the truth is plain: there are no such rights, and belief in
them is one with belief in witches and in unicorns.
The best reason for asserting so bluntly that there are no such rights is
indeed of precisely the same type as the best reason which we possess for
asserting that there are no witches and the best reason which we possess for
asserting that there are no unicorns: every attempt to give good reasons for
believing that there are such rights has failed. The eighteenth-century
philosophical defenders of natural rights sometimes suggest that the assertions
which state that men possess them are self-evident truths; but we know that
there are no self-evident truths. Twentieth-century moral philosophers have
sometimes appealed to their and our intuitions; but one of the things that we
ought to have learned from the history of moral philosophy is that the
introduction of the word 'intuition' by a moral philosopher is always a signal that
something has gone badly wrong with an argument. In the United Nations
declaration on human rights of 194[8] what has since become the normal UN
practice of not giving good reasons for any assertions whatsoever is followed
with great rigor. And the latest defender of such rights, Ronald Dworkin (Taking
Rights Seriously, 1976) concedes that the existence of such rights cannot be
demonstrated, but remarks on this point simply that it does not follow from the
fact that a statement cannot be demonstrated that it is not true (p. 81). Which is
true, but could equally be used to defend claims about unicorns and witches.
Natural or human rights then are fictions — just as is utility — but
fictions with highly specific properties. In order to identify them it is worth
noticing briefly once more the other moral fiction which emerges from the
eighteenth century's attempts to reconstruct morality, the concept of utility.
When Bentham first turned 'utility' into a quasi-technical term, he did so, as I
have already noticed, in a way that was designed to make plausible the notion of
summing individual prospects of pleasure and pain. But, as John Stuart Mill and
other utilitarians expanded their notion of the variety of aims which human
beings pursue and value, the notion of its being possible to sum all those
experiences and activities which give satisfaction became increasingly
implausible for reasons which I suggested earlier. The objects of natural and
educated human desire are irreducibly heterogeneous and the notion of
summing them either for individuals or for some population has no clear sense.
But if utility is thus not a clear concept, then to use it as if it is, to employ it as if it
could provide us with a rational criterion, is indeed to resort to a fiction.
A central characteristic of moral fictions which comes clearly into view when we
juxtapose the concept of utility to that of rights is now identifiable: they purport
to provide us with an objective and impersonal criterion, but they do not. And for
this reason alone there would have to be a gap between their purported meaning
and the uses to which they are actually put. Moreover we can now understand a
little better how the phenomenon of incommensurable premises in modern
moral debate arises. The concept of rights was generated to serve one set of
purposes as part of the social invention of the autonomous moral agent; the
concept of utility was devised for quite another set of purposes. And both were
elaborated in a situation in which substitute artifacts for the concepts of an older
and more traditional morality were required, substitutes that had to have a
radically innovative character if they were to give even an appearance of
performing their new social functions. Hence when claims invoking rights are
matched against claims appealing to utility or when either or both are matched
against claims based on some traditional concept of justice, it is not surprising
that there is no rational way of deciding which type of claim is to be given
priority or how one is to be weighed against the other. Moral
incommensurability is itself the product of a particular historical conjunction.
This provides us with an insight important for understanding the politics
of modern societies. For what I described earlier as the culture of bureaucratic
individualism results in their characteristic overt political debates being
between an individualism which makes its claims in terms of rights and forms of
bureaucratic organization which make their claims in terms of utility. But if the
concept of rights and that of utility are a matching pair of incommensurable
fictions, it will be the case that the moral idiom employed can at best provide a
semblance of rationality for the modern political process, but not its reality. The
mock rationality of the debate conceals the arbitrariness of the will and power at
work in its resolution.
It is easy also to understand why protest becomes a distinctive moral
feature of the modern age and why indignation is a predominant modern
emotion. 'To protest' and its Latin predecessors and French cognates are
originally as often or more often positive as negative; to protest was once to bear
witness to something and only as a consequence of that allegiance to bear
witness against something else.
But protest is now almost entirely that negative phenomenon which
characteristically occurs as a reaction to the alleged invasion of someone's rights
in the name of someone else's utility. The self-assertive shrillness of protest
arises because the facts of incommensurability ensure that protestors can never
win an argument; the indignant self-righteousness of protest arises because the
facts of incommensurability ensure equally that the protestors can never lose an
argument either. Hence the utterance of protest is characteristically addressed to
those who already share the protestors' premises. The effects of
incommensurability ensure that protestors rarely have anyone else to talk to but
themselves. This is not to say that protest cannot be effective; it is to say that it
cannot be rationally effective and that its dominant modes of expression give
evidence of a certain perhaps unconscious awareness of this.
The claim that the major protagonists of the distinctively modern moral
causes of the modern world — I am not here speaking at all of those who seek to
uphold older traditions which have somehow or other survived into some sort of
coexistence with modernity-offer a rhetoric which serves to conceal behind the
masks of morality what are in fact the preferences of arbitrary will and desire is
not of course an original claim. For each of the contending protagonists of
modernity, while for obvious reasons unwilling to concede that the claim is true
in their own case, is prepared to make it about those against whom they contend.
So the Evangelicals of the Clapham Sect saw in the morality of the Enlightenment
a rational and rationalizing disguise for selfishness and sin; so in turn the
emancipated grandchildren of the Evangelicals and their Victorian successors
saw Evangelical piety as mere hypocrisy; so later Bloomsbury, liberated by G.E.
Moore, saw the whole semi-official cultural paraphernalia of the Victorian age as
a pompous charade concealing the arrogant self-will not only of fathers and
clergymen, but also of Arnold, Ruskin and Spencer; and so in precisely the same
way D.H. Lawrence 'saw through' Bloomsbury. When emotivism was finally
proclaimed as an entirely general thesis about the nature of moral utterance, it
did no more than generalize what each party of cultural revolt in the modern
world had already said about its particular moral predecessors. Unmasking the
unacknowledged. motives of arbitrary will and desire which sustain the moral
masks of modernity is itself one of the most characteristically modern of
activities.
It was Freud's achievement to discover that unmasking arbitrariness in
others may always be a defence against uncovering it in ourselves. At the
beginning of the twentieth century, autobiographies like Samuel Butler's clearly
evoked an intense response from all those who felt the oppressive weight of
assertive paternal self-will behind the cultural forms in which they had been
educated. And this oppressive weight was surely due to the extent to which
educated men and woman had internalized what they aspired to reject. Hence
the importance of Lytton Strachey's mockery of the Victorians as part of the
liberation of Bloomsbury and hence also the exaggerated rhetoric of Strachey's
reaction to Moore's ethics. But even more important was Freud's presentation of
the inherited conscience as superego, as an irrational part of ourselves whose
commands we need, for the sake of our psychic health, to be freed from. Freud of
course took himself to have made a discovery about morality as such and not just
about what morality had become in late nineteenth-century and early twentiethcentury Europe. But this mistake must not be allowed to detract from what he
did achieve.
It is worth at this point recalling the thread of my central argument. I
began from the way in which contemporary moral debate is interminable and I
tried to explain that interminability as a consequence of the truth of an amended
version of the emotivist theory of moral judgment, originally advanced by C.L.
Stevenson and others. But I treated that theory not only as a philosophical
analysis, but also as a sociological hypothesis. (I am unhappy about this way of
putting the matter; it is not clear to me, for reasons which I gave in Chapter 3,
how any adequate philosophical analysis in this area could escape being also a
sociological hypothesis, and vice versa. There seems something deeply mistaken
in the notion enforced by the conventional curriculum that there are two distinct
subjects or disciplines — moral philosophy, a set of conceptual enquiries, on the
one hand and the sociology of morals, a set of empirical hypotheses and findings,
on the other. Quine's death-blow to any substantial version of the analyticsynthetic distinction casts doubt in any case on this kind of contrast between the
conceptual and the empirical.)
My argument was thus to the effect that emotivism informs a great deal of
contemporary moral utterance and practice and more specifically that the
central characters of modern society — in the special sense which I assigned to
the word 'character' — embody such emotivist modes in their behavior. These
characters, it will be recalled, are the aesthete, the therapist and the manager,
the bureaucratic expert. The historical discussion of those developments which
made the victories of emotivism possible has now revealed something else about
these specifically modern characters, namely the extent to which they trade and
cannot escape trading in moral fictions. But how far does the range of moral
fiction extend beyond those of rights and utility? And who is going to be deceived
by them?
The aesthete is the character least likely to be their victim. Those insolent
scoundrels of the philosophical imagination, Diderot's Rameau and
Kierkegaard's 'A,' who lounge so insolently at the entrance to the modern world,
specialize in seeing through illusory and fictitious claims. If they are deceived, it
is only by their own cynicisim. When aesthetic deception occurs in the modern
world, it is rather because of the reluctance of the aesthete to admit that that is
what he is. So great can the burden of enjoying oneself become, so clearly can the
emptiness and boredom of pleasure appear as a threat, that the aesthete
sometimes has to resort to even more elaborate devices than were available to
the younger Rameau or to 'A'. He may even become an addicted reader of
Kierkegaard and make of that despair which Kierkegaard saw as the aesthete's
fate a new form of self-indulgence. And if over-indulgence in despair seems to be
injuring his capacities for enjoyment, he will take himself to the therapist, just as
he would for over-indulgence in alcohol, and make of his therapy one more
aesthetic experience.
The therapist by contrast is not only the most liable of the three typical
characters of modernity to be deceived, but is also the most liable to be seen to
be deceived, and not only by moral fictions. Devastating hostile critiques of the
standard therapeutic theories of our culture are easily available; indeed each
school of therapists is all too anxious to make clear the theoretical defects of
each rival school. Thus the problem is not why the claims of psychoanalytic or
behavioral therapies are not exposed as ill-founded; it is rather why, since they
have been so adequately undermined, the practices of therapy continue for the
most part as though nothing had happened. And this problem, like that of the
aesthete, is not only or merely a problem of moral fictions.
Of course both aesthete and therapist are doubtless as liable as anyone
else to trade in such fictions; but they have no fictions which are peculiarly their
own, which belong to the very definition of their role. With the manager, that
dominant figure of the contemporary scene, it is quite otherwise. For beside
rights and utility, among the central moral fictions of the age we have to place
the peculiarly managerial fiction embodied in the claim to possess systematic
effectiveness in controlling certain aspects of social reality....
From chapter 17, 'Justice as a Virtue: Changing Conceptions', pp. 248-254:
Nozick derives these conclusions from premises about the inalienable
rights of each individual, premises for which he does not himself offer
arguments. As in the case of Rawls, I do not want to quarrel with Nozick's
derivation of his principles from his premises; once again I shall want to stress
instead that it is only from some such premises that such principles could be
rationally derived. That is to say, in the case of both Nozick's account of justice
and Rawls's account of justice the problems that I want to raise do not concern
the coherence of the internal structure of their arguments. Indeed my own
argument requires that their accounts do not lack such coherence.
What I want to argue is threefold: first, that the incompatibility of Rawls's
and Nozick's accounts does up to a point genuinely mirror the incompatibility of
A's position with B's, and that to this extent at least Rawls and Nozick
successfully articulate at the level of moral philosophy the disagreement
between such ordinary non-philosophical citizens as A and B; but that Rawls and
Nozick also reproduce the very same type of incompatibility and
incommensurability at the level of philosophical argument that made A's and B's
debate unsettlable at the level of social conflict; and secondly, that there is
nonetheless an element in the position of both A and B which neither Rawls's
account nor Nozick's captures, an element which survives from that older
classical tradition in which the virtues were central. When we reflect on both
these points, a third emerges: namely, that in their conjunction we have an
important clue to the social presuppositions which Rawls and Nozick to some
degree share.
Rawls makes primary what is in effect a principle of equality with respect
to needs. His conception of 'the worst off sector of the community is a conception
of those whose needs are gravest in respect of income, wealth and other goods.
Nozick makes primary what is a principle of equality with respect to entitlement.
For Rawls how those who are now in grave need come to be in grave need is
irrelevant; justice is made into a matter of present patterns of distribution to
which the past is irrelevant. For Nozick only evidence about what has been
legitimately acquired in the past is relevant; present patterns of distribution in
themselves must be irrelevant to justice (although not perhaps to kindness or
generosity). To say even this much makes it clear how close Rawls is to B and
how close Nozick is to A. For A appealed against distributive canons to a justice
of entitlement, and B appealed against canons of entitlement to a justice which
regards needs. Yet it is also at once clear not only that Rawls's priorities are
incompatible with Nozick's in a way parallel to that in which B's position is
incompatible with A's, but also that Rawls's position is incommensurable with
Nozick's in a way similarly parallel to that in which B's is incommensurable with
A's. For how can a claim that gives priority to equality of needs be rationally
weighed against one which gives priority to entitlements? If Rawls were to argue
that anyone behind the veil of ignorance, who knew neither whether and how his
needs would be met nor what his entitlements would be, ought rationally to
prefer a principle which respects needs to one which respects entitlements,
invoking perhaps principles of rational decision theory to do so, the immediate
answer must be not only that we are never behind such a veil of ignorance, but
also that this leaves unimpugned Nozick's premise about inalienable rights. And
if Nozick were to argue that any distributive principle, if enforced, could violate a
freedom to which everyone of us is entitled — as he does indeed argue — the
immediate answer must be that in so interpreting the inviolability of basic rights
he begs the question in favor of his own argument and leaves unimpugned
Rawls's premises.
Nonetheless there is something important, if negative, which Rawls's
account shares with Nozick's. Neither of them make any reference to desert in
their account of justice, nor could they consistently do so. And yet both A and B
did make such a reference — and it is imperative here to notice that 'A' and 'B'
are not the names of mere arbitrary constructions of my own; their arguments
faithfully reproduce, for example, a good deal of what was actually said in recent
fiscal debates in California, New Jersey and elsewhere. What A complains of on
his own behalf is not merely that he is entitled to what he has earned, but that he
deserves it in virtue of his life of hard work; what B complains of on behalf of the
poor and deprived is that their poverty and deprivation is undeserved and
therefore unwarranted. And it seems clear that in the case of the real-life
counterparts of A and B it is the reference to desert which makes them feel
strongly that what they are complaining about is injustice, rather than some
other kind of wrong or harm.
Neither Rawls's account nor Nozick's allows this central place, or indeed
any kind of place, for desert in claims about justice and injustice. Rawls (p. 310)
allows that common sense views of justice connect it with desert, but argues first
that we do not know what anyone deserves until we have already formulated the
rules of justice (and hence we cannot base our understanding of justice upon
desert), and secondly that when we have formulated the rules of justice it turns
out that it is not desert that is in question anyway, but only legitimate
expectations. He also argues that to attempt to apply notions of desert would be
impracticable — the ghost of Hume walks in his pages at this point.
Nozick is less explicit, but his scheme of justice being based exclusively on
entitlements can allow no place for desert. He does at one point discuss the
possibility of a principle for the rectification of injustice, but what he writes on
that point is so tentative and cryptic that it affords no guidance for amending his
general viewpoint. It is in any case clear that for both Nozick and Rawls a society
is composed of individuals, each with his or her own interest, who then have to
come together and formulate common rules of life. In Nozick's case there is the
additional negative constraint of a set of basic rights. In Rawls's case the only
constraints are those that a prudent rationality would impose. Individuals are
thus in both accounts primary and society secondary, and the identification of
individual interests is prior to, and independent of, the construction of any moral
or social bonds between them. But we have already seen that the notion of
desert is at home only in the context of a community whose primary bond is a
shared understanding both of the good for man and of the good of that
community and where individuals identify their primary interests with reference
to those goods. Rawls explicitly makes it a presupposition of his view that we
must expect to disagree with others about what the good life for man is and must
therefore exclude any understanding of it that we may have from our
formulation of the principles of justice. Only those goods in which everyone,
whatever their view of the good life, takes an interest are to be admitted to
consideration. In Nozick's argument too, the concept of community required for
the notion of desert to have application is simply absent. To understand this is to
clarify two further points.
The first concerns the shared social presuppositions of Rawls and Nozick.
It is, from both standpoints, as though we had been shipwrecked on an
uninhabited island with a group of other individuals, each of whom is a stranger
to me and to all the others. What have to be worked out are rules which will
safeguard each one of us maximally in such a situation. Nozick's premise
concerning rights introduces a strong set of constraints; we do know that certain
types of interference with each other are absolutely prohibited. But there is a
limit to the bonds between us, a limit set by our private and competing interests.
This individualistic view has of course, as I noticed earlier, a distinguished
ancestry: Hobbes, Locke (whose views Nozick treats with great respect),
Machiavelli and others. And it contains within itself a certain note of realism
about modern society; modern society is indeed often, at least in surface
appearance, nothing but a collection of strangers, each pursuing his or her own
interests under minimal constraints. We still of course, even in modern society,
find it difficult to think of families, colleges and other genuine communities in
this way; but even our thinking about those is now invaded to an increasing
degree by individualist conceptions, especially in the law courts. Thus Rawls and
Nozick articulate with great power a shared view which envisages entry into
social life as — at least ideally — the voluntary act of at least potentially rational
individuals with prior interests who have to ask the the question 'What kind of
social contract with others is it reasonable for me to enter into?' Not surprisingly
it is a consequence of this that their views exclude any account of human
community in which the notion of desert in relation to contributions to the
common tasks of that community in pursing shared goods could provide the
basis for judgments about virtue and injustice.
Desert is ruled out too in another way. I have remarked upon how Rawls's
distributive principles exclude reference to the past and so to claims to desert
based on past actions and sufferings. Nozick too excludes that of the past on
which such claims might be based, by making a concern for the legitimacy of
entitlements the sole ground for taking an interest in the past in connection with
justice. What makes this important is that Nozick's account serves the interest of
a particular mythology about the past precisely by what it excludes from view.
For central to Nozick's account is the thesis that all legitimate entitlements can
be traced to legitimate acts of original acquisition. But, if that is so, there are in
fact very few, and in some large areas of the world no, legitimate entitlements.
The property-owners of the modern world are not the legitimate heirs of
Lockean individuals who performed quasi-Lockean ('quasi' to allow for Nozick's
emendations of Locke) acts of original acquisition; they are the inheritors of
those who, for example, stole, and used violence to steal the common lands of
England from the common people, vast tracts of North America from the
American Indian, much of Ireland from the Irish, and Prussia from the original
non-German Prussians. This is the historical reality ideologically concealed
behind any Lockean thesis. The lack of any principle of rectification is thus not a
small side issue for a thesis such as Nozick's; it tends to vitiate the theory as a
whole — even if we were to suppress the overwhelming objections to any belief
in inalienable human rights.
A and B differ from Rawls and Nozick at the price of inconsistency. Each of
them in conjoining either Rawls's principles or Nozick's with an appeal to desert
exhibits an adherence to an older, more traditional, more Aristotelian and
Christian view of justice. This inconsistency is thus a tribute to the residual
power and influence of the tradition, a power and influence with two distinct
sources. In the conceptual mélange of moral thought and practice today
fragments from the tradition — virtue concepts for the most part — are still
found alongside characteristically modern and individualist concepts such as
those of rights or utility. But the tradition also survives in a much less
fragmented, much less distorted form in the lives of certain communities whose
historical ties with their past remain strong. So the older moral tradition is
discernible in the United States and elsewhere among, for example, some
Catholic Irish, some Orthodox Greeks and some Jews of an Orthodox persuasion,
all of them communities that inherit their moral tradition not only through their
religion, but also from the structure of the peasant villages and households
which their immediate ancestors inhabited on the margins of modern Europe.
Moreover it would be wrong to conclude from the stress that I have laid on the
medieval background that Protestantism did not in some areas become the
bearer of this very same moral tradition; in Scotland for example, Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics and Politics were the secular moral texts in the universities,
coexisting happily with a Calvinist theology which was often elsewhere hostile to
them, until 1690 and after. And there are today both black and white Protestant
communities in the United States, especially perhaps those in or from the South,
who will recognize in the tradition of the virtues a key part of their own cultural
inheritance.
Even however in such communities the need to enter into public debate
enforces participation in the cultural mélange in the search for a common stock
of concepts and norms which all may employ and to which all may appeal.
Consequently the allegiance of such marginal communities to the tradition is
constantly in danger of being eroded, and this in search of what, if my argument
is correct, is a chimaera. For what analysis of A's and B's position reveals once
again is that we have all too many disparate and rival moral concepts, in this case
rival and disparate concepts of justice, and that the moral resources of the
culture allow us no way of settling the issue between them rationally. Moral
philosophy, as it is dominantly understood, reflects the debates and
disagreements of the culture so faithfully that its controversies turn out to be
unsettlable in just the way that the political and moral debates themselves are.
It follows that our society cannot hope to achieve moral consensus. For
quite non-Marxist reasons Marx was in the right when he argued against the
English trade unionists of the 1860s that appeals to justice were pointless, since
there are rival conceptions of justice formed by and informing the life of rival
groups. Marx was of course mistaken in supposing that such disagreements over
justice are merely secondary phenomena, that they merely reflect the interests of
rival economic classes. Conceptions of justice and allegiance to such conceptions
are partly constitutive of the lives of social groups, and economic interests are
often partially defined in terms of such conceptions and not vice versa.
Nonetheless Marx was fundamentally right in seeing conflict and not consensus
at the heart of modern social structure. It is not just that we live too much by a
variety and multiplicity of fragmented concepts; it is that these are used at one
and the same time to express rival and incompatible social ideals and policies
and to furnish us with a pluralist political rhetoric whose function is to conceal
the depth of our conflicts.
Important conclusions follow for constitutional theory. Liberal writers
such as Ronald Dworkin invite us to see the Supreme Court's function as that of
invoking a set of consistent principles, most and perhaps all of them of moral
import, in the light of which particular laws and particular decisions are to be
evaluated. Those who hold such a view are bound to consider certain decisions
of the Supreme Court inadequate in the light of these supposed principles. The
type of decision which I have in mind is exemplified by the Bakke case, where
two, at first sight strongly incompatible, views were held by members of the
court, and Mr. Justice Powell who wrote the decision was the one justice to hold
both views. But, if my argument is correct, one function of the Supreme Court
must be to keep the peace between rival social groups adhering to rival and
incompatible principles of justice by displaying a fairness which consists in even-
handedness in its adjudications. So the Supreme Court in Bakke both forbade
precise ethnic quotas for admission to colleges and universities, but allowed
discrimination in favor of previously deprived minority groups. Try to conjure
up a set of consistent principles behind such a decision and ingenuity may or
may not allow you to find the court not guilty of formal inconsistency. But even
to make such an attempt is to miss the point. The Supreme Court in Bakke, as on
occassion in other cases, played the role of a peacemaking or truce-keeping body
by negotiating its way through an impasse of conflict, not by invoking our shared
moral first principles. For our society as a whole has none.
What this brings out is that modern politics cannot be a matter of genuine
moral consensus. And it is not. Modern politics is civil war carried on by other
means, and Bakke was an engagement whose antecedents were at Gettysburg
and Shiloh. The truth on this matter was set out by Adam Ferguson: 'We are not
to expect that the laws of any country are to be framed as so many lessons of
morality .... Laws, whether civil or political, are expedients of policy to adjust the
pretensions of parties, and to secure the peace of society. The expedient is
accommodated to special circumstances ....' (Principles of Moral and Political
Science ii. 144). The nature of any society therefore is not to be deciphered from
its laws alone, but from those understood as an index of its conflicts. What our
laws show is the extent and degree to which conflict has to be suppressed.
From chapter 18, 'After Virtue: Nietzsche or Aristotle, Trotsky and St
Benedict', pp. 258-259:
The attractiveness of Nietzche's position lay in its apparent honesty.
When I was setting out the case in favor of an amended and restated emotivism,
it appeared to be a consequence of accepting the truth of emotivism that an
honest man would no longer want to go on using most, at least, of the language of
past morality because of its misleading character. And Nietzsche was the only
major philosopher who had not flinched from this conclusion. Since moreover
the language of modern morality is burdened with pseudo-concepts such as
those of utility and of natural rights, it appeared that Nietzsche's resoluteness
alone would rescue us from entanglement by such concepts; but it is now clear
that the price to be paid for this liberation is entanglement in another set of
mistakes. The concept of the Nietzschean 'great man' is also a pseudo-concept,
although not always perhaps — unhappily — what I earlier called a fiction. It
represents individualism's final attempt to escape from its own consequences.
And the Nietzschean stance turns out not to be a mode of escape from or an
alternative to the conceptual scheme of liberal individualist modernity, but
rather one more representative moment in its internal unfolding. And we may
therefore expect liberal individualist societies to breed 'great men' from time to
time. Alas!
So it was right to see Nietzsche as in some sense the ultimate antagonist
of the Aristotelian tradition. But it now turns out to be the case that in the end
the Nietzschean stance is only one more facet of that very moral culture of which
Nietzsche took himself to be an implacable critic. It is therefore after all the case
that the crucial moral opposition is between liberal individualism in some
version or other and the Aristotelian tradition in some version or other.