Higher History Notes
Paper 2
Migration and Empire
1. The migration of Scots
2. The experience of immigrants in Scotland
3. The impact of Scots emigrants on the Empire
4. The effects of migration and the Empire on Scotland, to 1939.
1. The migration of Scots
How fully . . . the reasons for the migration of Scots?
How far . . . the reasons for internal migration within Scotland?
How far . . . the opportunities that attracted Scots to other lands?
How far . . .the factors that forced Scots to leave Scotland?
Highlands
1)
Highland Clearances (1840s)
Growth in demand for wool and mutton led to increase in profits for sheep farming. Many landlords in
the Highlands decided to remove small tenants and crofters from their estates in order to make
room for sheep farmers, who could pay higher rents.Those evicted were forced to move to the
Lowlands or to the fishing villages of the northern and eastern coasts.
2)
Potato Blight (1846)
The potato crop was decimated in the Highlands, especially in the north-west. 200,000 were
threatened with starvation. Many were forced to move south to look for work.
3)
Decline in Kelp Industry
Kelp was used to make soap. It was a very labour intensive industry (50,000 Highlanders were
employed in harvesting kelp at its peak). However, the use of chemicals to make soap led to a decline
in the industry and forced many to move.
4)
Growth of deer forests
These were set up to replace sheep farms. They did not require many workers and increased
migration from the Highlands.
5)
Decline of the fishing industry
This had been a boom industry for much of the 1800s. However, during World War 1 many fishing
boats were taken over by the navy and fishing stopped in the North Sea. When the war finished,
many boats were damaged. In addition, fuel costs rose. Finally, the huge Russian market for herring
declined after 1917.
6)
Pressure on Land
Culture of sub-division of land and sub-letting led to smaller and smaller farms. These were unable to
support a growing population, leading to greater pressure on Highlanders to migrate. Many landlords
banned sub-letting of land and keeping lodgers. This meant that anyone who got married had to leave
the croft, increasing migration.
7)
Living Conditions
Highland blackhouses did not improve at the same rate as Lowland housing. Conditions were poor as
many houses were damp, dark, smoky, shared with livestock and lacking in proper sanitation or running
water. As a result, diseases such as Typhus and TB were common.
8)
Temporary Migration
There was a very active seasonal labour market in the Lowlands which enabled Highlanders to migrate
for part of the year. The traditional period of migration was May to September and the key areas of
employment were agricultural work at harvest time, building and railway navvying.
Lowlands
9) Changes in land organisation
In the Lowlands, farms became larger and smaller 'family farms' disappeared. Farm workers would
hire out their labour for 6 or 12 months at a time. As the farmer was forced to pay wages and
provide lodging, he was unlikely to employ more workers than he needed. In addition, this meant that
farm workers were used to 'flitting' regularly and so were more inclined to migrate greater distances
than they had been before.
10)
Accommodation tied to jobs
Both single and married farm workers were accommodated on the farm, so to be without work was to
be without a place to stay, forcing migration.
11) Overpopulation
The population in the rural Lowlands had been rising by 10% per decade. This put pressure on food
resources and forced many to migrate.
12) Farm Machinery
New machinery on farms meant that fewer farm labourers were needed. This new technology included
the self-binding reaper and steam thresher. This lack of jobs in manual labour encouraged many
people to move.
13) Higher wages in the city
Urban areas provided higher wages than those available in rural areas. An industrial worker in a town
or city might earn up to 50% more than an agricultural labourer. These wages could also be earned by
working shorter hours than on a farm.
14)'Bright Lights'
The cities provided a more varied social life than the countryside. This was particularly attractive to
younger people, who were encouraged to move by the prospect of visiting cinemas, theatres, dances
or sporting events.
15) Decline of cottage industries
Small industries in towns were severely impacted by the growth of large factories in the towns and
cities. These could supply products cheaply, especially with the growth of the railways. Traditional
workers, such as tailors and shoemakers, could not compete with factory-made products. The smallscale textile industries were also particularly badly hit by the growth of power looms.
Other reasons
16) Railways
The growth of railways was important in aiding migration as it allowed people to move quickly and
cheaply. It also boosted the population of the Borders towns by allowing their textile industry access
to new markets.
17)
Changing attitudes
The growth in the standards of education meant that more people were eager to leave their homes
and seek employment elsewhere. It also allowed them a wider choice of jobs. After the Great War,
many soldiers who had experienced life abroad were now keen to try life elsewhere.
Causes of Emigration
Many of the reasons for migration within Scotland were also responsible for causing emigration.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
The Highland Clearances
The potato famine
Agricultural changes in the Lowlands
Poor living conditions in the Highlands
Overpopulation in both the Lowlands and Highlands
Changing attitudes brought about by higher standards of education
The decline in the fishing and kelp industries
However, there were a number of other causes of emigration.
a) Agricultural Depression
The westward expansion of America during the 19th century led to a huge increase in wheat
production. In addition, the development of refrigerated shipping allowed meat to be imported from
the Empire (especially lamb from New Zealand). These both served to undercut Scottish farmers,
leading to more Scots leaving.
b) Economic insecurity in cities
Scotland's economy relied heavily on exporting manufactured goods. When other countries weren't
buying these goods, there was increased unemployment. There were particularly severe slumps after
the First World War and between 1929-32. The highest emigration figures occurred during these
periods.
c) Transportation
Until 1867, criminals could be sent to Australia. Here they were forced to live in convict settlements.
d)
Higher Wages
Scotland was a low wage economy. This meant that in 1900, skilled Scottish craftsmen were earning
10-15 % less than their English counterparts. By moving to countries such as Australia and Canada,
these craftsmen could increase their wages a great deal.
e) Steamships
The invention of the steamship allowed for much easier and safer travel for those wishing to
emigrate. In 1860, a journey from Glasgow to New York took 6 weeks. By 1900 the same journey took
one week. This increased emigration as it provided folk with the security of knowing that they could
always return home. More importantly, it allowed skilled tradesmen the opportunity to move to North
America for the season to earn more money, before returning to Scotland for the rest of the year.
f) Education
Scotland had a tremendous education system which produced a workforce at the cutting edge of the
global economy. This meant that their services were in high demand, and they found it relatively easy
to find work abroad. Many of the Scots who emigrated were professionals, such as doctors or
lawyers.
g) Official Assistance
Many poorer Scots could not afford the cost of emigration. However, they were given assistance by
emigration societies, such as the Highland and Islands Emigration Society. These societies helped
landlords to resettle people by subsidising their passage. Under the scheme, a landlord could secure
passage to Australia for a nominee at the cost of £1. Later on, the 1922 Empire Settlement Act
provided government subsidies for people wishing to emigrate.
h) Emigration Agents
Agents from around the Empire would tour Scotland, advertising their country as a desirable
destination. In addition, adverts appeared in newspapers promoting emigration. They promised a
better lifestyle and greater opportunity abroad. The prospect of free land was also common.
i) Relatives Abroad
As the number of Scots abroad increased, it became easier for other Scots to join them. They could
offer temporary accommodation and often employment to new migrants, making the prospect of
emigration less daunting. In addition, successful emigrants would often write home, describing their
success and encouraging family members and friends to join them.
2. The experience of immigrants in Scotland
How fully . . . the experience of immigrants in Scotland?
How far . . . the social and economic conditions experienced by immigrants to Scotland?
How far . . . relations between native Scots and immigrants?
How far . . . the assimilation of immigrants into Scottish society?
Social and Economic Conditions
Italians
The Italians in Scotland quickly became committed to the catering trade and brought new consumer
delights to the working class – ice- cream parlours and fish and chip shops. They were a huge
attraction for young people who wanted somewhere to meet.
Italian families contributed to the growing leisure industry. In 1903 there were 89 cafés in Glasgow,
growing to 336 by 1905. Italian families settled in many towns on the coast and in the main towns.
The Nardini family developed what was to become the largest café in Britain. Small sea side towns
also had their own Italian cafés. Not only cafés – In the late 1920s the College of Italian
Hairdressers was set up in Glasgow.
Jews
Jews settled in central Glasgow, typically setting up small businesses. Cigarette making was a common
job for the Jewish immigrants to Scotland. Jewish tailors helped produce affordable, quality
clothing.
Irish
The immigrant Irish had a positive economic effect on Scotland. Irish labourers were prepared to
tackle the hardest of jobs. The immigrant Irish contributed to the building of roads, canals and
railways across Scotland. Irish immigrants also worked as farm labourers, in the jute mills of Dundee
and in coal mining.
Effect of migration on Scottish sporting life – Edinburgh Hibernian was founded in 1875 by Irishmen
living in Edinburgh. Glasgow Celtic was founded in 1887 by Brother Walfrid, a Catholic priest. Dundee
United was founded in 1909 and was originally called Dundee Hibernian. Existence of Protestant
Orange Lodge order. Irish immigrants and their descendants were important in the Scottish Trade
Union movement and the development of the Labour Party in Scotland. By the 1890s, both Catholic
and Protestant Irish were gaining apprenticeships and beginning to move up the social ladder. The
Irish community produced important political leaders like John Wheatley and James Connolly.
Lithuanians
Lithuanian immigrants were largely employed in the coal industry. They did introduce a vital household
feature to Scotland – the duvet.
Relations between Scots and Immigrants
Catholic Irish
Acted as strikebreakers and kept wages down in the early period; however they became active in the
labour movement later.
The (Catholic) Irish were everything the Scots did not want to be; seen by Scots as less than
patriotic – Pope is seen to be ultimate authority on earth and not the British monarchy – perceived as
a threat to Scottish way of life generally.
Resented and mistrusted for keeping their old traditions and customs, and for having separate
schools.
There was disdain from native Scots towards Catholic Irish, who were often seen as drunken and
superstitious. They were blamed for crime, especially the navvies.
Protestant Irish
More accepted into Scottish society – religion not an issue in Protestant Scotland. They also had the
benefit of having family ties already in Scotland. Because many had Scottish sounding surnames, they
did not stand out as much as the Catholic Irish.
Lithuanians
Scots were worried because Lithuanians tended to settle together. This led to them being accused of
starting ‘colonies’. They were accused of being immoral and dirty (partly because they were not
Protestant.
Scots workers accused the Lithuanians of driving down wages and of breaking strikes (especially in
mining).
However, Lithuanian miners soon began to join trade unions, and to take part in strikes to improve the
conditions for all miners.
Italians
Accepted into Scottish society fairly readily, providing a service through cafes and fish and chip
shops. They were not competing with Scottish workers and were not clustered in small areas.
Some Scots resented the Italians for opening their businesses on a Sunday and called them ‘sabbath
breakers’. However, others felt that they offered a better alternative than establishments that sold
alcohol.
There was some verbal racism – Italians were referred to as ‘dirty tallies’ at times. Italians suffered
hostility in the years before World War II as concerns grew about Mussolini’s actions.
Jews
Prejudice and discrimination affected the Jews in Scotland – The Daily Record – Aug 1905 ‘Alien
Danger: Immigrants infected with loathsome disease’. They were accused of exploiting workers in
‘sweated trades’.
Anti-Semitism never that widespread, possibly owing to low numbers of Jewish immigrants in relation
to other groups.
Very few Jews received any help from local poor relief. It was members of the Jewish community
that helped each other e.g. The Glasgow Jewish Board of Guardians and the Hebrew Ladies
Benevolent Society in 1901 were dealing with 500 cases of needy Jews. This meant that Scots did not
view Jewish immigrants as a burden.
The Assimilation of Immigrants
Catholic Irish
Assimilation
Failure to Assimilate
The Irish joined in early trade union activity. Irishmen
led the Glasgow cotton spinners association. Also they
were significant in the later trade union movements of
the semi–skilled, such as the union of dock labourers.
Catholic immigrants set up their own schools. This
meant that communities did not assimilate.
Many Irish were involved in the growth of working
class movements fighting for better conditions for
the working classes. John Wheatley for example set
up the Catholic Socialist Society and became a
minister in the first Labour Government.
New immigrants tended to settle in areas with other
Irish immigrants, meaning that they did not assimilate.
Catholic Irish immigrants had their own separate
churches, with priests from Ireland. Some priests
encouraged their congregation to marry only within
their own communities.
The Irish and those of Irish descent were united with
the Scots in the battlefield of WW1. They fought
alongside each other. Friendships were formed in the
face of a common enemy. In the field of battle, but
also at home, a united front brought people together.
Protestant Irish
Irish Protestants had a lot in common with the average Scot – long term and deeply embedded
cultural interaction between Ulster and lowland Scotland. Much easier assimilation because of shared
religion. There were strong family ties between Scots and Protestant Irish immigrants. Over time
this increased as there was growing intermarriage between Protestant Irish and native Scots.
Jews
At first Jews did not assimilate as they settled together (mainly in the Gorbals) and worked in their
own industries (tailoring, hawking). Many spoke Yiddish and read Yiddish newspapers.
However, by the 1920s there was greater assimilation. The Yiddish language began to die out, as did
Yiddish newspapers. Middle-class Jews moved out of the Gorbals and into the suburbs. They also
began to move into the same jobs as Scots, such as medicine and the legal profession.
Italians
Assimilation of Italians helped by popularity of ice cream parlours and fish and chip shops. Young
Italians soon adopted local speech patterns due to frequency of contact in catering trade.
However, many Italians did not want to assimilate. They hoped to make enough money to return home,
and so made little effort to assimilate. They spoke Italian at home, ate Italian food and were
expected to marry other Italians. Italians also socialised in their own clubs such as La Casa del Fascio
in Glasgow.
Lithuanians
At first Lithuanians made little effort to assimilate. There were separate Lithuanian newspapers,
shops and insurance societies. Many Lithuanian women did not learn to speak English. Evidence of the
lack of assimilation was shown during World War 1, when more Lithuanians decided to return to
Russia rather than fighting in the British army.
However, Lithuanian miners soon began to join trade unions, and to take part in strikes to improve the
conditions for all miners. Some even changed their surnames to fit in; Bernotaitis became Brown.
3. The impact of Scots emigrants on the Empire
How fully . . . the impact of Scots emigrants on the Empire?
How far . . . the contribution of Scots to the economic growth and development of the Empire?
How far . . . the contribution of Scots to the religious and cultural development of the Empire?
How far . . . the impact of the activities of Scots emigrants on native societies in the Empire?
Economic Impact
Canada
Scots very important to the development of the Transatlantic Canadian Pacific Railway. Strong
support for the railway came from Sir John A. MacDonald, the first Prime Minister of Canada, born
in Glasgow. Scots were important in the financing and engineering of the project. Another Scot,
Sandford Fleming, was the railway’s main engineer.
The Hudson’s Bay Company recruited heavily in the Western and Northern Isles of Scotland. Scots
brought new ideas on how to farm to Canada such as crop rotation. Scots were very important in the
development of trade in furs and timber as well as agriculture in Canada. One of Canada’s main banks,
the Bank of Nova Scotia was established by Scots.
Australia
Scots were important in the development of farming in Australia. They introduced the Merino sheep
to the country. Scots also helped the sugar and wine industries in Australia. The McWilliams family
helped to develop one of the first vineyards in Australia.
Scots involved developing Australian trade, mining, manufacturing, shipping, engineering and finance.
Robert McCracken from Ayrshire developed brewing in Melbourne. Robert Campbell from Greenock
played such an important role in developing Australian trade that he was known as ‘The father of
Australian Commerce’. Melbourne Iron works was founded by John Buncle from Edinburgh.
Most importantly, Scots founded companies such as Speedos (Alexander Macrae) and Freddo Frog
(McRoberts).
New Zealand
Scots founded New Zealand’s paper-making industry and were important engineers and shipbuilders.
John Ross from Halkirk established a successful drapery business in New Zealand. David Munro
introduced the first sheep to New Zealand and had a successful farm.
India
Charles Bruce helped to introduce commercial tea planting in India. Scots engineers helped to develop
and run jute mills in Calcutta. A Scot, Lord Dalhousie, developed a plan to build railway lines to
connect the main regions of India as well as build a telegraph communication system.
Impact on Native Societies
Australia
Just as with other white immigrants, Scots' treatment of Aborigines was sometimes harsh and
threatened their way of life. There were several massacres such as the Hornet Bank Massacre.
Scots were prominent in the development of wool production, which involved the loss of land by
aboriginal peoples.
There were examples of good relations. Alec Mortimer stood up for the rights of Aborigines. There
was also intermarriage, with the surnames Cameron and Campbell still existing in Aboriginal
communities.
New Zealand
Scots initially had good relations with the Maori people. Maori’s helped Scots through their first
harsh winters and freely sold them land. Some Maori’s were converted to Christianity by Scots
ministers.
However, some Scots began to move onto land that was not theirs, leading to the Maori Wars. Many
Maori were killed during these conflicts. Scots also cleared the land of trees, which were sacred to
the Maori.
Donald Maclean learned the Maori language and aimed to protect their rights to land.
India
Scots abolished suttee (human sacrifice) and thuggee (ritual murder). They also pushed for changes
in Indian attitudes towards women e.g. development of first schools for females/girls. Scots played a
great role in putting down the ‘Indian Mutiny’, and acted with enormous brutality. Indian mutineers
were forced to lick the blood of their victims and were strapped to cannons.
Canada
Scots working for the Hudson Bay Company traded and mixed with native peoples. There was
intermarriage between the groups. Children of these marriages were known as the Metis people.
Some Scots forced native people off their land. They also killed the bison, one of the native people’s
main food sources, as well as bringing diseases such as smallpox which the native people had no
immunity to.
Impact on Culture and Religion
Canada
Several Prime Ministers were Scottish, including Canada’s first PM, John MacDonald.
Scots helped to establish schools and colleges e.g. University of Toronto was established by James
Strachan.
Scots brought their hobbies over. Curling became a popular sport in Canada. Highland Games were
popular across Canada. Canadian regiments wore kilts into battle during the First World War.
Australia
There a large number of Scottish societies and Burns clubs. Two of Australia’s national songs,
‘Waltzing Matilda’ and ‘Advance Australia Fair’ were written by Scots.
Catherine Spence helped to promote women’s rights in Australia. She was the country’s first female
political candidate and first female journalist.
Scots helped to establish education in Australia. Melbourne Academy was founded by Scots and is
known as Scotch College.
New Zealand
Dunedin was established by Scots and means Edinburgh in Gaelic. It has the same street names as
Edinburgh and much of the same architecture.
James MacAndrew helped to found a large number of schools, as well as the University of Dunedin.
Reverend Thomas Burns helped to set up the Free Church in Otago province.
There are still many Caledonian societies and pipe bands in New Zealand today.
India
Suttee, where a widow was burned alongside her dead husband, was banned by Dalhousie. He also
hanged hundreds of Thugees, who would attack, murder and rob travellers.
Reverand Alexander Duff helped to found the University of Calcutta. Flora Annie Steel toured the
country, inspecting schools and delivering lessons to girls. Scots also helped to found medical
colleges, such as Grant Medical College in Bombay.
4. The effects of migration and the Empire on Scotland, to 1939.
How fully . . . the effects of migration and the Empire on Scotland?
How far . . . the social and cultural impact of immigrants on Scotland?
How far . . . the economic contribution of immigrants to Scotland?
How far . . . the importance of the Empire to Scotland’s development?
The Empire was important to Scotland’s development in several ways. Some were positive.
Empire enabled some firms and individuals to make great commercial fortunes. An example would be
the Clyde shipbuilders like Napier’s and John Brown’s.
The jute industry in Dundee also benefited. The raw material came from the Indian province of
Bengal. The textile manufactured from this imported good was then exported all over the world.
Empire offered a market for Scottish goods. For example, Springburn, produced one quarter of the
world’s locomotives in 1914.
Scots exploited employment opportunities offered by Empire: Scottish middle-class men had
successful careers, especially in India, as civil servants, doctors and as soldiers. As a result of the
Empire offering a wide variety of jobs, Scotland developed a skilled, literate working class in trades
such as engineering.
Scottish investors pioneered the use of ‘investment trusts’, where professional managers enabled
large numbers of modest investors to gain access to the rewards of large-scale investment. Cities like
Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen came to hold extensive investments abroad. Glasgow made so much
money from trade that it became known as the second city of the Empire.
Scots returning from the Empire often built large mansions in or near the cities eg Broughty Ferry in
Dundee.
However, investment was a double-edged sword as it also meant that money left Scotland to finance
projects abroad. And because Scotland relied on exporting goods to the Empire, it became vulnerable
to international trade slumps.
In addition, Scottish firms paid low wages in order to make their products cheaper for export. This
led to considerable poverty for many with associated problems of poor housing and poor health.
Scotland’s economy also suffered as foreign agriculture became more productive and countries such
as New Zealand (lamb) and Canada (wheat) were able to undercut Scottish farmers.
Culturally, the Empire had a noticeable impact on Scots. New words entered the language, such as
‘bungalow’ and ‘thug’ from India.
Scots also developed a military tradition, and many Scots chose to join the army to follow in the
footsteps of famous officers such as Sir Colin Campbell.