Geography 1700
Mid-term
1. List and/or describe factors that may affect your safety at an ocean beach.
 Individuals face safety hazards from strong coastal currents when are they swimming in the
ocean.
 Rip Currents pile up water between the long shore bar and the swash zone causing individuals to
drown.
 Coastal erosion, affects natural features such as the beach.
 Tsunami wave, slowly moving into the beach while increasing height to cause individuals danger.
 Sharks are always a danger to an individual’s health while swimming in the ocean.
 1. Some of the factors that can affect your safety at the beach is the tide. The tide changes every
six hours and depending on how strong the tide is and if It’s high or low it can greatly affect your
safety. When the tide goes out if you are in the water it could be very hard for you to get back to
shore.

2. Explain why a seismic water wave at the ocean might be either more or less damaging than a
freshwater seiche water wave far from the ocean.
A fresh water seiche might be more damaging because it doesn’t have anywhere to go. So the water
keeps building up energy going back and forth, whereas a seismic water wave at the ocean is still
causing huge amounts of damage it doesn’t go back and forth and build up more energy.
A seismic wave can be more dangerous compared to seiche wave due to direct contact of tsunamis
which are giant sea waves created by sudden uplift of the sea floor. Seismic waves can be less damaging
being too far into the ocean.
3. List and/or describe some of the ways people can determine what places are at risk for river or
stream flooding.
 The institutional level prepares thousands of maps of flood prone areas.
 The federal government has encouraged states and local communities to make floodplain
management plans to prone areas.
 Increasing the public awareness to floodplain and stream areas.

4. Explain how air temperature can affect flooding.
Most river flooding is related to the precipitation at the drainage basin while soaking into the earth, and
how quickly surface runoff from the precipitation hits the river. Also the amount of moisture in the soil
at the time the precipitation starts. Most floods in the mountain areas happen during early spring and
midwinter thaws.
4. The air can get to warm and be all the pollution in the air can cause ice to melt more quickly creating
more floors.
5. What are some issues involving insurance and natural hazards?





Unlike flood and crop insurance, there is no federally subsidized earthquake insurance.
Make people feel complacent, providing a false sense of security.
Can dangerously impractical expectations for government help when hazards strike.
Badly used, insurance has helped bankrupt the United States (FEMA).
5. Insurance gives people a false security that if they have it nothing bad will happen and they
everything will be cover, but that’s not actually how it goes. Insurance will only cover so much of
the damage and it doesn’t give you back the sentimental value to the positions that you had.
Also people thing since they have insure they can be less prepared and don’t take as many
precautions as they should like have a 72 hour kit handy. Who knows how long it will be before
someone can help you.

6. Describe how flooding potential is affected by climate change. Compare a warming trend with a
cooling trend.
A warming trend provides no shading, no cover for fish life, and rapid daily and seasonal temperature
fluctuations. It could also cause more mosquito and tick-borne diseases like West Nile and Lyme disease.
A cooling trend on the other hand could cause problems for our natural resources like forest, water, fish,
and wildlife. It could also impact our crops.
The warm weather evaporates the water then the cooler temperatures bring rain and snow. When the
climate begins to change to warm again the snow melts and can cause potential floods.
Flooding is affected by climate change due to rise of sea level. The warming trend consists of the energy
from the sun increases then earth will warm. A cooling trend is if CO2 were to decrease, causing earth to
cool down causing another Ice age.
1. When at an open beach you should be aware of the tide and how fast it is coming into shore for
safety purposes, especially if you have small children you are watching. The tide can come in
pretty fast and it is safer to be further away from the ocean where you can leave before disaster
happens.
2. A fresh water seiche is more dangerous than a seismic water wave. A seiche wave is sloshier and
moves back and forth causing it to be more violent than a seismic water wave.
3. A few ways people could determine what places are at risk for river or stream flooding would be
to observe how the water is flowing and if it had any debris that is built up and not allowing it to
flow freely down the river. Another way would be to notice the water level, if it is high or low and
if there is any damage to property around the area. Another way to determine would be to notice
how fast the water is moving. When the river slows, it deposits sediment. A final way would to
notice if there are levees. Levees reduce the width of the streams which lessens the amount of
water that can be transported during flooding
4. As air temperatures rise, water temperatures do also—particularly in shallow water. More severe
and frequent flooding occur as a result of it.
5. Most of the time insurance does not cover damage caused by natural hazards. The best idea
would be to build or buy where you will be the most safe. ie: build or buy a home where you are
away from the fault line or far enough away from the Great Salt Lake where you will be safe from
an Earthquake or a flood zone.
7. What are some issues raised by stream channelization?
In the United States, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has maintained responsibility for riverine channels,
ports and other coastal facilities, to ensure commerce and public safety. Policy of channelizing streams
intended to reduce river hazards, cleaning debris, sand bars. The result was heavy expensive,
unpredictable results, and lower quality habitat for important plants and animals.
In some cases, paving river channels turned them into lifeless concrete ditches that still did not entirely
reduce river hazards and was costly to maintain.
More recently, Corps policy is relying on natural processes with some management activities that are
probably less expensive on behalf of river traffic, but also in support of recreation and other aesthetic
benefits. Working with nature, rather than trying to control nature, is probably the key concept.
Accepting river hazards by maintaining safe distance is better than ‘putting a squeeze’ on nature and
then complaining about poor results.
Stream channelization is not good for nature. We are now removing channelization to remove problems
that have been caused because of it. This practice degrades river and wetland ecosystems. In order to
do this process one must remove trees which eliminates shade and cover for fish and exposes the steam
to the sun. This may damage plant life and heat-sensitive aquatic organisms. Plants and animals are
affected by eliminating habitats necessary for them to survive!
7. Some of the issues are that channelizing the streams and rivers and making the water move fast. Also
the cement doesn’t absorb the water like the ground does so when there is a lot of water it just causes a
flood instead of the ground potentially absorbing some of the moisture. Also channelizing steams and
rivers just isn’t as pretty as letting Mother Nature have its way.
 Drainage of wetlands affects plants and animals by eliminating habitats for their survival.
 Cutting trees eliminates shading and cover for fish and exposes the river to the sun which kills
plant life.
 Conversion of wetlands from a meandering stream to a straight narrow, opens ditch seriously
lowers the aesthetic.
8. How would respond to someone who offers to sell you a beautiful home overlooking Oregon’s
“Rogue” River, at a very favorable price?
Oregon’s famous Rogue River is named ‘rogue’ for a reason. Thousands of people have lived
successfully along its banks, while others have experienced property swept away in floods. Anyone
interested in living along an unpredictable river can find a wealth of maps, plans, policies and
regulations for safety in such areas. The real estate industry, local land use planners and regional water
management agencies can provide good advice and rules for judging the value of property that has
tremendous aesthetic value along with known or foreseeable hazards.
No price is a good price when you buy a home that is so close to natural disasters! As discussed in class,
living so close to the ocean can be life threatening. It is best to be 100 feet above the water line or one
mile inland from the shore. People may think they have the most beautiful beachfront until they lose it
all to a H2O disaster!!!
I would be looking for all the hazards that come into play on a river. I’d look deep into cliff erosion,
landslides, flooding, tsunamis, and climate change over the years. I would probably decline the offer if I
felt unsafe.
People can determine if a place is at risk for river and stream flooding by if there are river/stream scars
left from the water. Also you can tell by the plants that are in the area. If there are lots of water loving
plants like cattails then it’s probably not a good idea to build a home/office there.
 8. I am not going to lie I would want it very bad, but I might have to turn it down because of the
flooding potential of that piece of land. The question I would always have living there is not if it
will flood but when.
9. Describe what you can about areas I the United States where flooding does not occur.
As far as I know, there is no part of the United States that is free of flooding hazard. Most of the United
States exhibits multiple flood hazards, especially coastal areas where downstream flooding and
upstream inundation can occur separately or together, as in the case of a severe storm. The Eastern and
Southeastern coasts of the United States are especially prone to hurricanes.
Dry regions of the western United States are characterized by steep, hard-surface terrain and
precipitation that tends to be brief and intense. This combination can produce very hazardous flash
flood events.
Areas in the U.S like Arizona where the temperature is very hot may not see flooding. Water is necessary
but also deadly. We need moisture to survive, but it can also be detrimental. In Arizona it is very dry in
which causes people to ration water and is not very effective to be self-sufficient. People rely on the
grocery stores to bring them the nutrition they need rather than growing their own crops to save
money.
I think it can flood anywhere but most places where it floods are not there is no heavy pavement, the
rain fall is not spiky, it is steady and easier to prepare for that way.
Flooding is less likely to happen in dryer regions such as Utah compared to coastal regions. Areas with
less hard surfaces and more natural surroundings. Buffalo, New York rarely if ever gets floods. Also
staying away from rivers and coastal regions lessen chances of flooding.
10. Describe differences between upstream and downstream flooding.
At headwaters and in higher elevations where stream flow begins, precipitation can be heavy and/or
prolonged, leading to flash conditions wherein small streams can suddenly overflow. Results often
include soil failures, including landslides, slumps and flows or even rock falls. In many cases, it is difficult
or impossible to provide safety warnings. In most cases, upstream flooding is very local, small-scale and
complicated by terrain conditions. Winter snow melt is often a factor, as unseasonable warming can
produce heavy run-off. In many cases,
Downstream, especially near the confluence or outlets of rivers, advance warning of flood conditions are
more commonly available, as flood waters tend to build further upstream and can be monitored along
the pathway to river outlets.
The differences between upstream and downstream flooding are: Upstream flooding causes large
amounts of rain to fall over a short period of time. In downstream flooding the rain lasts for long periods
of a time.
10. Upstream flooding is usually caused by heavy rain storms that last for a short period of time.
Downstream floods are caused by long periods of rain fall where it saturates the soil to the point it can
no longer absorb any more water.
Changes will take place both upstream and downstream of the reservoir created behind the dam.
Upstream, as the stream enters the reservoir, the water will slow down, deposit sediment, and form a
delta. Downstream, the water coming out below the dam will have little sediment, since most of it has
been trapped in the reservoir.
Jackie Buchanan
Midterm Essays Revised
March 22, 2014
I listed the original score in parenthesis, and the added information to improve
the score in blue type.
1. (5 pts) List and describe factors that may affect your safety at an ocean beach:

Tsunami waves: (harbor waves) a series of waves that are most often caused by
earthquakes, which are generated due to the sudden release of tension built up
between tectonic plates in the ocean floor. This event thrusts the seabed upwards and
displaces the water, causing a massive seismic wave that rushes toward land at speeds
of up to 500 mph. Tsunamis can also be generated by other events such as volcanic
eruptions, landslides, or even meteorites. They are often extremely dangerous and
devastating to life and property due to the huge amount of energy and water contained
in the wave. The first wave of a huge tsunami is often very tall, but this isn’t the wave
that typically wreaks the most havoc. It is the subsequent waves that follow the first
wave that cause most of the damage to person and property. There is a huge mass of
water behind the initial wave front, which inundates the land and causes mass
destruction of everything in its path. Tsunami waves can keep coming for hours, before
they significantly subside. One of the reasons that huge tsunamis take so many lives is
that there is very little advance warning. Typically, once a wave has been registered, and
a warning issued, the people on land have less than 15 minutes to get to safety. Often
times, the first warning is the retreating of the water. If this ever happens, it means that
a tsunami is imminent, and beach goers should immediately head for high ground. A
general rule of thumb is 1 mile inland and/or 100 feet up. However, once a wave has
been spotted coming towards the land, it is usually too late to reach safe ground (SMS).

Sneaker Waves: a sneaker wave is a wave that has combined with another wave to form
one huge wave. It has the potential to rush much farther up the beach than a typical
wave does, and can catch people unawares, pulling them out to sea. Sneaker waves are
most frequently reported along the Northwest coast, specifically Northern California,
Oregon, Washington, and parts of Canada (Wikipedia).

Hurricanes: Hurricanes are among the most powerful storms on Earth, and are one of
the most costly and deadly of the natural hazards. They dump a huge amount of water
and carry a severe punch with their intense wind speeds. According to the SaffirSimpson hurricane scale (Keller, 2012, Ch. 10, pg 327), there are 5 categories of
hurricanes:
o
Category One: winds of 74 to 95 mph, with a storm surge between 4 to 5 feet
above normal. Unanchored dwellings typically sustain the most damage. Some
coastal flooding and pier damage possible. (Hurricane Katrina was reduced from
a category five to a category one by the time it made landfall in 2005)
Hurricane Katrina caused so much devastation in New Orleans because the city
was below sea level. This allowed the storm surge to spill over the levees and
dams, flooding the city.

o
Category Two: winds of 96 to 110 mph, with a storm surge between 6 to 8 feet
above normal. Some damage to roofs, doors, and windows of buildings. Can
blow down trees and rip up vegetation.
o
Category Three: winds of 111 to 130 mph, with a storm surge between 9 to 12
feet above normal. Some structural damage to buildings. Blows leaves off trees,
and blows large trees down. Evacuation recommended within several blocks of
shoreline.
o
Category Four: winds of 131 to 155 mph, with a storm surge between 13 to 18
feet above normal. More extensive building damage, including some complete
roof destruction. All shrubs, small trees, and signs blown down. Mass
evacuation to within 6 miles of shoreline required.
o
Category Five: winds greater than 155 mph, with a storm surge greater than 18
feet above normal. Complete roof failure of residences and industrial buildings.
Massive building damage, with some completely destroyed. All trees and
vegetation destroyed. Massive evacuation to within 10 miles of shoreline
required. (Only 3 category five hurricanes have been recorded to have made
landfall in the USA, the latest being Hurricane Andrew in 1992.)
Tides: tides can catch people unaware if they wander too far out during low tide. It is
possible to get trapped on large rocks or sandbars when high tide comes in.

Erosion: erosion can occur quickly during severe storms, and some people have lost
their beachfront homes to the sea.
2. (2 pts) Explain why a seismic water wave at the ocean might be either more or less damaging
than a fresh water seiche water wave far from the ocean:
Depending on the severity of the wave and the conditions of the land, either coastal tsunami or
fresh water seiche wave can cause more damage than the other. For instance, a seiche wave can
potentially cause more damage than a tsunami if it sloshes back and forth, wreaking havoc with
each slosh. However, some tsunamis are so gigantic that the devastation they wreak is
unparalleled.
A freshwater seiche wave is a wave that has been created in an inland body of water either by
air pressure and wind, or by a seismic disturbance of the earth, such as earthquakes, landslides,
submarine slides, or tilting. Seiche waves typically occur in large bodies of water such as bays,
reservoirs and lakes, but they can also occur in ponds, rivers, streams, and even swimming
pools. These disturbances can cause the water to oscillate back and forth, gaining amplitude
with each oscillation. The sloshing waves can smash on to the shore, reaching greater heights
with each slosh. This type of wave can come on quickly, leaving people little (if any) time to
reach safety.
3. (5 pts) List and describe some of the ways people can determine what places are at risk for
river or stream flooding:





Is it a flood plain? If so, how often does it flood? Even if it is a 100-year flood plain, the
risk of flooding is substantial due to the current trend we are seeing of an increase in
the number and severity of thunderstorms and hurricanes.
What does the topography look like? Does the channel wind like a ribbon? Do you see
oxbow scars or lakes? This is an indication that the river or stream frequently changes
position, increasing the risk of flooding.
Is it below a dam? If so, the possibility of a dam failure raises the flood risk.
What type of precipitation does the area typically receive? Does it receive a steady,
even amount of precipitation, or is the region prone to periodic heavy rainfall? If the
pattern of precipitation is spiky, dumping huge amounts of water in short intervals of
time, the risk of flooding is increased.
Is the land urbanized or is it natural? Is there a large amount of concrete and pavement
instead of natural surfacing? When there is a large area of land that has been covered in
hard surface, it eliminates the possibility of soil absorption, causing the water to have
nowhere to go.
4. (3 pts) Explain how air temperature can affect flooding:
When the temperature rises, the snowcaps melt and that sends more water down the
mountains. If air temperature rises quickly, then snowcaps can melt too fast, and inundate the
rivers and streams with water. When air temperature drops, precipitation builds up on the tops
of mountains in the form of snow. The more snow buildup during the cold season, the greater
chance for flooding in the spring. Warm air holds more moisture than cold air. For every 1 C rise
in air temperature, the air can contain 7% more moisture, which can condense and fall as rain,
increasing our storm potential. An article written in 2011 described how researchers analyzed
data collected from over 6000 weather stations in the northern hemisphere over a 50 year time
span (1951-1999). They found that “…warming caused by human emissions of carbon dioxide
has boosted the numbers of 1- and 5-day-long episodes of intense precipitation across North
America, Eurasia, and India” (Perkins, 2011). This increase in precipitation greatly increases our
risk of serious flooding all across the USA.
5. (5 pts) What are some issues involving insurance and natural hazards?

Some people put too much faith in their insurance policy, and fail to properly prepare
for a disaster, expecting that the insurance will save them from any problems they may
encounter. In situations where the disaster is severe, the insurance company may not
have the funds required to cover all their claims, and counting on this is foolish at best.

Insurance can cover the cost of your property, but it can never adequately cover the
cost of lives lost.

Insurance policies sometimes lull people into a false sense of security, enabling them to
make foolish decisions and build homes in areas prone to natural hazards. For example,
earthquake insurance shouldn’t make you feel safe to build in an earthquake prone
area, but many people have made that choice, especially those who have built homes
on the benches, right on top of the Wasatch Front scarp. Flood insurance shouldn’t
make you feel safe building in a flood plain, but again, look at all those people living in
the Jordan River bottoms.
6. (5 pts) Describe how flooding potential is affected by climate change. Compare a warming
trend with a cooling trend.

Global warming melts glacial ice. Heating of seawater raises sea level and expands the
volume of the ocean. Coastal erosion will increase, and populations will shift to new
areas. Warmer ocean water feeds energy into the atmosphere, which will increase the
severity and frequency of severe storms such as thunderstorms and hurricanes.
Increases in severe weather storms increases flooding potential.

Global cooling creates glacial ice. The persistent ice slows the hydrologic cycle. The
heavy ice sheets can erode landforms and crush or depress continental landmasses.
Ocean levels may decline as more water is stored in glacial ice. In climates with four
seasons, this increase in ice can cause flooding during spring runoff if downstream ice
has not melted.
7. (4 pts) What are some issues raised by stream channelization?
Channelization is the straightening, deepening, widening, clearing, and/or lining existing stream
channels. The intent of this practice is to control floods and erosion, drain wetlands, and improve
navigation (191).
The problems caused by channelization appear to far outweigh the “benefits”.





Draining of the wetlands destroys animal habitats.
Cutting trees around the channel exposes stream to the sun, damaging heat sensitive aquatic
life, and eliminating shade cover for fish.
Cutting floodplain hardwood trees eliminates animal and bird habitats, and increases the risk of
erosion and sedimentation of the stream.
Straightening the streambed destroys both the diversity of flow patterns, and the feeding and
breeding areas for aquatic life. It also changes peak flow.
Changing a meandering stream pattern to a straight, open ditch degrades the aesthetic value of
the area (191).
8. (1 pt) How would you respond to someone who offers to sell you a beautiful home overlooking
Oregon’s Rogue River at a very favorable price?
 I would likely decline the offer on the basis that the Rogue River is likely to be prone to
severe flood events at any time, which can potentially cause the river to change its
direction, and the home could wind up in the drink. It isn’t a risk I would take, unless I
was made of money, and I didn’t mind the risk. In that situation, I would gladly purchase
a vacation home on the beautiful Rogue River. But…I wouldn’t consider it a viable
permanent residence.

Researchers who have studied the effects of climate change on the Rogue River are
urging the government to recommend a relocation plan for residents who live in areas
that could become prone to flash flooding and wildfires. Bob Doppelt, a prominent
scientist for the University of Oregon, said “Our research found that climate change will
significantly stress the natural environment of the Rogue basin…these changes will, in
turn, have important consequences for the economy, social welfare and quality-of-life in
the region” (Media Relations).

Ron Neilson of the USFS Pacific Northwest Research Station MAPSS program said “The
Rogue River Basin falls directly in the transition between these two major global bands,
rendering future forecasts of precipitation highly uncertain. Most importantly, the
models forecast increased severity and variability of precipitation events, particularly in
the Rogue basin transition zone between the wet north and the dry subtropics. More
severe and variable weather might mean longer and deeper droughts, as well as longer
and more severe floods" (Media Relations).
While I am sure that the home on the Rogue River is lovely, I find the warning that has
been given concerning the instability of the area due to the increased flooding hazard
too compelling to ignore.
9. (1 pt) Describe what you can about areas in the United States where flooding does not occur.

I was going to say that there are no areas in the United States where flooding does not
happen, but it has occurred to me that this is not actually true. I believe it is safe to say
that flooding never occurs on the pinnacle of a steep slope, as there wouldn’t be any
place for the water to accumulate. Instead, the water would follow gravity and rush
downhill to the lowest point where it would then accumulate and possibly flood.
However, since the question is implying geographic areas, not specific landmarks, the
answer would be that every place in the USA has the potential to experience flooding.

According to floodsmart.gov, in the last 5 years, every state in the union has
experienced some kind of flooding. That means that everyone lives in a potential flood
zone.

People who live in high risk areas are required to have flood insurance, however, more
than 25% of all flood claims filed with the National Food Insurance Policy (NFIP) came
from people outside of high risk areas.

Flood risk increases when land development changes the natural runoff paths. Our everincreasing population is resulting in more and more construction and paving. This
greatly increases the risk of flooding, simply because there are less places for water to
safely go.
10. (2 pts) Describe differences between upstream and downstream flooding:
Upstream flooding is characterized by a large amount of rain falling in a short period of time
over a relatively small area. Flash floods are a type of upstream flooding. Flash flooding can be
particularly dangerous because of the intensity and speed of the event. Flash flooding typically
occurs when rain falls rapidly on either highly saturated soil, or dry and crusty soil. Areas most
prone to flash floods are regions that are usually dry, but that have experienced recent rainfall.
The runoff collects in streams and gullies, picking up volume and debris. The force of a flash
flood can be devastating to anything in its path.
Downstream flooding is characterized by a wide area of saturated ground produced by long
storms; this makes the ground susceptible to flooding from additional precipitation because
there is nowhere for the water to go. Downstream floods affect a broader geographic area than
most upstream flashflood events. Most major, catastrophic flood events are considered
downstream floods.
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneaker_wave
http://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/tsunami-effects#.UzWt49xpvwJ
Keller, DeVecchio. (2010). Natural Hazards: Earth’s Processes as Hazards, Disasters, and
Catastrophes. Upper Saddle River. Pearson.
Perkins, S. (n.d.). Rising Temperatures Bringing Bigger Floods. Science/AAAS. Retrieved
March 28, 2014, from http://news.sciencemag.org/2011/02/rising-temperatures-bringingbigger-floods
Oregon's Rogue River Basin to face climate-change hurdles. (n.d.). Media Relations.
Retrieved March 28, 2014, from https://uonews.uoregon.edu/archive/newsrelease/2008/12/oregons-rogue-river-bas
Doppelt, B. (n.d.). Oregon's Rogue River Basin to face climate-change hurdles. Media
Relations. Retrieved March 28, 2014, from https://uonews.uoregon.edu/archive/newsrelease/2008/12/oregons-rogue-river-basin-face-climate-change-hurdlesin-face-climatechange-hurdles
Resources - Flood Facts. (n.d.). Flood Facts. Retrieved March 27, 2014, from
https://www.floodsmart.gov/floodsmart/pages/flood_facts.jsp